Pipes

Since the purpose with a pipe is the transport of fluids like water, oil and many other products, the most import pipe property is the capacity, or in reality, the inside diameter of the pipe. The nominal diameter of a pipe is therefore related to the inside diameter.

If we take a look at ASME/ANSI B 36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe, the inside diameter of a 2'' pipe schedule 40 is 2.067". The inside diameter of a schedule 80 pipe is 1.939". Both inside diameters are close to 2". The outside diameters for both schedules are 2.375". Since the outside diameter of a single nominal pipe size is kept constant, the inside diameter of a pipe will depend on the "schedule", or the thickness, of the pipe. The schedule and the actual thickness of a pipe will vary with size of pipe. It is common to identify pipes in inches by using NPS or "Nominal Pipe Size". The metric equivalent is called DN or "diametre nominel". The metric designations conform to International Standards Organization (ISO) usage and apply to all plumbing, natural gas, heating oil, and miscellaneous piping used in buildings. The use of NPS does not conform to American Standard pipe designations where the term NPS means "National Pipe Thread Straight". Nominal Bore (NB) may be specified under British standards classifications along with schedule (wall thickness). The tolerances are looser to pipes compared with tubes and they are often less expensive to produce.

STD, XS and XXS

To distinguish different weights of pipe, three long standing traditional designations are used:

y y y

standard wall - STD extra strong wall - XS double extra strong wall - XXS

The last two designations are sometimes referred to as extra heavy wall (XH), and double extra heavy wall (XXH). For all pipe sizes the outside diameter (O.D.) remains relatively constant. The variations in wall thickness affects only the inside diameter (I.D.).

Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe

To distinguish different weights of pipe, it is common to use the Schedule terminology from ANSI/ASME B36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe:

y y y y y y y y y y y y y y

Light Wall Schedule 10 (Sch/10, S/10) Schedule 20 (Sch/20, S/20) Schedule 30 (Sch/30, S/30) Schedule 40 (Sch/40, S/40) Standard Weight (ST, Std) Schedule 60 (Sch/60, S/60) Extra Strong (Extra Heavy, EH, XH, XS) Schedule 80 (Sch/80, S/80) Schedule 100 (Sch/100, S/100) Schedule 120 (Sch/120, S/120) Schedule 140 (Sch/140, S/140) Schedule 160 (Sch/160, S/160) Double Extra Strong (Double extra heavy, XXH, XXS)

Note that many of the schedules are identical in certain sizes.

Stainless Steel Pipe

For stainless steel pipes thru 12-inch, schedule numbers from Schedule 5S to schedule 80S are used as published in ANSI/ASME 36.19M Stainless Steel Pipe.

y y y y

Schedule 5S (Sch/5S, S/5S) Schedule 10S (Sch/10S, S/10S) Schedule 40S (Sch/40S, S/40S) Schedule 80S (Sch/80S, S/80S)

Tubes
The nominal dimensions of tubes are based on the outside diameter. If we look at Copper Tubes ASTM B88 the outside diameter of a 2" pipe is 2.125", relatively close to 2".

The inside diameter of a tube will depend on the thickness of the tube. The thickness is often specified as a gauge. If we look at Copper Tubes - ASTM B88 the wall thickness of 0.083"of a 2" pipe is gauge 14. The tolerances are higher with tubes compared to pipes. Tubes are often more expensive to produce than pipes.

Pipe Schedules
What is a pipe schedule? Pipes are designed to carry fluid, therefore their internal diameter is their critical dimension. This critical dimension is referred to as the nominal bore, commonly appreviated as NB. Obviously, for pipes containing pressurised fluids the wall thickness, and by implication the pipe's strength, is important. Wall thickness is expressed in "schedules", refered to as pipe schedules. What Standards Govern Pipe Sizes? In the oil and gas and related down stream industries the the most common standards are - ASME/ANSI B 36.10 Welded and Seamless Wrought Steel Pipe, and - ASME/ANSI B36.19 Stainless Steel Pipe Does Pipe Schedule Change With Pipe Size? For all pipe sizes the outside diameter remains relatively constant. Therefore any variation schedule i.e. wall thickness, affects only the inside diameter. As the schedule number increases, the wall thickness increases, and the actual bore is reduced. Pipe Schedule Charts The wall thickness associated with a particular schedule depends on the pipe size as can be seen from the charts below for some of the more common sized carbon steel pipes encountered. Abbreviations used: NB - nominal bore, STD - Standard, EH - Extra Heavy, DBL EH Double Extra Heavy. OD = 2.375 inch (60.32 mm) 40 80 Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 STD EH ID (ins) 2.245 2.157 ----- 2.067 --- 1.939 --ID (mm) 57.02 54.79 ----- 52.5 --- 49.25 --2"NB

120 -----

140

DBL EH --- 1.689 1.503 --- 42.9 38.18 160

OD = 3.5 inch (88.9 mm) 40 80 Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 STD EH ID (ins) 3.334 3.260 ----- 3.068 --- 2.900 --ID (mm) 84.68 82.8 ----- 77.93 --- 73.66 ---

3" NB

120 -----

140

DBL EH --- 2.624 2.300 --- 66.65 58.42 160

OD = 4.5 inch (114.3 mm) 40 80 DBL Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 STD EH EH ID (ins) 4.334 4.260 --- --- 4.026 --- 3.826 --- 3.624 --- 3.438 3.152

4" NB

ID (mm) 110.08 108.2 ---

--- 102.26 --- 97.18 --- 92.05 --- 87.33 80.06

OD = 6.625 inch (168.275 mm) 40 80 DBL Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 STD EH EH ID (ins) 6.407 6.357 --- --- 6.065 --- 5.761 --- 5.501 --- 5.189 4.897 ID (mm) 162.74 161.47 --- --- 154.05 --- 146.33 --- 139.73 --- 131.8 124.38

6" NB

8" NB Schedul e ID (ins)

OD = 8.625 inch (219.1 mm) 40 80 DBL 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 STD EH EH 8.07 7.18 8.407 8.329 8.125 7.981 7.813 7.625 7.439 7.001 6.813 6.375 1 9 ID (mm) 213.5 211.5 206.3 202.7 198.4 193.6 188.9 182. 177.8 173.0 161.9 205 4 6 8 2 5 7 5 6 3 5 3

10" NB Schedul e

OD = 10.750 inch (273 mm) 40 STD 80 EH

DB 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 L EH ID (ins) 10.48 10.13 10.0 8.50 10.42 10.25 9.750 9.564 9.314 9.064 8.750 --2 6 2 0 ID (mm) 266.2 264.6 260.3 257.4 254. 247.6 242.9 236.5 230.2 222.2 215. --4 7 5 5 5 5 3 8 3 5 9

OD = 12.750 inch (323.85 mm) 40 80 DBL Schedule 5 10 20 30 60 100 120 140 160 STD EH EH ID (ins) 11.93 11.37 8 11.62 6 11.06 10.12 12.42 12.39 12.25 12.09 10.75 10.50 --12.00 6 11.75 4 6 0 0 ID (mm) 288.9 303.2 311.1 5 281.0 273.0 315.47 314.7 307.1 2 295.3 266.7 257.2 --5 298.4 3 5 304.8 5

12" NB

Ingress Protection
What does IP stand for? IP is an acronym for Ingress Protection Why is Ingress Protection Important? Liquid and/or solid particle ingress into electrical equipment may not only be harmful to the equipment, it may also be dangerous to the operator. Therefore when buying electrical equipment whether it be an electric motor, a light fiiting or an enclosure, it is essential to know what degree of ingress protection the item offers. So how is Ingress Protection quoted? An "IP" number, or as it is commonly known, an IP rating is used to specify the environmental protection offered. The IP rating is composed of two numbers, the first referring to the protection against solid object ingress and the second against liquid ingress. The higher the number the better the protection. Are there standards covering these ratings? The applicable European standards for ingress protection are: - BS EN 60529 Specification of Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures - IEC 529 Specification of Degrees of Protection Provided by Enclosures What are the numerical codes? Ingress Protection Classification First Number IP Protection Provided 0 No Protection Protected against solid 1 objects up to 50mm e.g. accidental touch by hands Protected against solid 2 objects up to 12mm e.g. fingers Protected against solid 3 objects over 2.5mm e.g. tools Protected against solid 4 objects over 1mm e.g. wires 5 Protected against dust limited ingress (no harmful Second Number IP Protection Provided 0 No Protection Protected against vertically 1 falling drops of water e.g. condensation Protected against direct 2 sprays of water up to 15 deg from the vertical Protected against direct 3 sprays of water up to 60 deg from the vertical Protected against water 4 sprayed from all directions limited ingress permitted 5 Protected against low pressure jets of water from

deposit)

all directions - limited ingress permitted Protected against strong jets of water e.g. for use on 6 shipdecks - limited ingress permitted Protected against the affects 7 of immersion between 15cm and 1m Protected against long 8 periods of immersion under pressure

Totally protected against 6 dust

What do they use outside Europe? In North America, the NEMA classification is used. NEMA (National Electrical Manufacturers Association) is a US trade association representing the interests of electroindustry manufacturers of products used in the generation, transmission and distribution, control, and end-use of electricity. How does the IP and NEMA systems compare? The IEC and NEMA degrees of protection can not be fully compared as equivalent ratings. The NEMA Standard includes tests for environmental conditions such as mechanical damage, corrosion, rusting, ice formation, etc. However the follwoing table can be used as a guide: NEMA Enclosure IEC Type Number Classification 1 2 3 3R 3S 4 and 4X 5 6 and 6P IP 10 IP 11 IP 54 IP 14 IP 54 IP 56 IP 52 IP 67

Does NEMA produce standards? NEMA Standard Publication 250 and UL 40 Standard Publication both provide further information on ingress protection ratings used in the US

Thermocouple Types
What is a Thermocouple? A thermocouple consists of two dissimilar metals, joined together at one end, which produce a small voltage when heated (or cooled). This voltage is measured and used to determine the temperature of the heated metals. The voltage for any one temperature is unique to the combination of metals used. Are There Standards Governing Types of Thermocouple? British Standards Specification, BS 1041, Temperature Measurement provides guidance for the selection and use of devices for measuring temperature. ASTM Standard E230 provides specifications for the common industrial grades, including letter designations. Why are there different types? Thermocouples are available in different combinations of metals, usually refered to by a letter, e.g. J, K etc. Each combination has a different temperature range and is therefore more suited to certain applications than others. Although it is worth noting that the maximum temperature varies with the diameter of the wire used in the thermocouple. Summary of Thermocouple Types
Conductor Combination Platinum 30% Rhodium / Platinum 6% Rhodium Temperature Range F C 2500 to 3100 1370 to 1700 32 to 1600 32 to 1400 32 to 2300 32 to 2300 0 to 870 0 to 760 0 to 1260 0 to 1260

Type

Nickel-chromium / Constantan E Iron / Constantan J K Nickel-chromium / Nickel-aluminum Nicrosil / Nisil N

R S T

Platinum 13% Rhodium / Platinum Platinum 10% Rhodium / Platinum Copper / Constantan

1600 to 2640 870 to 1450 1800 to 2640 980 to 1450 -75 to +700 -59 to +370

Type B Type B thermocouples can be used up to 1600C with short term excursions up to 1800C. They have a low electrical output, therefore are rarely used below 600C. In fact the output is virtually negligible up to 50C, therefore cold junction compensation is not usually required with this type. Type E Type E thermocouples are often referred to as Chromel-Constantan thermocouples. They

are regarded as more stable than Type K, therefore often used where a higher degree of accuracy is required. Note - Constantan is Copper-Nickel. Type J Type J thermocouples degrade rapidly in oxidising atmospheres above 550C. Their maximum continuous operating temperature is around 750C though they can with stand short duration excursions to 1000C. They are generally not used below ambient temperature due to condensation forming on the wires leading to rusting of the iron. Note - Constantan is Copper-Nickel. Type K Type K are the most widely used thermocouples in the Oil & Gas, and refining industries due to their wide range and low cost. They are occasionally referred to as ChromelAlumel thermocouples. Note that above about 750C oxidation leads to drift and the need for recalibration. Type N Type N thermocouples can handle higher temperatures than type K, and offer better repeatability in the 300 to 500C range. They offers many advantages over Type R & S at a tenth of the cost, therefore prove to be popular alternatives. Type R Type R thermocouples cover similar applications as Type S but offers improved stability and a marginal increase in range. Consequently, Type R tend to be used in preference to Type S. Type S Type S thermocouples can be continually at temperatures up to 1450C. They can with stand short duration excursions up to 1650C. They need protection from high temperature atmospheres to prevent metallic vapour ingress to the tip resulting in reduction of emf generated. Protection commonly offered is high purity recrystallised alumina sheath. For most industrial applications, thermocouples are housed in a thermowell. Type T Type T thermocouples are rarely used in industrial applications, and lend themselves more to use in laboratory situations.

Wire Sizes
Cables Wires and Conductors A wire is a single rod of metal with a small ratio of diameter to length. A conductor is a wire suitable for carrying an electric current.

A stranded conductor is a conductor made up of a group of wires. These wires are usually twisted together. A cable is either a single stranded conductor or a combination of conductors insulated from one another (a mutlti-core cable). Cables in the oil and gas and petrochem industries are generally always insulated and often protected with an armoured sheath. In general, stranded conductors are more flexible and less susceptible to fatigue-failure than solid wires. Cable Sizing Wires can carry only a limited amount of current safely. If the current flowing through a wire exceeds the current-carrying capacity of the wire, excess heat is generated. This heat may be great enough to burn off the insulation around the wire and start a fire. An increase in the diameter, or cross section, of a wire conductor decreases its resistance and increases its capacity to carry current. Other reasons for choosing an increased cross sectional area of wire is to limit volt drop along its length. Limitations Wires and cables are made in standard diameters. When selecting cables it is common select the next standard size up from that calculated. The terminals (e.g. Weidmuller, Phoenix etc) into which the cable or wire will terminate are made to accomadate a range of sizes. Be aware of any limitations this may place on your selection. Dimensions Wire diameters are often specified in American Wire Gausge (AWG) rather than in mm or inches. The charts below give dimensions of common diameters and the corresponding AWG. Solid Bare Copper Wire AWG Nominal Cross Diam Section (mm) (mm2) 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 2.6 2.3 2.05 1.83 1.63 1.45 1.29 1.15 1.02 5.23 4.155 3.29 2.63 2.07 1.651 1.3 1.039 0.816 Stranded Tinned Copper Wire AWG Stranding Nominal Cross Diam Section No/AWG (mm) (mm2) 12 12 12 14 14 14 16 16 16 7/20 19/25 65/30 7/22 19/26 42/30 7/24 19/29 65/34 2.44 2.36 2.41 1.85 1.85 1.85 1.52 1.47 1.5 3.61 3.07 3.27 2.26 1.93 2.06 1.42 1.216 1.3

19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

0.912 0.813 0.724 0.643 0.574 0.511 0.455 0.404 0.361 0.32 0.287 0.254 0.226 0.203 0.18 0.16 0.142 0.127 0.114 0.102 0.089 0.079

0.653 0.514 0.412 0.322 0.259 0.203 0.163 0.127 0.102 0.08 0.064 0.051 0.04 0.032 0.025 0.02 0.016 0.013 0.01 0.008 0.006 0.005

18 18 18 18 20 20 20 22 22 24 24 24 26 26 28 28 30

7/26 19/30 42/34 65/36 7/28 19/32 42/36 7/30 19/34 7/32 19/36 42/40 7/34 19/38 7/36 19/40 7/38

1.22 1.24 1.2 1.2 0.89 0.94 0.914 0.762 0.787 0.61 0.61 0.584 0.483 0.508 0.381 0.406 0.305

0.891 0.957 0.819 0.845 0.504 0.612 0.533 0.352 0.38 0.226 0.239 0.201 0.14 0.153 0.071 0.093 0.056

Armoured Cable Glands

Why Do We Use Cable Glands? - To firmly secure cable entering a piece of equipment - To maintain the ingress protection of the piece of equipment (minimum of IP54 for 'e' and 'n' type enclosures. Where the enclosure wall thickness is less than 6mm a sealing washer or thread sealant will be required to maintain IP54 protection) - To maintain earth continuity between a piece of equipment and any armouring in the cable - To ensure containment of an internal explosion in flameproof equipment Is there a British Standard for Cable Glands? The Code of Practice for selection, installation and inspection of cable glands used in electrical installations is covered in BS 6121-5 1989 Mechanical cable glands.

Selecting Cable Glands Items to consider when selecting a cable gland for a particular installation include: - Possibility of electrolytic action between the gland and the enclosure. Shortened lifetime for the glands and the cable entries can result if incompatabile materials selected. The most common materials used are brass, stainless steel and plastic. Material choisce will influence cost. - Degreee of Ingress Protection required. See our page on IP ratings. - Certification of gland for use in Hazardous areas - Normal or barrier gland required - Size of cable being terminated - Size of cable entry on peice of equipment What is a Barrier Gland? Barrier glands are similar to normal glands, except a compound sealant material is used to ensure the inside of the cable is gas tight as well as the outside. When Should a Barrier Gland be Used? BS EN60079-14 Electrical Apparatus for Explosive Gas Atmospheres Part 14 - Electrical Installations in Hazardous Areas (other than Mines) provides a selection process for deciding if a barrier gland is required. There are various options to consider, however if the hazardous gas require IIC apparatus, or if the volume of the enclosure is greater than 2 litres then it is likely you will need to use a barrier gland. IIC apparatus is generally associated with Hydrogen. Gable Gland Sizing A rough gland sizing table is provided below, however reference should be made to the British Standard referenced above.
Nominal Conductor Area (mm2) Number of cores

1 --------20 25 25 25 32

10

12

19

27

37

48

1.5 2.5 4 6 10 16 25 35 50 70 95 120 150

20S 20S 20S 20S 20S 20 25 25 25 32 32 20S 20S 20S 20 20 25 25 25 32 41 40 20S 20S 20 20 20 25 25 32 40 --20 20 20 20 25 25 25 25 25 25 25 32 This chart is for guidance only. 25 32 32 32 32 40 Consult relevant British Standards before making final selection. 32 40 40 40 40 50 40 50 50 50 50 63

185 240 300 400

32 40 40 50

50 50 63 63

50 63 63 75

63 63 75 --

Colour coding applies to the shoulder (curved part) of the cylinder and is used to identify the properties of the gas in the cylinder. Two consecutive bands may be used to depict a gas that has more than one property. ** The colour of the cylinder is only an indication; always read the label to identify a cylinder's contents.

Acetylene

Helium

Air

Hydrogen

Ammonia

Nitrogen

Argon

Nitrous Oxide

Carbon Dioxide

Oxygen

Chlorine

Oxygen (Medical)