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160

l' 't . Anzah1 k1einer


sorgfHltig gep1ant wurden. In Austra d h
me entwickelt worden, In den Vereinigtet;
systeme in Betrieb, denen jedoch noch
Struktur feh1t FUr die Erstellung der Struktur hl
tierten
Anforderung
en
an eo. d d' Erfordernisse
In vie1en bestehenden Informationssystemen
nicht genUgend berUcksichtigt.
161
Information. Soil Survey of England and
Station, Harpenden, Herts: AL5 2JQ, UK.
I NTRODUCTI ON
Soil scientists have been describing soil conditions mathe-
for a long tlme. The work on chemical equillbrJ"a, hydraulic
soil strength and ionic diffusion, for example, could not
Mathematics has also been used to relate
performance of plants In fjeld and pot experJ-
However, it is only fairly recently that mathematics has been
to provide quantitative descrlptions, generallzatlons and pre-
(in a spatial sense) about the soil of whole regions, whether
I territories or large regions within them or small admlnistra-
areas or farms. The reasons for the novelty
tedium of collecting sound data, of handltng them in
and the length or complexity of the mathematical tech-
to have impact. However, computers enable us to
the last two problems, and now that this is realized soil
are increasingly willing to put effort Into satisfactory samp-
their data. Therefore we see soil Information systems
, accepting reliable Information from numerous sampling sites
and presenting transformations, summaries, displays and predlc-
(output) to the user. Between Input and output, data need to be
I scre"ened and analysed to provide sensible and usable results,
here that mathematics plays its part.
Statements and predictions about the soil of areas must be
inst a background of variation, and be taken Into account In
15. This 15 the province of statistics, and most of the mathe-
applicable to regional soil Information are In some
Statistical methods provide close and usable mathe-
descriptions of the real world of the soil.
Clearly, a short review cannot cover all aspects of mathe-
applications. This paper wIll concentrate therefore on three
in which there has been significant progress or promise In recent
namely regional classification and its Implications for predlc-
analysis, and a particular class of models - the
162
spline functions.
REGIONAL CLASSIFICATION AND VARIATION
5011 variation across the land surface has been expressed
traditionally by means of 5011 maps. Most large-scale maps
diVided Into parcels, within anyone of which the 5011 is of the
kind. Distant parcels possessing similar soil are grouped Into
or mapping units. In 50me cases the mapping units attempt
the known distribution of particular types of soil.
darles are drawn along distinct changes in surface features, either
the 5011 itself or of associated physiography, vegetation or land use,
In both there is the hope. expressed or Implied, that
not used for classification will vary less within the classes than
the land as a Whole, and that the classification will be useful for
generalizing about them and predicting their values at previously un-
visited or unrecorded sites.
Although soil maps had been made for agricultural
and development work for decades, It was engineers who first examined
such maps with mathematical rigour. Thornburn and Larsen (1959) and
and Thornburn U961} sampled parts of Illinois that had been
mapped for agricultural purposes. They expressed measurements of
several mechanical properties using the classical statistical
of mean and variance for each class. They found substantial di
between class means, and thus, since variation within the mapping
was less than that over the landscape as a whole, they
mapping units as sampling strata to reduce the size of
cut costs. Table I summarizes Morse and Thornburn's results for
properties in Livingston County. Two features should be noted.
approximately half the total variance is attributable to
between soil types and half to variation within types. Second, the
within-groups standard deviation is approximately 20% of the mean In
most instances.
Kantey and Williams (1962) in South Africa were the
workers to estimate variances for their own soil maps, and so
any quantitative assessment of their quality. They too were mainly
concerned to show that soil mapping could lead
In Britain the stimulus for quantitative measurement of
tlon came from the Royal Engineers, whose prime task was prediction
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soil conditions at unvisited sites and the confidence that could be
placed in it. To assess the likelY value of 5011 maps as aids to pre-
diction, trials were carried out In both temperate and desert regions.
The land was classified, actually into types of terrain rather than
specific soil classes, largely on Its appearance on air photographs,
and then sampled. The resul ts of that wor!, have been summarized by
Beckett et al. (1972), and Webster and Beckett (1970). Table 2,
from Webster and Beckett (196B) gives examples of the resul ts. As in
the mapping in Illinois, approximately half the total variance in the
mechanical properties of the soii was attributable to differences be-
tween classes (land facets) at the local level. The remainder within
classes was sufficiently small to alloW worthwhile prediction. For
chemical properties, however, classification was, less profitable, and
for some, e.g. available phosphorus and potassium, the within-class
variance was only very slightly less than the total, and waS certainly'
. too large for prediction.
Similar studies carried out since confirm that this
general. Variance of physical and mechanical properties
units at series level or thereabouts is likely to be about half
total In an area in which there are a number of such uni ts. In
Instances it is somewhat less, even for some chemical properties (e.
Corcoran et a1. 1977). However, since
range fluctuation {Beckett and Webster 1971; Webster and Cuanalo
It cannot be appreciably diminished by more painstaking mapping.
scientists must also be prepared for situations where
produces little benefit for many properties. This is the case
of the Australian Capital Territory (Webster and Butler 1976), and
arises partly because of lack of correlation among soli
partly because different properties vary spatially on quite
scales (Fig. I).
Although we must credit engineers for stimulating the 1
of soil scientists In mathematical description of soil
an earlier paper of You den and Mehllch (1937) deserves a
attention than It has received. These workers wished to
the soil of a part of Broome County, New York,
tions, and to sample in a way that would allow this and at the same
time reveal regional differences. They carried out a multi-stage
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sampling In which the stages were different sample spacings arranged on
a roughly logarithmic scale. Nine first-stage units were spaced approxl-
1.6 km apart. Two second-stage units 305 m apart were chosen
each first stage unit, two third-stage units 30.5 m apart were
within each second-stage unit, and two fourth-stage units 3.05 m
apart were chosen wIthin each third-stage unit. The pH of the soil
each sampling point was measured, and the variance attributable to
spacing estImated. Table 3 gives components of variance for pH at
The largest component derives from the largest spacing, but.
InevltablYJ there Is a substantial variance within the smallest
3.05 m, and It is not the smallest component.
Table 3. Components of variance of soil pH at 0-15 cm
in Culvers gravelly silt loam, Broome County, New York
Stage Spacing Component
1 1.6 km 0.02819
2 305 m 0.02340
3 30.5 m 0.00552
4 3.05 m 0.01391
This sampling strategy was applied In the Australian Capital
(Webster and Butler 1976). The results for four of the pro-
of Interest are shown graphically In Figure 1. The patterns of
for all four, and In part explain why general-
classification was unprofitable.
MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS
The classical multivariate methods, principal component analy-
discriminant analysis and canonical analysis, were
in the decade forty to fifty years ago. They could not be
to study problems In soi1 science where they were most wanted
there were no computers to handle the large matrices involved.
arrive there was no sudden rush to apply the classi-
Instead, It was the newly developing techniques for
classifIcation that caught the Imagination. It seemed
last was a means of resolving the age-old arguments about
In which soi 1 should be classified. In the event, these
168
numedcal techniques enabled sets of 5011 speciments, profi les or samp-
ling sites to be classified swiftly and repeatably. However, the
results are not necessarily better than tradItional methods for eX-
pressing relationships or for predicting properties other than those
used to create the classifications. They are also sensitive to small
changes In technique and data. When the classical methods were applied
It became clear why stable classification of soil is 50 difficult to
attain. This section reviews briefly what at present seem to be the
two most important forms of analysis and some results of their applica-
tion.
Principal Axis Methods
One of the major problems in 5011 systematics is to be able
to quantitative relations among Individuals when each is charac-
terized by more than two or three measurements. Means are needed for
compressing the information into few variates with the least loss of
information, and this is aim of what Is now known as ordination.
Several methods have been proposed, and the first application-to soli
was by Hole and Hlronaka (1960) who used the one devised by Bray and
CUrtis l1957} for ecological work. Since then, however, most ordina-
tion, not only of soil but In other branches of science also, has been
by vector methods, of which principal component analysis Is the most
rl gorous.
Principal component analysis (PCA) has been used in several
studies (e.g. Cuanalo and \4ebster 1970; Hebster and Burrough 1974;
Burrough and Hebster 1976; Lamp 1972; Norris 1971) to elucidate rela-
tions among Individuals and population structure in general. It has
also been applied profitably to agronomic problems (Kyuma and Kawaguchi
1973) and to the Interpretation of engineering tests (Leflaive et al.
1973)
PCA may be regarded geometrically as the rigid rotation of
configuration of points (individuals) in multld.lmensional space (with
one dimension for each property). Relations between individuals
represented by their separating distances in the full space, and
method assumes that this Is appropriate and that it is possible to
measure the characters of interest. The assumption is
We prefer other measures of relationship and In some Instances
to use qual itatlve characters. Gower (1966) Introduced his =-"'==
169
coordinate analysis (PCO) to cope with this sltuat'
. 'I Ion. In this method
Simi arlties, 5, between Individuals can be calculated
by almost any of
th.e commonly used formulae (see Sneath and Sakal 1973
for their defini-
tions) and converted to distances by d = V2{I-S) U' ,
I dl I sing thiS measure n
n v duals are represented in a space, with n-l dimensions and their
found relative to the principal axes of the con;,gUratl
As In PCA, projection onto .the plane defIned on.
by the longest axes dis-
plays relations In the most informative way. Despite it h
h ' s somew at
eavler computing several workers have found PCO advant (
R 6 ageous e, g
ayner 19 6, 1969; Campbell et al. 1970; Webster and Butler 1976 ..
Wi 11 iams and Rayner 1977; Banfield and Bascomb 1976). '
Two examples will illustrate the h
euristic value of these
methods. Figure 2 from a study of soi 1 in
the River i na of New Sputh
Wales (Norris 1971) is' perhaps the more typical.
paT components
The fi rst two princl-
for half the total variance fifty o'riglnal
The distribution Is thus fairly flat, and the project-ion
well represents relationships in the whole '
h space. The fiture also
ow the three main soil groups are separated Ea h
fal I c group occupies
r Y compact part of the plane, though there is a little overl
the red brown earths and the tranSitional red brown
third feature of th h hI h
. e grap , w c we must now realize Is quite nor-
, IS the lack of clusterIng. There is evidently no 'natural
' Ing I th'
n . n .. IS sense, and though we may classify the population by
g diVISions through the configuration such divisions are b d
arbitrary. oun to
Figure 3, from the study by Webster and Butler (1976) In the
Ian Capital Territory, also shows a fairly scatter of points
f of the first two prfncipal coordinates. However, it dlf-
rom Figure 2 in two respects. First, only 26% of the variation
accounted for. This Is unusually small: the distribution is more
hyperspherlcal than most. Second th '
th ' ere IS considerable overlap
:'- e portions of the SPace OCCUPied by each class of soi I. This was
: s.o true for the other soil classifications that were examined and Is
f;cet of the lack of correlation in the area,
he analysis shows quIte clearly that classification is Un-
be profitable Tn any general sense.
PCA is also valuable as a means of data reduction. The first
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FigUre 3 Scatter of 111 sampling sites in the Australian Capital Territory projected onto the plane
of the first two principal coordinates. Symbols distinguish the five classes previously' . . . . .
recognised. and the proportions of the variance represented by each axis are indicated.
From Webster and Butler (1976).

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172
few latent roots In order from largest to smallest usually
account for a large proportion of the total variation. The correspon-
ding component scoresJmay then be retained for further analysis and
rest Ignored. It seemsl- that this procedure not only diminishes the
putlng load but alsDo,concentrates the more meaningful Information In
retained components. The first few components are often better dlscri
nants between classes than any original variates, and they also express
regional variation well. For example, Webster and Wong (1969) found
that the first principal component from soil morphological data could
be used very satisfactorily for identifying 5011 boundaries along a
transect. SimilarlY cyclic variation in the soil of gllgal country
showed most prominently in the power spectrum of the first principal
component (Webster 1977).
Multiple Discriminant Analysis
A need in all walks of life, by no means restricted to soil
science, is to allocate individuals to existing classes or to Identify
them as be long j ng to such classes. I fall ocat I on can be on the
evidence of a single character then It is straightforward. Allocation
becomes problematic, however, when severai characters are important and
the existing classes overlap in each dimension. This is usually the
case in soil science. The solution lies In the use of mUltiple dis-
criminant analysis, developed specifIcally for this purpose.
The principle of the method is simple if regarded geometri-
cally. Each class is represente'd by a set of Individuals on which
measurements have been made and which are assumed to be distributed in
a multidimensional space. The space Is then transformed linearly until
the configuration of the points for each class Is hyperspherica1 on
average. This effect'tvely standardizes the measurement scales and takes'
account of correlation. To allocate a new Individual to Its most appro-
priate group the relevant characters are measured and the distances be-
tween it and the centroids of the existing classes In the transformed
space calculated. The individual Is then allocated to the group whose
centroid is nearest. The method leads readily to the derivation of
canonical variates along which differences among the group centroids
are maximized, and to the projection of distributions onto canonical
axes for display.
Multiple discriminant analysis is now much used for automatic
173
Inl'er'pretatlon of ground conditions from multlband sensors In aircraft
satellites. It Is also being applied to Identify materials from
c.utarna I: 1 c chern I ca 1 ana I ysl s Bracewe 11 and Robertson (1973), for
Identified types of humus this way. However, despite
results by research workers {Oertal 1961; Norris and
1971; Webster and Burrough 1974) it Is still little used for
routine allocation in soil survey and classification.
The same technique can also be used for improving soil
classifications, and Figures 4 and 5 show an example of this. The data
those for the Kelmscot area already described and used to Illustrate
Iscrlmlnant analysis by Webster and Burrough {1974}. Figure 4 repre-
the Initial classificatIon of the 84 sampling sites on the
The orlgtna1 variates have been transformed
canonIcal varIates, and the scatter is projected Into the plane of
canonical axes (there are only two since tnere are three groups).
symbols Indicate the orIginal classification, and the three class
Ids are shown. There Is clearly a good deal of overlap.
classes I and 3. By reallocating all individuals
a centroid other than that of their own class the
be improved (Figure 5). That Is. the classes are
compact and more distinct from one another. Burrough and Webster
(1976) Improved the reconnaissance soil classification of Sabah In this
However, as can be seen in Figure 5 there Is stili some over-
least between classes I and 3. Points 1, 10 and 59 are nearer
the centroid of group 3 than that of group 1, and point 24 is nearer
group I than group 3. Similarly point 80 Is nearer to group 3 than
group 2. By repeating the analysis these points can be reallocated
the classification Improved further. In this case It was possible
Improve the classification a third time by reallocating point 79 to
3, after which the classification was stable. The process 15.
Ized in Table 4 in which two of the generally agreed test
-I
kSI criterion, L = [W]/[TJ, and Trace W B are given for each. W
B are the wlthin- and between-groups matrices of sums of
respectively. Wllks
l
criterion measures the within-group
i.e. their compactness, and decreases as the classification
-1 2
Trace W B represents the sum of the Mahalanobls D ,
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CanrmlcfJl variate 1

Class 1
Class 2
c Class 3
Canonical variate projection of the 84 sampling points In the Kelmscot area altai first
''''''''/loc,,'/on Symbols indicate the new classification and the numbered points are th ose thlii were
reallocated In the second and third cycles 01 the anelysls. The c/rcles delimit .90% confldencp
(f!gions (or each class.
Ii
176
weighted by the group sizes, between the groUp centroids and the cen-
troid of the whole population, and increases as the classification is
improved.
-1
Table 4. Wllksl criterion, L, and Trace W Band
transfers Involved in improving the soil classi-
flcatJon of
the Kelmscot area
Stage
L
TrW-Ie Number of
Transfers
Start
0.4697
0.936
1st improvement
0.0564 6.556 27
2nd improvement
0.0337
8.961 5
3rd improvement
0.0296 9.738
1
This procedure of repeated analysis and reallocation is the
basis of several methods of optimal classification or dynamic cl
(Rubin 1967i Friedman and Rubin 1967. Demirmen 1969; Marrlott..1971).
However, reallocation may lead only to a local optimumi the result m
might not be the best possible, and programs for creating optimal
classifications Incorporate algorithms for overriding local optima, or'
for distinguishing between several such optima using criteria such as L,
or TrW-
l
B.
Dynamic clustering is more appropriate than the popular
hierarchical techniques of classification for 5011 populations, none
which have been shown to have hierarchical structure. Yet only In the.
Netherlands has there been any published account of its application
soil (Crommelln and de Gruijter 1973; de Gruijter 1977). The
workers simplified the procedure by reallocating individuals, and
optimizing the classes, in the standardized Euclidean character space.
They were not concerned to preserve any correlation between variables
that happened to arise from their Initial classification, and
minimize SSw' the sum of squares of deviations of individuals from
class centroids.
MODELS - SPLi NES
From time to time the topic of modelling arises in solI
science. Models have been found profitable In some fields,
gists frequently ask whether models can usefully be applied to the
177
distribution of soil. The term 'model' is often used to expreSs no:
'more than a vague concept, and for present purposes we must first clari-
fy its meaning. The following definition given by G. J. 5. Ros5 In the
guide to his Maximum Likelihood Program will serve.
E(ZJ) = ~ + "'j
where E{zJ' is the expected value of a variable In group J
~ is the general mean of that variable,
and Is the difference between the general mean and the mean
of group j.
at any particular point i In group j wi II be subject to an
~ t l o n a l random deviation, EijJ about the mean of the jth group. For
sake of Illustration we may assume that E
ij
popUlation with zero mean and known
15 therefore
aZij = ).1 + el
J
+ Eij
belongs to
variance.
a normally
The complete
the term 'model' more often refers to some kind of functional
between dependent and independent variables. Linear regression
Ions are perhaps the most familiar examples. In our context the
variates will usually be spatial coordinates - eastings,
ngs, height and depth below the soil surface.
In both geography and geology polynomial trend modelS have
some popUlarity, and in a few instances harmonic trend surfaces
fitted to data. Few attempts have been made to fit such
In a sense this Is well, because the models are
y appropriate, and the fact that they can give useful results Is
extent fortuitous. Trend models of this kind have several
There is no theory from which to determine a suitable model.
ynomlal that fits more than a few data points exactly Is Inevitably
complex if not impossible to calculate. Also, local variation
t h ~ fit everywhere, a feature that Is usually undesirable.
HUGh more promising models for describing soil data are the
functions, and s'peclfically cubic spl ines. They have not been
178
applied to 5011 distribution before, and this review concludes by des-
cribing them briefly and then illustrating their use with some examples.
A cubic sp-Hne In two dimensions consists of a set of local
cubic curves Joined smoothly to end 50 that they and their first
and second derivatives are continuous. The positions of the Joins,
known as knots, may be either at the data points, In which case
spline fits exactly, or elsewhere. In the latter case the spline func-
tion \5 fitted to minimize the sum of squares of deviations from the
line, and the goodness of fit can be varied by varying the number of
knots and their positions. The procedures are readily extended Into
three dimensions (de Boor 1962; Hayes and Halliday 1974), so that the
splines become curved surfaces. and several computer programs for con-
touring use splines to approximate the surface. Provided sufficient
data are available they provide an alternative to soil classification
as a means of spatial prediction.
Spline functions require fewer pre-conceptions on the part of
the Investigator than other models for describing soil variation.
They can be chosen to accord with \1hat is al ready known; and. al though
In their simplest form they assume that the real situation that they
describe is continuous. they can be made to change slope abruptly if
desired (Cox and Hayes 1973). The main disadvantage Is that, like
global polynomials, they can fluctuate In a quite unwarranted way If
close approximations are attempted for same data, and the user needs
be an his guard against this.
The examples that follow Illustrate twa of the main ways In
which pedologlsts have wished to describe soil quantitatively as a
tion of distance, the first as depth functions the second as horlzonta.
variation.
Depth Functions
Numerous papers Illustrate the variation of single propertl
down soil profiles by graphs with smooth lines drawn free-hand
the data points. The depth coordinates are taken as the mid-paints
the depth ranges of the samples, and the property values are assumed
be determined without appreciable error. If the samples are conti
within the profile the last assumption is reasonable for the column
soil actually taken. The same Kind of result can be achieved
cubic spline as model. Since it is mathematically defined it is
179
repeatable. Figures 6 to a show cubic splines fitted through data for
soil organic matter content In several profiles, and in Figure 9 splines
are fitted to data for clay content.
Data always contain some error, even If introduced only by
I aboratory procedure. But when prof 1,1 es are samp 1 ed by tak I ng non-con-
tiguous segments from pits or bores. and when sampled columns are
Intended to represent a larger volume of soil, error can be substantial.
In these circumstances a model that approximates the data Is likely to
than one that fits exactly. Russell and Moore (196B) satis-
factorily fitted exponential decay models of the form y = Ae-
cx
to
organic matter in profiles in Queensland. In fact, the fit is achieved
by taking the model in its logarithmic form and minimizing squares
the deviations from the straight regression line. Moore et al. (1972)
. also approximated variation down profiles using quIntIc polynomials,.
again by least squares fitting. In some instances they achieved very
good approximation; In others, the fit was poor.
Figure 6 shows close approximation to organic matter content
"by an exponential curve. However, It seems that British solIs more
often have their organic matter distributed as In Figure 7, for which
the exponential decay model is relatively poor. The approximating
spline Is still good, however. For podzols and profiles with buried
topsoil the exponential model is, of course, Inappropriate, and the
of using splines are obvious (Figure B). A global poly-
could be fitted to represent the variation, but as Figure B
that too may be nonsensical.
Pedologlsts may disagree about the presence of error In
rements down soil profiles, but none will dispute that measures of
lateral variation contain substantial local sampling error. Data from
bores and pits along transects and over areas are very noisy.
are needed to express the longer range variation and to Interpo-
re I i ab I y by suppress I ng the I oca I no I se. I t may even be necessary
long-range variation. This is
one reason why some investigators use global trend analysis,
this can often be achieved by simple filtering (e.g. Webster and
1975). SpJ Ine approximation will serve all three purposes, and
Jgures 10 and, 11 show something of their power and utility. In each
180
Organic carbon (%)
a 2 4 6

25
50
E
.;"
cS

75
100
125
150
Figure 6 Organic carbon percentage down the soil profile at Sid/esham. Sussex. grid
SU 854003, with cubic spline and least- squares exponential (unctions fitted.
Data obtained by D.Mackney. (rom Avery (1975),
181
Loss on ignition r%)

fitting spline
25
50
75
-0,0080
I 'ce"s[ squares spline
7 on ignition down the soli profile at Longville. Shropshire, grid ref.
o 533943 With exponential. exact fitting spline and a least-squ;rres spline fitted with one
knat at 64 em. Data from Mackney and Burnham (1966)
182
Lass on ignition (%)
o 70 20 30 40
04-______ ~ ______ _L ______ _ L ~ - - - - ~
25
_L=26.37e-O.D153D
50
75
\ .-6th order Polynomial
"""""
)
-----------------
100
125
150
Figure B Loss en ignition down the soil profile at grid ref. Sf 007367 on Haworth Moor.
): Yorkshire. with exponential. spline and global polynomial functions fitted,
Date obtained by D.M.Carrol iJnd V,C.Bendelow.
183
Clay content (%)
o 20
40 60 80
0 i - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - - ~ - - - - - - - J - - - - - - ~
25
50
75
,
,
I

:-Least squares fit

,
,i
Figure 9 Clay content down the soil profile at Tick/erton. ShropshIre. grid ref. SO 488911,
with exact fitting spline and least-squares spline fitted with II knot at 64 em.
Data from Mackney and Burnham (1966).
BO

I

i3 40
20
0+1---------.---------.--------,---------,---------,--------,
o 200 400 600
Distance (m)
Baa 1000 1200
;;;
E
:;:
1.00'
0.50
'"
00.00
;:0

I
1:,:-0.50
8
-1.00
Figure 70. Clay content in the topsoil plotted against distance over the ground near Sandford St. Martin. Oxfordshire. A least-squares spline is
fitt'edwith 19 equally spaced knots. Data from Webster and Cuanalo (1975).
-1,50-11----------,---------,-,-------,-______ ---, _____ _
a 100 200
Distance (m)
300 400
Figure 11 Electrical conductivity in the soil at 30-40 cm plotted against distance across gilgai land at Caragabal. New South Wales. A least-squares
cubic spline is fitted with 26 equally spaced knots, Data from Webster (7977).
.' .. _."
';
""

8:
186
.-
example there are 120 data values derived by samplIng at equal in
vals along a line. Figure 10 shows the variation In clay content
measured at 10 m intervals on a transect
Cuanalo 1975). An approximating spline.
spaced knots, describes well the medium and long-range variation
of short-range n01se, Figure 11 shows variation In the soil's
cal conductivity across 9ilgal terrain on the Bland Plain of New
Wales (Webster 1977). The approximating spline with 26 equally 5
knots'shows the eyel Ie nature of the variation, again
free of short-range noise.
This brief account of splines Is far from conclusive.
draws attention to a family of functions that promises to be most
ful in pedological research, and Introduces pedologJsts to the
behind some of the complex computer software for automated
AVERY, B. W. 1975.
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Photogrammetrla
inCilwDrth
C
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w. J. and HEHLICH A
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Thompson Inst. 9: 59-70.
sUHMARY
methods for
The advent of computers has s .
of soil variatIon and made pos quantitative des-
and prediction of soil co d't'S e mathematical inter-
recJent of relationships.
econom ca I 5 II 0 maps for I
tatistical It summarizes the insight
and principal a gained by principal
Itlple discriminant stresses the advan-
t. Finally cubic s " or a location and classlfl-
ally very useful approxi nes
f
are. Introduced as a family
examples. m Ing unctIons and Tllustrated
d La venue de l'ordinateu -
; escription quantitative de 1 r a stirnule les travaux
Possible une interp I i a variabilite des sols
i d _ 0 at 0 n ma t h - t i '
on es ebats du I ema que et une
so et mis - d
ns entre les div f en evi ence les
i i 1 ers acteurs en c u
pas sons
sion des previsions ePt OIOdgiques pour ameliorer la
q I renrel'-h
ue. L analyse des axes i ec antillonnage plus
antes principales pr ncipaux et des
ribution statistique adapporte des lumieres sur la
l'analyse 1 i 1 es populations de 1
',' riminant par discriminant cependant
. l'affectation et 1: I demontre sa valeur
ner 1 I C assificati d
, auteur illustre a on es sols. Pour
nas, familIa de courbes des exemples des fonctions
approximations res utile dans l'etabli ssement

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