Electrodynamics- Condensed Notes

and Useful Formulas

Raghav Kumar Chhetri
Department of Physics and Astronomy
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
Chapel Hill, NC 27516
Summer 2008

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6 Maxwell’s Equations, Microscopic Electromag-
netism, Conservation Laws
Maxwell’s Equations in Gaussian Units

Source Dependent Equations:

~ ·D
∇ ~ = 4πρ (6.1)

~ ~
~ ⊗H
∇ ~ = 4π J + 1 ∂ D (6.2)
c c ∂t
Source Independent Equations:
~
∇ ~ = − 1 ∂B
~ ⊗E (6.3)
c ∂t
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0 (6.4)
~ and Magnetic field H
Electric Displacement D ~ in Free Space:

~ =E
D ~ + 4π P~ (6.5)

~ =B
H ~ − 4π M
~ (6.6)
~ and Magnetic field H
Electric Displacement D ~ in Permeable Media:

~ = E
D ~ + 4π P~ (6.7)

~
~ = B − 4π M
H ~ (6.8)
µ
Maxwell’s Equations in SI Units

Source Dependent Equations:

~ ·D
∇ ~ = 4πρ (6.9)

~ ~
~ ⊗H
∇ ~ = 4π J + 1 ∂ D (6.10)
c c ∂t
Source Independent Equations:
~
∇ ~ = − 1 ∂B
~ ⊗E (6.11)
c ∂t
~ ·B
∇ ~ =0 (6.12)
~ and Magnetic field H
Electric Displacement D ~ in Free Space:

~ = 0 E
D ~ + P~ (6.13)
 ~
~ = B −M
H ~ (6.14)
µ0
~ and Magnetic field H
Electric Displacement D ~ in Permeable Media:
~ = E
D ~ + P~ (6.15)
~
~ = B −M
H ~ (6.16)
µ
Continuity Equation (same in both units)
∂ρ
∇ · J~ + =0 (6.17)
∂t
Lorentz Force Law
∂~v ~ + q ~v ⊗ B
~
m = qE (6.18)
∂t c
F ~ + n ~v ⊗ B
~ = nq E ~ (6.19)
c
~ = ρE
F ~ + 1 J~ ⊗ B~ (6.20)
c
where,
n is the number of charge carriers per unit volume
F~ is the force per unit volume i.e. force density

~ and Φ
Potentials, A

From equation (6.4) we can immediately see that B ~ can be written as the Curl
of some vector potential (since, we know that the Divergence of a Curl is zero)

~ =∇⊗A
B ~ (6.21)
Substitute this equation into the source-independent equation (6.3) to get:
" #
1 ∂ ~
A
∇⊗ E ~+ =0 (6.22)
c ∂t

We know that the Curl of a Gradient is zero so the square bracketed term can
be written as a gradient of some scalar field i.e.
~
~ + 1 ∂ A = −∇Φ
E (6.23)
c ∂t
~
~ = −∇Φ − 1 ∂ A
E (6.24)
c ∂t
~ and E
Thus, in equations (6.21) and (6.24), we have written B ~ in terms of
~
vector potential A and scalar potential Φ.
Gauge Transformation:
A~0 = A~ + ∇ψ
~ (6.25)
 1 ∂ψ
Φ0 = Φ − (6.26)
c ∂t
~ 0 and Φ0 give the same electrid field E
A ~ and magnetic induction B
~ as A
~ and Φ
do. ψ is called the Gauge Field.
Lorentz Gauge:
~ ·A
∇ ~ = − 1 ∂Φ (6.27)
c ∂t
This is a constraint equation on A~ and Φ.

Wave Equations
1 ∂2
 
∇2 − 2 2 Φ = −4πρ (6.28)
c ∂t
1 ∂2 ~
 
4π
∇2 − 2 2 A = − J~ (6.29)
c ∂t c
Remember, back in Chapter 1, the solution to Poisson equation ∇2 Φ = −4πρ
(In SI Units, the right hand side becomes, ρ/0 ) is:

ρ(x0 ) d3 x0
Z
Φ(~x) = (6.30)
|~x − ~x0 |

where,
~x is the observation point and ~x0 is the source point.

Similarly, the solution to [..]Ψ = −4πf is:

Z
Ψ(~x, t) = f (x0 , t0 ) G(~x, t; ~x0 , t0 ) d4 x0 (6.31)

[..] is the bracketed term in equations (6.28) and (6.29), ρ represents the scalar
potential Φ or the vector potential A~ and f represents the charge density ρ or
~
the current density J over c on the right hand side of the mentioned equations.

Under Fourier Transformation, [..] becomes ∇2 + k 2 (since ∂/∂t → −iω and

ω = kc).  2
∇ + k 2 Ψ = −4πf (~x, ω)

(6.32)
This equation is called the Helmholtz equation. The solution to this equation
using green’s function is the following:
Z
Ψ(~x, ω) = f (~x0 , ω) Gk (~x, ~x0 ) d3 x0 (6.33)

Again, back in Chapter 1, we had the following relation:

1
∇2 = −4π δ(~x − ~x0 ) (6.34)
|~x − ~x0 |
Similarly, here we have:

[..] G(~x, t; ~x0 , t0 ) = −4πδ 3 (~x − ~x0 ) δ(t − t0 ) (6.35)

∇ + k 2 Gk (~x, ~x0 ) = −4πδ 3 (~x − ~x0 )

 2 
(6.36)

Retarded Gk + (R) and Advanced Gk − (R) Green’s Functions:

eikR
Gk + (R) = (6.37)
R
e−ikR
Gk − (R) = (6.38)
R
AGk + (R) + BGk − (R) = Gk (R), A+B =1 (6.39)
Now, 0
G± (R, ω) = Gk ± (R)eiωt (6.40)
Using Inverse Fourier Transformation, we get:
Z ∞
± 1
G (R, τ ) = e−iωt G± (R, ω)dω (6.41)
2π −∞

1
G± (R, τ ) =δ(τ ∓ R/c) (6.42)
R
This equation represents the 4D Green’s function.

Retarded 4D Green’s Function:

1 |~x − ~x0 |
G+ (R, τ ) = δ(t − t0 − ) (6.43)
R c
where,
t0 is the time in the past
t is the present time (now)

Advanced 4D Green’s Function:

1 |~x − ~x0 |
G− (R, τ ) = δ(t − t0 + ) (6.44)
R c
where,
t0 is the time in the future
t is the present time (now)

Poynting Vector, Conservation of Energy, Momentum

For a single charge q, the rate of doing work by an external electromagnetic

~ does the work and B
fields (only E ~ doesn’t) is q E
~ · ~v (Power = Force · velocity)
Now, for a continuous distribution of charge and current, the total rate of doing
work by the EM fields in a finite volume is:
 Z 
1 ~ = 1 J~ · E
~ =
nq~v · E J~ · E
~ d3 x
n n V
Z
dEmech
= J~ · E
~ d3 x (6.45)
dt V
This power represents the conversion of Electromagnetic energy into thermal or
mechanical energy.
We know: Z
Emech = umech d3 x (6.46)
V
where,
umech is the Mechanical Energy Density

From equations (6.46) and (6.47),we immediately see that Mechanical Power
Density, dumech /dt is:
dumech
= J~ · E
~ (6.47)
dt
Now,
Electromagnetic Energy Density, uem :
1 h~ ~ ~ ·H
~
i
uem ≡ E·D+B (6.48)
8π
Total Electromagnetic Energy or Field Energy(Total in the sense that it’s Elec-
trostatic and Magnetic): Z
Eem = uem d3 x (6.49)
V
Z
1  2
E + B 2 d3 x

Eem = (6.50)
8π V

~
Poynting Vector, S(Energy/Area ·time i.e Rate of Energy Flow):

~≡ c E
S ~ ⊗H
~ (6.51)
4π
Poynting Theorem:
∂uem ~ ~
+ ∇ · S = −J~ · E
~ (6.52)
∂t
Now, using equation (6.47), we get:

d ~ ·S
~=0
[uem + umech ] + ∇ (6.53)
dt
Notice how this equation is similar to the continuity equation (6.17).

Now, Intergrating through the entire volume, we get:

Z Z
d 3 ~ ·S~ d3 x
[uem + umech ] d x = − ∇ (6.54)
dt
Using Divergence Theorem on the right hand side and pulling the time derivative
outside the integral on the left hand side, we get:
Z Z I
d d ~ · d~σ
uem d3 x + umech d3 x = − S (6.55)
dt dt ∂V

Using equation (6.46) and (6.49), we get:

I
dEem dEmech ~ · d~σ
+ =− S (6.56)
dt dt ∂V

Thus, Poynting Theorem expresses the Conservation of Energy.

From equation (6.20), we have:

Z  
d~
pmech ~ + 1 J~ ⊗ B
~ d3 x
= ρE (6.57)
dt V c

Conservation of Linear Momentum:

I
d em d
p + pmech =− Tijem dσi (6.58)
dt i dt i ∂V

where,
p~em is the Electromagnetic Momentum
~g is called the Electromagnetic Momentum Density
Z Z Z
1 ~ ~ 3 1 ~
p~em = E⊗B d x= 2 S d x = ~g d3 x
3
(6.59)
4πc c

Tij is the element of tensor dyadic T̄ called the stress-energy tensor.

 
1 ~~ ~ ~ 1¯ 2 2


T̄ = EE + BB − I E + B (6.60)
4π 2
 
1 1
Tij ≡ p δij = Ei Ej + Bi Bj − (E 2 + B 2 )δij (6.61)
4π 2
where,
p in equation (6.61) represents pressure.
I¯ = ˆ1 ˆ1 + ˆ2 ˆ2 + ˆ3 ˆ3
ˆ1 , ˆ2 , ˆ3 are unit second rank tensors and I¯ is just like identity I for vectors.