UNIT 1 Prehistoric Britain

1. What were the main characteristics of the First Settlers of Britain and Ireland? In the late ice Age, when Britain was still joined by a land bridge to Europe, bands of hunter nomads roamed what is now southern England. 250.000 y ago, the first known inhabitant lived in the valley where the Kentish town of Swanscombe now stands. His tribe shared the forests with the prehistoric animals, that meant two things to them: meat and danger. There were straight-tusked elephants, gigantic cattle called aurochs, two species of fearsome rhinoceroses, horses and red deer. Armed only with wooden spears, the Swanscombe hunters tracked their prey in the forests of oak, elm and viburnum. After a kill, they skinned and butchered the animal. Swanscombe man probably had a beetling brow and a massive jaw. Only three of his skull bones have survived, but experts believe that he was not very different from men of today, with a very similar brain size. His life was precarious. Disease and hunting accidents must have taken a heavy toll. The bones which have been found belong to someone who died young, probably aged only 20 or 25 y old. The most tantalising question about Swanscombe man is wether he understood the secret of fire.

2. What were the most relevant Neolithic changes? The arrival of the first farmers in Britain and their settlement in the south of England, brought about one of the greatest changes in the history of the island. The farmers brought not only seeds of barley and of wheat, but sheep and cattle. Life was very hard for a Neolithic person, and in many ways, it was a more arduous form of existence. Agriculture helped to increase the population to m any times what it had been in the hunting and gathering era of around 8000 BC. Men

were able to observe the sun, the moon and the stars. They used their knowledge to build stone circles in which the stones were meticulously placed.

3. How did they build Stonehenge? It was built in 4 periods and it is unique, and represents the culmination of a very long tradition of building with large stones.

4. What were the new materials and tools used in the Bronze Age? The Wessex people brought the rich metal resources of Britain under their control, and founded a culture of exceptional wealth and power. Southwards, they were within easy reach of the English Channel and continental trade routes. The Wessex chieftains could exchange the grain, wool and hides produced by their peasant subjects for the precious metals of Ireland, Cornwall, Wales and northern England. They worked the valuable tin, copper and gold ores to create useful tools and beautiful ornaments.

5. What does ritual Landscape mean? They are places that, once upon a time, had been religious, they tend to have standing stones (Stonehenge) , they can also contain small graves, artificial ponds, wooden structures...

6. Enumerate the main features of Celtic Art. La Tne art is considered to be the first definitive Celtic art. Initially, its fantastic imagery often included interpretations of classical and oriental forms. Like Celtic character, Celtic art was energetic, exuberant and explosive, and yet at the same time full of humour. By about 200 BC ,an essentially British style of Celtic art began to appear under Continental influence. Individual schools of artists, working under the patronage of wealthy chieftains, developed their own distinctive styles.

7. Describe the construction of the Hill-Fort defences. Most hill-forts occupied an impressive hilltop spur, fortified against attack from hill or valley. Many went out of use as major centres around 50 bc, for reasons which are not clear. There is no reason to suppose that their main function was defence against attack. The act of enclosure could be a response to a number of needs, both social and ritual, while the massive defence and gates could have been designed to impress rather than to deter, proclaiming the status of the occupants.

8. What were the most important changes in the Iron Age? There was an interaction between the civilised cultures of the Mediterranean sphere (Greeks, Etruscans, Phoenicians, Romans) and the barbarians beyond, played out over a period of some 800 y. The sea allowed adjacent communities to keep in contact with one another, exchanging ideas and gifts, trading in a nu mber of commodities, among them the metals in which the region was so very rich. In Ireland, Iron Age settlements were more elusive, but a number of hilltop enclosures have been found.

9. Why was religion so important in Prehistoric times? It was the hero and big solution against a great enemy, the devil. Churches were seen as places to keep safe. People have become less and less religious throughout the years, but in the old ages, religion was very highly considered, almost everyone was religious once upo n a time.

10 . Who were druids? Knowledge of the Druids comes directly from classical writers of their time. Druids managed the higher legal system and the courts of appeal, and their colleges in Britain were famous throughout the continent. Their knowledge of astronomy may have descended from the priests of megalithic times, together with the spiritual secrets of the landscape.

The president of the order, who was elected, served for life, and enjoyed absolute authority all over the Druids

11 . Describe the main symbolic features of Stonehenge. Stonehenge is the stone circle with highest stones in the whole of Britain! Stonehenge is unique, and represents the culmination of a very long tradition of building with large stone. It is the focal point of the densest concentration of Neolithic and bronze age monuments anywhere in Britain. It has very long history of building and alteration. Excavations have shown that four main periods can be recognised in the building and use of Stonehenge.

12 . Explain the evolution that occurred in Britain from the Neolithic to the Iron Age. The arrival of the first farmers in Britain and their settlement in the south of England, brought about one of the greatest changes in the history of the island. The farmers brought not only seeds of barley and wheat, but sheep and cattle. They introduced new types of stone tools including sickles. With their flint axes, they hacked out cleanings in the woods, which covered most of the country. In good years, enough grain could be grown to last through a lean winter. The tools were primitive. Digging sticks were used for planting and hoeing. Agriculture helped to increase the population. In the Neolithic, man began building huge earthwork enclosures, or henges. These henges acted as religious centres for large areas and were used for over 500 y. Agriculture had reached a stage where men could be spared from the field for long stretches. This had been achieved in a mere 1500 y. It was the most important turning point since the introduction of farming. In the Neolithic period, men were able to observe the sun,

the moon and the stars. They used their knowledge to build stone circles in which the stones were meticulously placed. An increasingly large and complex society soon began to construct its first full-scale monuments. Around them were dug a series of ditches, which in places were bridged by solid causeways. These causewayed camps were certainly not inhabited all the year round. In this period, a definable social structure began to emerge in Britain. Stonehenge: It is unique; it represents the culmination of a very long tradition of building with large stones. It is unknown what religious beliefs Stonehenge represents, or what forms of worship or ceremonies took place within it The Boyne Ritual Landscape in Country Meath, Ireland, is one of the most complex in the British Isles. This place presents one of the best examples of such a group of monuments anywhere in Europe. Bronze Age: The Bronze age in Britain and Ireland covers the period from about 2400 to about 700 BC . Initially, there were strong elements of continuity with Neolithic traditions, with the ongoing use of stone circles and communal burials in chambered tombs. In the Bronze Age, the old ancestral tombs were no longer used, and some of them were blocked. New traditions had arisen, including that of individual elite burials under cairns or barrows. The best-known example from this time is Stonehenge, where the sarsen circle, and later the horseshoe setting inside it, had been set up within the old henge. New materials and Tools The Wessex people brought the rich metal resources of Britain under their control, and founded a culture of exceptional wealth and power. Southwards, they were within easy reach of the English Channel and continental trade routes. The Wessex chieftains could exchange the grain, wool and hides produced by their peasant subjects for the precious metals of Ireland, Cornwall, Wales and northern England.

They worked the valuable tin, copper and gold ores to create useful tools and beautiful ornaments. Fostered by contacts with metal working on the continent, British trade and production in bronze reached its peak in the 8 th century BC. But during the next two centuries, knowledge of an even better metal was beginning to spread to the island: iron. It was abundant, widespread and much more durable than the medals they had been using. As supplies of bronze increased in Britain, so did the technical abilities of the bronze smiths. Bronze Age monuments were certainly spectacular, but they were comparatively few in number. In the late Bronze Age and during the greater part of the Iron Age (the last millennium bc), new types of monuments such as hill-forts appeared and new iron weapons began to emerge. In the Iron age, there was an interaction between the civilised cultures of the Mediterranean sphere (Greeks, Etruscans, Phoenicians and Romans) and the barbarians beyond, played out over a period of some 800 y. It began in the eigth century BC, when the Greeks and Phoenicians were starting to colonise the Mediterranean coasts.

13 . Compare the effects the Celtic settlement had on England and Europe The first written historical reference to the Celts is around 450 BC when the Greek historian Herodotus told of Celtic settlements near the source of the Danube. From this point on, the migration of the Celts is recorded all over Europe. The Celts, a warrior people, spread across much of Europe throughout the 5 th and 4th centuries BC. Many established themselves in well-defended hill-forts in the south and west of England. When the Romans came to Britain in 55 BC, British craftsmen were lavishing their skills on objects used to display wealth a nd status,. These objects were weapons, shields, helmets and horse trapping.

The coming of Christianity brought with it Romanitas the culture of Rome. Native Celtic tradition now fused with these new ideas to create an extremely rich cultural environment. Although Gaelic identity was stimulated by the coming of the Vikings, native Gaelic society and culture was profoundly changed following the Anglo- Norman invasion of the 12 th century.

14 . Write about the major forms and manifestations of Celtic Art in Britain. La Tne art is considered to be the first definitive Celtic Art. Initially, its fantastic imagery often included interpretations of classical and oriental forms, but later, its distinctive styles were more reminiscent of plant forms. La tne culture reached its flowering in the 3 rd century BC. Like Celtic character, Celtic art was energetic, exuberant and explosive,, and yet at the same time full of humour. By about 200 BC, an essentially British style of Celtic art began to appear u nder continental influence

15 . Outline the situation of Britain at the Romans arrival. Before Britain became a province of the Roman Empire, it was split into warring tribes ,but the Romans established law and order among them.

UNIT 2 Roman period and the Great invations

1. Why did the Romans come to Britain? The Romans knew little of Britain. It was reported to be rich and that there was gold and pearl fishing. Its slaves were highly valued, and it exported tin and copper. Apart from that, it was a place of mystery, the centre of the druidic religion which the Romans had encountered in Gaul. But, more practically, it provided a refuge for Caesars enemies

2. What were the main aims of the Northern Frontier? To have a barrier between the barbarians and the Romans

3. Why did the Romans abandon Hadrians Wall? Hadrians fortification served its purpose for 250 years. But its success depended on the constant manning of garrisons with loyal and well- disciplined men. However, in the 4 th century the forces were no longer available. Roman generals fighting for the imperial throne drained away troops. Others were ordered away to fight Goths, Vandals and huns battering on borders much nearer to Rome. In 407, the last effective roman forces left Britain for the Continent. So no final, glorious battle decided the fate of the wall. It was simply abandoned to the wind, rain, wild flowers and the barbarian

4. Which was the most important Viking settlement in Ireland? In 836, the Vikings began to build fortified bases, called longphorts by the Irish, in which they spent the winter so as to be able to make an early start to raiding when the spring arrived. Most of these positions were occupied only briefly, but a few became permanent settlements, which in the tenth century developed into Irelands first true towns. The most successful of these was Dublin, founded in 841, which probably owed its early growth to Viking slave-trading.

5. What were the Romanisation?

most

relevant

features

of

the

The Romans established a system of law and order which gave the island its first taste of national unity, and opened up communications so that trade could flourish. Under Rome, Britain was to enjoy three centuries of unprecedented peace and prosperity. If a province was to be integrated into the empire, the willing cooperation of its people had to be guaranteed through a process of Romanisation.

-In the countryside, the roman need for food led to arrangements with tribes both inside and outside the province for supply of grain. -They found a collection of roads and paths, most connecting local fields and hamlets, but also some longer -distance trade routes. In building their network of roads, the Romans mostly ignored these previous paths, partly because the roman towns and forts were built on new sites away from the Celtic settlements. The minor roads, called, economic roads were also built by the roman army to link economic centres. Every roman road in Britain was linked to London. (all roads leads to Rome). meaning of the phrase: Bread and

6. Describe the circuses.

Generations of Roman emperors believed that the best way to preserve the loyalty of their far -flung subjects was to provide them with panem et circenses, bread and circuses. Even in Britain, one of the most remote territories of the empire was a constant succession of popular entertainments. Most Roman cities had amphitheatres outside the walls. They were used for plays and pantomimes. In the arenas inside the cities, sporting events and real tragedies were played out. Men and animals were torn or hacked to death in gladiatorial clashes which drew cheering, bloodthirsty crowds. Many pots made in Roman Britain show gladiators fighting, and depict tales of their feats.

7. What were the origins of the great migrations and Invasions? The collapse of the Roman province of Brittania created a fragile structure that drew Germanic migrants from across the channel and propelled native people around the British Isles. These waves of land hungry warriors come to Britain first as raiders and then as settlers. This upheaval affected all the British territories but its consequences were felt most strongly in southern and eastern Britain, were Roman culture had been most entrenched. This period of mass migrations across the North and Irish seas initiated the creation of a new political order, social unrest and warfare.

This period of conflict provides the historical context for the heroic efforts of (the probably largely legendary) King Arthur to resist the Anglo-Saxon expansion into western Britain.

8. Why was religion so important in the invasion period? Because the Romans were trying to spread out Christianity over the whole empire, and by the end of Roman Britain, Christianity had a significant number of believers in Britain, while the Saxons remained pagan until the seventh century.

9. When was the zenith of the Vikings assimilation in Britain? The Vikings invasions of Britain reached their peak in 870-1. Then a great trial of strength took place- the year of battles, as the AngloSaxon Chronicle called it. In the thick of the fighting, Ethelred of Wessex died, and was succeeded by Alfred. The Vikings inspired their enemies to unite against them. The Danelaw, where they settled and imposed their legal customs, survived even after the norman conquest. And t oday, place names ending in by (a village) and Thorpe (a hamlet) are a legacy of the Danish settlers. By the mid 870s, the Vikings had shown signs permanently in the ravaged lands of Britain. of settling

10.

Why is the Anglo-Saxons chronicle so important?

Because a new era was opened in British History. These new-comers created the pattern of villages that was to endure to modern times.

11. Outline the situation of Britain at the beginning of the Romans period. Although the Romans rated military glory highly, conquest was not an end in itself. In a few cases, existing British leaders were sufficiently highly regarded to be left in charge of their territories after the

Roman conquest, temporarily, at least. This brought a degree of political rules and wealth among these tribes, which must have been acquired in part through contact with the Roman Empire

12. Explain the function of the roman walls and roads in Britannia. Walls = They were used as protective barriers, each Roman town was surrounded of Walls. Roads: The Romans found a collection of roads and paths, most connecting local fields and hamlets, but also some longer distance trade routes. However, the Roman administration needed a better network of roads to connect its new towns and army posts and to speed the flow of both trade goods and troops. In building their network of roads, the Romans mostly ignored the previous paths, partly because the Roman towns and forts were built on new sites away from the Celtic settlements.

13. Describe the main features of the Romanisation of the British Isles. The Romans established a system of law and order which gave the island its first taste of national unity. Under Rome, Britain was to enjoy 3 centuries of unprecedented peace and prosperity. Roman civilisation was based on racial toleration and it was also firmly based on a society of different classes. There were Roman citizens and slaves. In the countryside, the Roman need for food led to arrangements with tribes both inside and outside the province for the supply of grain. Trade flourished under the protection of the Roman legions, not only within the island, but between Britain and the rest of Europe. The British benefited from a range of opportunities offered by Roman occupation. economic and social

Introduced to Britain in the 3rd century, Christianity flourished under the Romans and inspired its own art, the finest examples of which were found in the Roman villa at Lullingstone in Kent.

14. Discuss the meaning of the great migrations in Britain. The collapse of the Roman province of Britannia created a fragile structure that drew Germanic migrants from across the channel and propelled native people around the British Isles. This period of mass migrations across the North and Irish seas initiated the creation of a new political order, social unrest and warfare. This period of conflict provides the historical context for the heroic efforts of (the probably largely legendary) King Arthur to resist the Anglo-Saxon expansion into western Britain. This long period of conflicts and ethnic tensions redefined a new Britain. It lasted from 600 to 1066. There was new political landscape, consisting of little kingdoms, unlike the roman provincial structure. Celtic and Anglo-Saxon social organisation was not so different, but there were great religious and linguistic differences

15. Compare the impact of the Roman Conquest and the great invasions of Britain. Two striking differences between the scenes in the Roman and AngloSaxon reconstructions are that: a) The town was much more densely occupied in Roman times and b) The building styles are very different.

UNIT 3 The unification of England

1. Explain the main features Unification of England.

of

the

process

of

the

The ancient kingdom of the West Saxons had been transformed into a kingdom of Anglo-Saxons by King Alfred the Great, and during the 10th century, his successors extended their rule over the Danes and the Northumbrians. Ireland, too, seemed to be moving towards greater political unity under the High king Brian Boru. There was a process of political development throughout the ninth and 10th centuries, from the kingdom of the West Saxons to the kingdom of the English. The Vikings conquered the kingdoms of East Anglia, Northumbria and Mercia. The kingdom of the West Saxons had spread eas twards in the central decades of the 9 th century to control Kent, Sussex, Surrey and Essex. Alfreds kingdom of the Anglo-Saxons passed to his son, Edward the elder (899-924), who spread West Saxon control over the Da nes of eastern England and the Mercians. The frontier had been taken up to the river Humber. In 939,on Athelstans death, the Dublin Norse re-established their links with York but it was not until the reign of king Edgar (975) that the unified kingdom of England was completed. After his death, the English were facing a constant external threat and, in the early 11th century, the Danish invaded. One represented the new mobility of the Anglo-Danish power and the older defended the political interests north of the river Thames

2. Describe the main features of the Norman conquest. The Norman conquest of 1066 was an outer ripple of this movement. The battle of Hastings was a traditional watershed in English history, the invading Normans, led by their Duke, William the bastard (later William the Conqueror), vanquished the Anglo-Saxons under Harold Godwineson, who died with an arrow in his eye. William won his throne by force and he defended it by force. Any opposition to his rule was brutally crushed.

Not all England had accepted him as king. His dominion was primarily in the south, covering all the old kingdoms of Wessex, Kent, Sussex and Essex, and stretching some way into Mercia. William knew that final victory was a long way off. London still held out. He must have known that if resistance continued,, his communications with Normandy were vulnerable and his sources of supply uncertain. On Christmas day 1066 he was crowned king of England. In 1068 the Conqueror faced a real challenge, it came from the north. In January, a Norman army was massacred in Durham, a few weeks later, the Normans fled from York, leaving it to be occupied by the rebels. This was the most serious defeat suffered by the Normans in England. Yet such was the English leaders indecision that, at the news of the conquerors approach, the rebellion collapsed.

3. What is the Domesday Book? Its the record of the great national survey ordered by William I in 1085, to discover the true wealth and probable future wealth of England. It was one of the first censuses. Royal officials journeyed throughout the land, recording details of the property owned by everyone from the king downwards. The survey was carried out quickly but with such thoroughness that, according to a chronicler, not even one ox, or one cow or pig escaped notice. When the information had been gathered, returns were submitted for individual hundreds, which were the subdivisions of counties.

4. What were the main purposes of the Magna Carta? It was a document that King John of England was forced into singing. Most of its clauses recounted their specific complaints against the lawless behaviour of King John. The Magna Carta became the basis for English citizens rights. ( it demonstrated that the power of the king could be limited by a written grant.) The main aim of the Magna Carta was to curb the king and make him govern by the old English laws that had prevailed before the Normans

came. The Magna Carta was a collection of 37 English laws, some copied and some recollected some old and some new. Copies of the Magna Carta were distributed to sheriffs and other important people throughout England. The Magna Carta is considered to be the founding document of English liberties and hence American liberties. The influence of Magna Carta can be seen in the United States Constitution and the Bill of Rights. Copies of the Magna Carta were distributed to bishops, sheriffs and other important people throughout England. Magna Carta insisted that the king could not be above the law and that in the future, he must govern his subjects according to its terms and not according to his own whim. The Magna Carta mixed specific complaints with some principles of law, which in future ages were to be regarded as the backbone of English Liberties. All these clauses were largely the work of Stephen Langton. The most important thing about this charter was not what it said, but the fact that it was granted at all. Summary of Magna Carta: 1 The English Church shall be free, and shall have its rights undiminished, and its liberties unimpaired. TO ALL FREE MEN OF OUR KINGDOM we have also granted, for us and for our heirs forever, all the liberties written out below, to have and to keep for them and their heirs, of us and our heirs: 2. If any earl, baron, or other person that holds lands directly of the Crown, for military service, shall die, and at his death his heir shall be of full age and owe a relief . That is to say the heir of heirs of an earl shall pay 100 for the entire earls barony, the heir of heirs of a knight 100s. At the most for the entire knights fee and any man that owes less shall pay less, in accordance with the ancient usage of fees. 3 But if the heir of such a person is under age and a ward, when he comes of age he shall have his inheritance without relief or fine . 4 The guardian of the land of an heir who is under age shall take from it only reasonable revenues, customary dues, and feudal services. He

shall do this without destruction or damage to men or property. If we have given or sold to anyone the guardianship of such land, and he causes destruction or damage, he shall lose the guardian ship of it, and it shall be handed over to two worthy and prudent men of the same fee, who shall be similarly answerable to us. 5 For so long as a guardian has guardianship of suc h land, he shall maintain the houses, parks, fish preserves, ponds, mills, and everything else pertaining to it, from the revenues of the land itself. 6. Heirs may be given in marriage, but not to someone of lower social standing. Before a marriage takes place, it shall be made known to the heirs next-of-kin. 7 At her husbands death, a widow may have her marriage portion and inheritance at once and without trouble. She may remain in her husbands house for 40 d after his death, and within this period her dower shall be assigned to her. 8 No widow shall be compelled to marry, so long as she wishes to remain without a husband. But she must give security that she will not marry without royal consent. 9 Neither we or our officials will seize any land or rent in payment of a debt. If, for lack of means, the debtor is unable to discharge his debt, his sureties shall be answerable for it. If they so desire, they may have the debtors lands and rents until they have received satisfaction for the debt that they paid for him, unless the debtor can show that he has settled his obligations to them. 10 If anyone who has borrowed a sum of money from Jews dies before the debt has been repaid, his heir shall pay no interest on the debt for so long as he remains under age, irrespective of whom he holds his lands. 11 If a man dies owing money to Jews, his wife may have her dower and pay nothing towards the debt from it. 12 No scutage or aid may be levied in our kingdom without its general consent, unless it is for the ransom of our person, to make our eldest son a knight, and (once) to marry our eldest daughter. For these purposes only a reasonable aid may be levied. Aids from the city of London are to be treated similarly.

13 The city of London shall enjoy all its ancient liberties and free customs, both by land and by water. 14 To those who hold lands directly of us we will cause a general summons to be issued, through the sheriffs and other officials, to come together on a fixed day (of which at least 40 d notice shall be given) and at a fixed place. 15 In future we will allow no one to levy an aid from his free men, except to ransom his person, to make his eldest son a knight, and (once) to marry his eldest daughter. For these purposes only a reasonable aid may be levied 16 No man shall be forced to perform more service for a knights fee, or other free holding of land, than is due from it. 17 Ordinary lawsuits shall not follow the royal court around, but shall be held in a fixed place. 18 Certain cases were more appropriately (and conveniently) heard in local courts, provided for in this chapter. The details included in this chapter were intended to assure a just hearing. 19 If any assizes cannot be taken on the day of the county court, as many knights and freeholders shall afterwards remain behind, of those who have attended the court, as will suffice for the administration of justice, having regard to the volume of business to be done. -Efforts would be made to assure a fair hearing, even when the docket was overloaded 20 For a trivial offence, a free man shall be fined only in proportion to the degree of his offence, and for a serious offence correspondingly, but not so heavily as to deprive him of his livelihood. In the same way, a merchant shall be spared his merchandise, and a husbandman the implements of his husbandry, if they fall upon the mercy of a royal court. None of these fines shall be imposed except by the assessment on oath of reputable men of the neighbourhood. 21 Earls and barons shall be fined only by their equals, and in proportion to the gravity of their offence.

20,21 Punishment for violations of the law was to be in proportion to the seriousness of the offense, thus establishing a standard of fairness 22 A fine imposed upon the lay property of a clerk in holy orders shall be assessed upon the same principles, without reference to the value of his ecclesiastical benefice. 23 No town or person shall be forced to build bridges over rivers except those with an ancient obligation to do so. 24 No sheriff, constable, coroners, or other royal officials are to hold lawsuits that should be held by the royal justices. -The goal of this provision was to provide a uniform system of justice, one not subject to local interpretation. 25 Every county, hundred, wapentake, and tithing shall remain at its ancient rent, without increase, except the royal demesne manors. 26 If no debt is due to the Crown, all the movable goods shall be regarded as the property of the dead man, except the reasonable shares of his wife and children. 27 If a free man dies intestate, his movable goods are to be distributed by his next -of-kin and friends, under the supervision of the Church. The rights of his debtors are to be preserved. 28 No constable or other royal official shall take corn or other movable goods from any man without immediate payment, unless the seller voluntarily offers postponement of this. 29 A knight taken or sent on military service shall be excused from castle-guard for the period of this service. 30 No sheriff, royal official or other person shall take horses or carts for transport from any free man, without his consent. 31 Neither we nor any royal official will take wood for our castle, or for any other purpose, without the consent of the owner. 32 We will not keep the lands of people convicted of felony in our hand for longer than a year and a day, after which they shall be returned to the lords of the fees concerned. 33 All fish weirs shall be removed from the Thames, the Medway, and throughout the whole of England, except on the sea coast

34 The writ called precipe shall not in future be issued to anyone in respect of any holding of land, if a free man could thereby be deprived of the right of trial in his own lords court. 35 There shall be standard measures of wine, ale, and corn (the London quarter) 36 In future nothing shall be payed or accepted for the issue of a writ of inquisition of life or limbs. It shall be given gratis, and not refused. -A precursor to the writ of habeas corpus, this chapter required that an inquiry be conducted in any case that might result in the defendant being deprived of life or limb, i.e, subject to punishment. The writ calling for the inquiry was to be issued free of charge. This established one of the essential elements of due process of law37 The king gives up his prior rights to lands of heirs. 38 In future no official shall place a man on trial upon his own unsupported statement, without producing credible witnesses to the truth of it. -Another key element in due process, this chapter required faithful witnesses to attest that a man has committed a crime before he was formally accused and prosecuted. Edward Coke referred to this as the golden passage, indicating the importance he pla ced on this procedure.39 No free man shall be seized or imprisoned, or stripped of his rights or possessions, or outlawed or exiled. -The requirement for a jury of ones peers (or, as the British Library translation puts it, the lawful judgement of the equals) is probably the most famous and certainly one of the most crucial guarantees of due process in the Magna Carta. In the context of the time in which it was written, this provision meant that a person could present his case to members of his own class; it did not, however, mean that a jury ( as we understand that term) would hear the case and render a verdict.40 To no one will we sell, to no one deny or delay right or justice. -The practice, until this clause was adopted, was to charge a fee for certain writs- with cost dependant on the nature of the writ and its potential value. These charges were considered legitimate ways for

the king to raise revenue. However, they had the effect of denying justice to those who could not afford them.41 All merchants may enter or leave England unharmed and without fear, and may stay or travel within it, by land or water, for purposes of trade, free from all illegal exactions, in accordance with ancient and lawful customs. 42 In future it shall be lawful for any man to leave and return to our kingdom unharmed and without fear, preserving his allegiance to us, except in time of war, for some short period, for the common benefit of the realm. 43 If a man holds lands of any escheat, such as the honour of Wallingford, Nottingham, Boulogne, Lancaster, or of other escheats in our hand that are baronies, at his death his heir shall give us only the relief and service that we would have made to the baron, had the barony been in the barons hand. We will hold the es cheat in the same manner as the baron held it. 44 People who live outside the forest need not in future appear before the royal justices of the forest in answer to general summonses, unless they are actually involved in proceedings or are sureties for someone who has been seized for a forest offence 45 We will appoint as justices, constables, sheriffs, or other officials , only men that know the law of the realm and are minded to keep it well. -This sets a standard for those appointed to enforce and administer the law- they must know the law and be prepared to keep it well 46 All barons who have founded abbeys, and have charters of English Kings or ancient tenure as evidence of this, may have guardianship of them when there is no abbot, as in their due. 47 All forests that have been created in our reign shall at once be disafforested. Riverbanks that have been enclosed in our reign shall be treated similarly. 49 We will at once return all hostages and charters delivered up to us by Englishmen as security for peace or for loyal service. 50 We will remove completely from their offices the kinsmen of Gerard de Athe, and in future they shall hold no offices in England.

The people in question are Engelard de Cigogn, Peter, Guy... and his brothers, Philip Marc and his brothers, with Geoffrey his nephew, and all their followers. 51 As soon as peace is restored, we will remove from the kingdom all the foreign knights, bowmen, their attendants, and the mercenaries that have come to it, to its harm, with horses and arms. 52 To any man whom we have deprived or dispossessed of lands, castles, liberties or rights, without the lawful judgement of his equals we will at once restore these. 53 We shall have similar respite in rendering justice in connexion with forests that are to be disafforested, or to remain forests, when these were first a-orested by our father Henry or our brother Richard; with the guardianship of lands in another persons fee, when we have hitherto had this by virtue of a fee held of us for knights service by a third party; and with abbeys founded in another persons fee, in which the lord of the fee claims to own a right. 54 No one shall be arrested or imprisoned on the appeal of a woman for the death of any person except her husband. 55 All fines that have been given to us unjustly and against the law of the land, and all fines that we have exacted unjustly, shall be entirely remitted or the matter decided by a majority judgement of the 25 barons referred to below in the clause for se curing the peace (61) together with Stephen, archbishop of Canterbury, if he can be present, and such others as he wishes to bring with him. -Picking up on the theme of fairness, the chapter called for the repayment of all fines that were imposed unjustly, and it established the procedure by which challenges against unjust fines were to be handled. Worth nothing is the attempt to avoid a conflict of interest: a baron was expected to step aside and allow a substitute to decide a case similar to one in whic h he was himself involved 56 English law shall apply to holdings of land in England, Welsh law to those in Wales, and the law of the Marches to those in the marches. The Welsh shall treat us and ours in the same way.

58 We will at once return the son of L lywelyn, all Welsh hostages, and the charters delivered to us as security foe the peace.

59 With regard to the return of the sisters and hostages of Alexander, king of Scotland, his liberties and his rights, we will treat him in the same way as our other barons of England, unless it appears from the charters that we hold from his father William, formerly king of Scotland, that he could be treated otherwise. 60 All these customs and liberties that we have granted shall be observed in our kingdom in so far as concerns our own relations with our subjects. Let al men of our kingdom, whether clergy or laymen, observe them similarly in their relations with their own men. -Another of Cokes favourites, this chapter enlarged the scope of the Magna Carta, implying that the right and liberties would be extended to all men and by all men within the kingdom 61 SINCE WE HAVE GRANTED ALL THESE THINGS for God, for the better ordering of our kingdom, and to allay the discord that has arisen between us and our barons, and since we desire that they shall be enjoyed in their entirety, with lasting strength, we give and grant to the barons the following security. 63 Both we and the barons have sworn that all this shall be observed in good faith and without deceit; Witness the abovementioned people and many others

5. Why is the summoning of the First English Parliament a turning point in British History? Because it introduced a feudal system, and, ove r the centuries, the English Parliament progressively limited the power of the English monarchy which arguably culminated in the English civil war and the trial and execution of Charles I in 1649

6. How did Scotland win its independence in 1328? William Wallace, a mere boy in his twenties in the town of Paisley, was driven by the conviction that he was Scottish, Edward was English, and Scotland must be free of the king called the hammer of the Scots. Wallace raised an enthusiastic army and he tramped his men into the north and retook the castles that Edward had captured. The Scots were on the march. Their great victory was in September

1297 at Stirling Bridge. This battle demonstrated the military brilliance of Wallace. The English survivors fled and Walla ce became the master of Scotland. In 1305 Wallace was betrayed and carried to London to be charged with treason. He rejected the charge, since he had never given his loyalty to an English king. He was hanged, drawn and quartered all the same.

7. What were main effects of the continual between the Houses of Lancaster and York?

warfare

Each family believed that it had a legitimate claim to the throne. The House of York (1461-1485), had a stronger claim to the throne the House of Lancaster, although both were branches of the house Plantagenet. The Lancastrians met defeat in their turn, and when Edward seated himself upon the throne in Westminster, there were few who regretted the passing of the red rose of Lancaster. Edward was proclaimed the first Yorkist king . The old king, Henry VI remained at large, a wandering fugitive with a small band of attendants.

8. How can the Medieval British Economy be described? The general belief in medieval times was the existence of a sole Church, the Roman Catholic Church with it s sole truth, the catholic creed. Another feature of the middle ages is immobility. The medieval population were highly immobile with regard to both vertical (social) and horizontal (spatial) mobility. Medieval society was mainly agricultural and it had to overcome serious difficulties with obtaining a continuous supply of food and raw materials. The land-cultivating class made up, by far, the largest segment of the population. Vertical immobility was the result of a rigidly hierarchies society.

9. Why was the medieval church so important in the British Isles?

In the middle ages, mans faith in the Christian religion was unshakeable. Therefore, natural phenomena in the skies such as eclipses or comets were often looked upon as divine intervention and greeted with awe and terror. The appearance in 1066 of Halleys Comet, named after the 17 th century astronomer who subsequently charted its orbit, had exactly that effect. It was regarded as a sign that God was about to punish King Harold for breaking an oath which he had broken his word and thus, it was believed, faced divine vengeance. And to many, the outcome of the battle of Hastings, in which Harold was killed and Saxon England fell to William and his Norman invaders, seemed to justify their forebodings of disaster.

10. What were the main social consequences of the Black Death?

and

economic

Life in the middle Ages was a battle for survival for the vast majority of British people. Sickness, disease and death were a constant threat. The average Englishman could exp ect to live only to the age of 38 y in the mid 14th century. Thus, in times of trial and peril, men looked to God and the Church rather than to science for aid and assistance. But, as the terrible plague of the Black Death swept through England in 1348, God seemed to have abandoned the English people. The outbreak of the plague in 1348 seems to have originated in the Yunnan Peninsula of China. Epidemics usually follow commercial trade routes, and the Black Death was no exception. Most particularly, the outbreak of a plague without known cause or cure led many to go on pilgrimages. The English knew the plague was spreading towards them, but their primitive medical science was no barrier to the advance of the most virulent epidemic in western history. Its symptoms inspired terror in mens hearts. Frightene d men asserted that the disease was carried in a great black cloud, or that it was spread by travelling Jews who poisoned the wells. The epidemic had London in its grip by January 1349. Edward III dissolved Parliament, and the court left London in haste f or the countryside, where they supposed there was less risk of infection.

Three successive Archbishops of Canterbury died in the space of 12 months. Londons cemeteries were too small to take the hundreds of dead who arrived every day. Priests could not be found to say Mass in poor parishes. The destruction of one third of Englands population of 3 million, and the laying waste of over 1000 villages, was a disaster unparalleled in modern times. One chronicler explained that no sin of man could be so awful as to deserve such a punishment of God. It is difficult to say to what extent the Black Death affected the Irish population. The foregoing evidence shows that the plague penetrated all regions of the country between 1348 and 1350, through some localities undoubtedly escaped. In 1351 this outbreak of the plague had run its course.

11. Arguments for and against the signing of the Magna Carta. Positive ones: Most of its clauses recounted their specific complaints against the lawless behaviour of King John. The m ain aim of the Magna Carta was to curb the king and make him govern by the old English laws that had prevailed before the Normans came. The Magna Carta is considered to be the founding document of English liberties and hence American liberties. Magna Carta insisted that the king could not be above the law and that in the future, he must govern his subjects according to its terms and not according to his own whim.

12. Present your ideas and impressions about conflict between Church and State.

the

Those at the head of the English church were often wealthy, aristocratic and cosmopolitan ecclesiastics. With such conspicuous wealth among clergy, the potential for conflict between church and state grew, and came to a head with the crisis involving Archbishop Thomas Becket. Henry II expected to have a complaint church after proposing the constitutions of Clarendon (1164). He sought to limit papal power in England. Becket was determined to sustain the church. The outcome of the row in 1164 was the murder of Thomas

Becket in 1170, apparently by royal command, in his cathedral at Canterbury. Norman kings, like their Anglo -Saxon predecessors, worked closely with the church, and the Normans actively supported the reforming popes of the late 11th century. New religious orders were introduced to England to increase the Benedictine houses, the sole monastic order available to Saxon England. The first newcomers were members of the cluniac reform movement, from Burgundy.

13. Discuss the meaning of the English territories.

unification of the

In England, Ireland, Scotland and Wales there was a wide network of chartered trading places such as markets, fairs and boroughs where trade took place at designated times and often on privileged dates. Kings and lords created this wide commercial structure. Their main aim was to stimulate and profit from trade. Commercial confidence was sustained by a moderate rate of inflation and the supply of sound silver coinage maintained by the Scottish and English kings. In both England and Scotland, the money supply grew faster than the population during the 13th century, and in the same century a monetised economy was introduced to the English lordship or Ireland

14. Why were the English lords so powerful in Medieval England? Main reasons. Feudal lords owned plots of land laboured by their serfs. The regular clery was a social group composed by clerks following a rule and forming a property-owning corporation such a monastic society or a military order.

15.

Discuss the importance of the feudal system.

The medieval population were highly immobile with regard to both vertical (social) and horizontal (spatial) mobility. Medieval society was mainly agricultural and it had to overcome serious difficulties with obtaining a continuous supply of food and raw materials. The

land-cultivating class made up, by far , the largest segment of the population. The king or the emperor and the Pope stood at the apex of medieval society. All three claimed to derive their authority from heaven. Under these we find the aristocracy and the upper church hierarchy. These were usually land-owning classes with great prerogatives. Both of them were closed classes. The lesser nobility (knights and feudal lords) and the regular clergy constituted the next step in the pyramid. Knights were men of free birth following a non-servile service to an aristocrat.

UNIT 4: The Tudor age

1. Why was the Tudor dynasty so important in England? The arrival of the Tudors heralded a new age. With Henry VII came increasing peace, power and enlightenment. This was the age of the great voyages of exploration. Mercator would complete his first map of the world, and on the high seas, England and Spain would become the great rivals for supremacy. In 1485, when the Tudor dynasty came to power, England was divided and bankrupt after thirty years of civil war. The country counted for little on the continent, whether in diplomacy, commerce or war. In just over a century, the brilliant Tudors steered the country in a new direction to revitalise their kingdom and make it the envy of the world. The Tudor name brought with it an aura of daring and excitement, although the nobility had not supported its cause

2. Who supported Marys claim to the throne of England? The Scots.

3. What was the role of Parliament in English Politics?

In Tudor times most important decisions concerning government were made by the king or queen and a small group of advisers called the Privy Council. However, before these decisions became law, they had to be passed by Parliament. Parliament was the House of Lords and the House of Commons. The House of Lords was made up of about sixty Bishops, Dukes, Earls and Barons. It was unusual for members of the House of Lords to criticise the king's policies. If they did so, they were in danger of being stripped of their titles. Members of the House of Commons were more independent as they were sometimes elected by the people who lived in the area they represented. However, very few people had the vote and in many cases the largest landowner in the area decided who went to Parliament.

4. Why did Henry VIII break with the Catholic Church? Because in order to divorce from his wife, he had to break away from the Catholic church, since the pope didnt agree with divorce

5. What was the Reformation? It was a religious movement which led to the birth of the protestant faith. It was started by a catholic monk who did not believe that you could just buy your way into heaven. In 1517, he protested against the catholic practice of granting indulgences. An indulgence was a pardon instead of punish ment for a sin. To gain an indulgence, a person had to perform a good deed. This was often giving money to the church, so it looked as if the church was selling pardons. Luther (this monk) protested that this was wrong. He believed that man could only be saved by the grace of god. The new Christians called themselves Protestants because they were protesting against the Roman Catholic (meaning universal) Church, its practices, its teachings and its customs. Their demand for reform led to this period of history being called the Reformation. Church services changed back to Latin. While Marys strong Catholic faith gave her a great sense of purpose,, it also made her obstinate and narrow minded.

The reformation was not an immediate success . It took about a century to work through society. Outlying areas of the British Isles, including much of Ireland and small communities, never experienced the reformation. In 1536, the parliament passed the Act of became known as the Suppression, which

Dissolution of the Monasteries, and Henry ordered the closing down of the wealthy Roman catholic Abbeys, monasteries and convents across Engl, Wales and Ireland. In 1539 the 2nd act of Suppression was passed to sanction the transfer of further monastic possessions to the state. Henry VIII took ownership of all the buildings, land, money, and everything else. Some of the small monasteries stayed open because they paid some money to the king. Some of the monastic buildings and lands were sold off after the dissolution. Many of the greatest monasteries fell into ruin, and their stone-work was plundered by local people in search of building materials. Wales also suffered the religious upheaval of the reformation. At first, the reformation merely substituted one barely int elligible language, Latin, with another, English.

6. How did the British Reformation influence national and international politics? In 1534, Henry responded to the Pope with the act of supremacy, thereby putting himself in charge of all the churches and monasteries in England. Henry needed to reduce the power of the church in England, as well as find money to fund his fruitless and expensive wars against France and Scotland. In 1536, the parliament passed the act of suppression, which became known as the Dissolution of the monasteries, and Henry ordered the closing down of the wealthy Roman Catholic Abbeys, monasteries and convents across England, Wales and Ireland. In 1539, the 2nd act of suppression was passed to sanction the transfer of further monastic possessions to the state. Henry VII took

ownership of all the buildings, land, money and everything else. Some of the small monasteries stayed open because they payed some money to the king. Some of the monastic buildings and lands were sold off after t he dissolution. Many of the greatest monasteries fell into ruin, and their stonework was plundered by local people in search of building materials.

7. Which were the main repercussions of the Counterreformation in Britain? The reformation started ideologically by Martin Luther. England got involved because Henry VIII wanted independence from the Vatican so he could get divorced and remarried. The Counter Reformation is the reaction of the Vatican and the Catholics against the protestant movement. It was there for basically a reactionary movement - trying to counteract the Reformation There were groups who supported these two movements, wherever they were. After all this, Germany, Eng. And Switzerland became independent countries. In France, Spain.. the ones who won the day were the Catholics. Much could not be restored,, for e.g, the monastic houses had largely been demolished or converted to other uses, and their communities scattered. Mary was able to re-establish a Benedictine monastery at Westminster and small religious houses elsewhere. In the parishes,, churchwardens accounts graphically show how church furnishings were restored, altars re-erected, statuary replaced, bells re-hung and the old service books returned. A married priest, John Rogers, was the first to pay with his life for his loyalty to the protestant faith. He was burnt at Smithfield in London. The next was John Hooper, Bishop of Gloucester and Worcester. He was burnt at outside Gloucester Cathedral. Early in the winter of 1558, Mary Tudor finally despaired of ever bearing a child and reluctantly recognised her sister, Elisabeth, as heir to the throne of Engl. A few days later, on the 17th of 11, Mary

was dead and Elisabeth proclaimed queen. It was the end of the Counter Reformation in Britain.

8. What was the significance of the Act of union of 1536? Between 1536 and 1543, the English parliament passed a series of laws that became known as the Acts of Union during the reign of Henry VIII. It was not a question of uniting two countries together as Wales had already been effectively incorporated into England since the days of the Statute of Rhuddlan in 1284, fact which the preamble to the act of 1536 makes clear, stating (on behalf of the king) that Wales is and ever has been incorporated, united and annexed to and with his Realm of England, somewhat of an exaggeration, but in essence the simple truth

9. What were the main reasons for British expansion overseas at the end of the sixteenth century? Had just been discovered at the end of the 15th century, and after that, the major powers (Spain, Portugal.. got into colonising) Eng. And France tried to aswell. Eng. Colonised a good chunk of north A.

10. How did Britain become a world power in this period? The basis of the wealth was mostly exploiting the colonies, mostly trading with the A. colonies

11. Describe monarchs.

the

main

achievements

of

the Tudor

The 5 Tudor monarchs were rulers of extraordinary ability, and much also to their continuing good luck. Their abilities showed themselves in their astute choice of servants and policies; their luck in the fact that they lived to an advanced age and left obvious heirs to succeed them.

Propaganda was the key to Henrys success. In order to be strong, the Tudors had to appear strong. Magnificent displays of wealth and power were more than a way of life. So long as Englishmen thought that their king could defeat any rebellion, they were unlikely to join one. Tudor government and court The Tudor name brought with it an aura of daring and excitement, although the nobility had not supported its cause. Henry strengthened his claim on the throne by marring Elisabeth of York, the eldest daughter of Edward IV, thereby uniting the houses of York and Lancaster under the new dynasty. Henry VII and later his son Henry VIII concentrated the residences they governed from in the south -east and were unwilling to travel their kingdom as much as their predecessors had done. Henry VII re-established the equilibrium of the English monarchy and its finances. Henry VIII is probably the best known king of Eng. And may even be the most notorious. Certainly his reign saw some of the most developments in Eng since the time of Edward I. Henry was the first to inherit a comparatively U.K. He obeyed his fathers that he marry his elder brothers widow, Katherine of Aragon, in order to continue the alliance with Spain. In 1516, Thomas Moores utopia was published. It was part of the European debate. However, it contained plenty of criticism of the Henry VIIIs government he knew. Henry wanted to be the centre of the European stage. When the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I, died in 1519, Henry stood as a candidate to succeed him, having earlier been encouraged by Maximilian himself, who regarded him as a good prospect, When Pope Leo X died in 1521, Henry strove to have an Engl. Pope, nominating Thomas Wolsey, but without success. This period was one of change in Eur. Henrys second wife was Anne Boleyn, who gave birth to a girl, the future Elisabeth I. In 1536, she was arrested, tried and found guilty

of treason and executed. Soon after that, Henry married Jane Seymour, who gave birth to the future Edward VI. Elisabeth went on to reign for nearly 45 y, longer than any king since Edward III. She personified her country at the summit of its fame. An important topic to be considered during Elizabeths reign was the revolution in Ireland. There were a number of revolts against English monarchy during Elizabeths reign. There had been other rebellions during her reign, such as that of Shane ONeil in Ulster during the 1560s the Fitzmaurice rising of 1569-1573 and the desmond rebellion of 1579-1583. The Parliament: The creation of Parliament is one of the greatest gifts that Britain has given to the world. It was under Henry III that, for the first time, on a March morning in 1265, a historic assembly gathered together in the dim light of Westminster Hall. At the first Engl. Parliament, Henry swore to mend his ways and reform his government. This achievement was the work of one man, Simon de Montfort. The English parliament consisted of 2 chambers, the House of Lords, who were the nobility, and the House of Commons, elected representatives from the different shires and the main towns (the parliamentary borough). Until the protestant reformation, the different Houses of Lords included the abbots of the leading monasteries. In Engl, bishops continued to sit in the Lords after the reformation, but in Scotland they were excluded after 1638. At first, the strong Tudor monarchs, successors to York and Lancaster, controlled generally docile Parliaments. The 1601 Parliament is a good example of a Parliament called for one purpose which diverted its attention to others, including attacks on monopolies and a codification of the Poor Law, which remained on the statute book until 1834.

12. Present the situation of England at the end of the th 16 century With the birth of his son, Arthur, in 1486, Henry VII wanted to make a strong alliance with the rulers of Aragon and Castile, Ferdinand and Isabella, whose court was one of the richest in Eur. Their daughter, Catherine, was born just before Arthur. They were eventually married in 1499. The link with Spain became even more important followin g Columbususs discovery of a route to the Indies (1492) The end of the century saw Engl. At the height of her power. There were some great physicists and speculative thinkers who emerged in Elizabethans y, including sr. Francis Bacon, who was one of th e most influential. With the end of the middle Ages, Henrys reign is seen as the start of Eng. Glory and the birth of a modern Engl.

13. Compare the effects England and Europe.

the

Reformation

had

on

Reformation is the religious revolution that took place in Western Europe in the 16th century. It arose from objections to doctrines and practices in the medieval church, loss of papal authority and credibility as well as other societal, political and economical issues of the time. This revolution had a major impact on Europe and it gave way to short term and long-term consequences, which still can be seen today. There were many causes of Reformation, some go as far back as the fourteenth century. One of the main ones was that the papal authority and credibility were damaged. This was done through, Avignon papacy; - a time where the headquarters of the Holy See had to be moved from Rome to Avignon, it brought uncertainty to the people, as they did not trust the Pope, and believed the Pope favoured the French. Following this, the Great Western Schism also contributed to the loss of papal authority as it split Christian Europe into hostile camps, because three different men were claiming to be the true Pope, each having some support from different kings and princes of Europe. Finally, the corruption of the Renaissance papacy, such as that of Alexander VI (who did not keep the celibacy vow) resulted in loss of papal credibility. As the Holy See was not as powerful anymore, it was suffering from attacks on the papacy. Many felt that the Pope and his Bishops had developed into an abusive feudal monarchy. They were not happy that the Church was concentrating on making profits and not on the

spiritual well being of people. Early reformation movements such as the Lollards and the Hussites that were founded by John Wycliffe and John Huss respectively were suppressed for their attacks on the papacy. People also resented the Church, because of practices such the indulgences when individuals paid to church for forgiveness of their sins. The society was aware that the higher clergy was interested in political power, material possessions, and privileged position in...

14. What were the major forms of English resistance to Spanish power? Throughout her reign (Elisabeth), England had been fighting an unofficial conflict with Spain. Philip II of Spain was enfuriated by Englands piracy of Spanish ships from the new world. Spain and Portugal dominated the seas, and in 1580 Philip became king of Portugal s well as Spain, thus increasing his maritime and merchant strength. Philips relationship with England continued to sour and the culmination of all this was one of the most famous confrontations of all time, when the Spanish sent their Armada against England in July 1588. This Armada was doomed by the weather even more than by the superiority of English seamanship and the better design of the English ships, which allowed them to hug the water and dart through the waves. Conflict with Spain dragged on for another 15 y.

15. Explain the situation of England at the beginning and at the end of the Tudor Age. The arrival of the Tudors heralded a new age. With Henry VII came increasing peace, power and enlightenment. This was the age of the great voyages of exploration. In 1485, when Tudor dynasty came to power, Eng. Was divided and bankrupt after 30 y of civil warLife in Tudor England was governed by a rigid social system, which was held to follow Gods divine laws.

Pain for the poor and benefits for gentry were to be significant characteristics of the next century of English history. In Tudor England a third of the population lived in poverty. Their suffering always increased after bad harvests. In the 16th century, unemployment was a major cause of poverty. It has been estimated that in 1570 about 10% of the population were still wandering around the country looking for work.

UNIT 5, CIVIL WAR

1. Explain the Stuarts belief in their Divine Right to rule? The first Stuart, James I, boasted that he was an old and experienced king. However, he and his son, Charles I, both found that their subjects meant to instruct them. These kings believed in their Divine Right to rule as they chose. Their subjects, however, had followed a different path, as previous monarchs had consulted their people in Parliament

2. Why was Charles I in conflict with Parliament? Charles was arrogant, conceited and a strong believer in the divine rights of kings. He had witnessed the damaged relationship between his father and Parliament, and considered that Parliament was entirely at fault. He found it difficult to believe that a King could be wrong. His arrogant attitude was eventually to lead to his execution. From 1625 to 1629, Charles argued with Parliament over most issues, but money and religion were the most common causes of arguments.

3. How did the English civil Wars break out? The English civil wars were due to different causes but the personality of Charles I must be counted as one of the major reasons. Few people could have predicted a civil war that started in 1642, would have ended with the public execution of Charles. No king had ever

been executed in England, and the execution of Charles was not greeted with joy. The wars were due to both long and short term causes. An important long term cause was the fact that the status of the monarchy had started to decline under the reign of James I. James was a firm believer in the Divine Right of Kings. This was the belief that god had made someone a king and God could not be wrong. James expected Parliament to do as he wanted; he did not expect it to argue with any of his decisions

4. Who supported the king and the Parliament in the civil Wars? King: Aristocracy, the landowners, the Anglican church, Catholics.. On the side of the Parliament were the new commercial classes, the navy, the Puritans; the south, the midlands, and London . Rich-King Poor- Parliament Similar enough to the Spanish civil wars

5. What did the civil wars and the Interregnum achieve? The English Interregnum was the period of parliamentary and military rule by the Lord Protector Oliver Cromwell under the Commonwealth of England after the English Civil War. It began with the overthrow, and execution, of Charles I in January 1649,[1] and ended with the restoration of Charles II on May 29, 1660.

6. In what ways did popular politics and religion come to prominence during the Stuart Age? Charles I dissolved his first Parliament in 1626 because they had demanded limits on his rights t o levy customs duties, a second in 1629 after protests over taxation, the war with Spain, and the attempts to allow toleration for Catholics. From 1629 until 1640,, Charles ruled without Parliament, a policy that worked as long as Charles did not need large amounts of money, which only Parliament could grant him.

The inevitable crisis was caused by Charles0s attempts to impose the English liturgy in Scotland. Defeat in the first and second bishop s wars, forced Charles to call first the short parliament

7. What was the glorious revolution? The expression Glorious Revolution was first used by John Hampden in 1689, and it is an expression that is still used by the Westminster Parliament. It was also called the Revolution of 1688, and occasionally the Bloodless Revolution. This crit ical event is better described as the invasion it undoubtedly was, rather than a revolution. Parliament placed constitutionally significant legal and practical limitations on the monarchy establishing the foundation of Englands constitutional monarchy.

8. How did the glorious revolution development of Great Britain?

affect

the

The new constitution created the expectation that future monarchs would also remain constrained by Parliament. The new balance of power between Parliament and crown made the promises of English government more credible, and credibility allowed the government to reorganize its finances through a collection of changes called the Financial Rev.

9. Enumerate the main civil and political rights included in the Bill of Rights. It is an act of the Parliament of Eng, whose title is An Act Declaring the Rights and Liberties of the subjects and settling the succession of the Crown. It promoted religious toleration and the Triennial Act, 1694, which prevented the king from dissolving Parliament at will and placed a legal requirement that general elections had to be held every 3 y. It was a second Magna Carta, setting out the personal and political rights of all Englishmen.

10. Why was the 1707 Act of Union of England and Scotland so relevant? Because it led to the creation of the U.K of Great Britain. The Parliament of the U.K met for the 1rst time in Oct, 1707. Suspicion and mistrust between the 2 countries had prevented the union throughout the 17 th century. The Scots feared that they would simply become another region of England, being swallowed up as had happened to Wales some 400 y earlier. For England, the fear that the Scots may take sides with France and rekindle the Auld Alliance was decisive.

11. Describe the situation of Britain on the Stuarts accession The accession of James VI of Scotland as James I of England united the countries of England and Scotland under one monarch for the first time. James believed in the Divine Right of Kings - that he was answerable to God alone and could not be tried by any court. He forbade any interpretation of church doctrine different to his own and made Sunday Church-going compulsory. Catholics were not allowed to celebrate Mass and he refused to listen to Puritan demands for church reform, instead authorising use of the King James Bible that is still in existence today. James I also introduced English and Irish Protestants into Northern Ireland through the Ulster Plantation scheme and tried to keep England at peace with the rest of Europe. Although he was a clever man, his choice of favourites alienated Parliament and he was not able to solve the country's finan cial or political problems. When he died in 1625 the country was badly in debt.

12. Describe the main causes that restoration of the Stuart monarchy.

provoked

the

The Restoration Settlement led to Charles Stuart being proclaimed King Charles II of England, Wales, Scotland and Ireland on May 8 th, 1660. The new king landed at Dover on May 26th. For eleven years, there had been no monarchy but the Restoration Settlement brought back from exile the son of the beheaded Charles I. The arrival of

Charles in Dover was well received by the locals in the port and their jubilation was shared throughout the country. Many were happy that the old order had been reinstalled as they saw the monarchy as the normal state of affairs within the country. This may well have been a reaction to the years when Oliver Cromwell controlled the country an era of austerity which many saw as unnatural. There was a desire to forget about the dislocation of the previous twenty years. One of the first acts of the new government was to introduce an Act of Indemnity and Pardon. This act forgave and pardoned people for past actions (though it was eventually to exclude those classed as regicides) and it allowed the new monarch a fresh start. Great things were expected from Charles II. However, the Restoration Settlement was a complicated affair spread between 1660 and 1664. The term Restoration Settlement seems to give an air of structure to the settlement but, in fact, it was very much an ad hoc affair with little planning involved.

13. Explain the significance of the glorious revolution in British history. It was also called the Revolution of 1688, and occasionally the Bloodless Revolution. This critical event of 1688 is better described as the invasion it undoubtedly was, rather than a revolution. Parliament placed constitutionally significant legal and practical limitations on the monarchy establishing the foundation of Englands constitutional monarchy. In February 1689 William and Mary were proclaimed king and queen of England. The new co-monarchy of King William III and Queen Mary II accepted more constraints from Parliament than previous monarchs had; and the new constitution created the expectation that future monarchs would also remain constrained by Parliament. The new balance of power between parliament and crown made the promises of the English government more credible, and credibility allowed the government to reorganise its finances through a collection of changes called the Financial Revolution.

14. Compare the role that religion played in the Stuart and Tudor ages. In the 16th century, there was a big change in the way some Christians worshipped God. Up until the 16th century most people were Roman Catholic and the Pope in Rome was the head of church. In 1517, a German monk called Martin Luther led a breakaway from the Roman Catholic Church. The new Christians called themselves Protestants because they were protesting against the Roman 'Catholic' (meaning 'universal') Church, its teachings and its customs. Their demand for reform led to this period of history being called the Reformation. Tudor Britain People in Tudor times were very religious and were prepared to die for their beliefs. It must have been very hard for them during the 118 years the Tudor kings and Queens ruled because they were often forced to change their religion depending on the religion of the reigning monarch. There were major changes in the church during the reign of the Tudor king and queens. England started as a Catholic country and ended up being a Protestant one under the Tudors.

15. Express your opinion about the Stuarts and their policies in Britain.

UNIT 6, Politics, Society, Economy and culture in the 18th century

1. What drove English, Scots, Irish and Welsh men and women to travel across the Atlantic? For trade reasons, religion... Among the causes that made great Brit. Become a great empire were trade, which made money for British companies, politics, religion, ambition and adventure

2. Why did the puritans go to America and settle there? Because they were escaping from religious per secution in their homeland, so that they could build new settlements, practice their religion as they wanted, and found a colony based on their own religious ideals

3. What were the main colonizing impulse?

reasons

that

intensified

the

In colonial America, land was plentiful and labour was scarce. From the beginning, slavery was the basis of the British Empire in the West Indies. Until the abolition of the slave trade, in 1807, Britain was responsible for the transportation of a third of all the slaves that w ere imported.

4. What was the primary motivation for emigration in the New England colonies? The permanent English settlement was established in 1607 in Jamestown, Virginia, led by J. Smith and managed by the Virginia Company. This set the pattern for English colonisation. Engl. Started a second round of colonising attempts using joint -stock companies to establish settlement. When King James I granted the first charter, a council was formed in England, which issued instructions to the first settlers to appoint a colonial council, but as it proved to be ineffective, a governor, John Delaware was appointed. The colony survived and started to ship tobacco to Engl. In This was its main export. 1614.

In 1620, the Mayflower landed in America, bringing Puritan separatists who were escaping from religious persecution in their homeland, so they could build new settlements. These puritans later became known as the Pilgrim Fathers.

5. Why did so many Pennsylvania?

people

pour

in

the

colony

of

It was a good refuge for English Quakers

6. Why were the Scottish Highlanders repressed after the Jacobite rebellions? As a consequence of their support for the Jacobites, the British treated the Scots cruelly. Many highlanders were killed or sent to America and a law was passed that prohibited most of their traditions, such as wearing the kilt or playing the bagpipes

7. Who is regarded as the first British politician to have held the office of Prime Minister and how long did he stay in power? From 1714 to 1784, the Whigs were pre-eminent for 56 y. Rob. Walpole, a Whig son of Norfolk landowners who developed the idea of the cabinet, that is to say, a group of ministers who met without the king and took the actual control of administration from the Crown. Walpole made sure that the powers of the king would always be limited by the Constitution. Walpole was in power for over 20y. Under Walpole, coal was mined extensively and cloth-making was a national industry

8. Why is the precise?

term

Agricultural

Revolution

not

really

It was a gradual process rather than a single event. Enclosures implied more effectively managed and cultiv ated land.

9. Why did the Methodists appeal to the working class? Methodism was a religious movement which met the needs of the growing industrial working class. This movement encouraged people to experience Christ personally.

Methodism was identified the religious life of the lower and middle classes. Wesleys talent for organising as well as inspiring the poor made him an outstanding figure of great interest. He wanted to conquer sin, not social deprivation. The poor were suitable cases for treatment because they lacked the diversity of opportunity for sin, which was available to the rich. There is an argument that Methodism was indirectly responsible for a growth in the self-confidence and capacity for organisation of working people.

10. Which were the 4 main classes of people who lived in eighteenth century towns? Unskilled workers, skilled craftsman, ordinary traders and merchants wealthy merchants, and

11. Write about the Methodist movement.

social

repercussions

of

the

The transmission to working-class societies of forms of organisation was peculiar to the Methodist connection. Methodism demanded a transformation of human nature. Methodism provided the impetus for that change. As a religion of the heart, Methodism could appeal to the simplest and least educated , so opening its doors to become the religion of the poor.. Methodism as a faith for the working classes was ideally suited to the needs of middle-class utilitarianism. The Methodist was taught to bear his cross of poverty and humiliation; the cross was the pattern of his obedience. Work was the cross, from which the transformed industrial worker hung. Since salvation was never assured and temptations lurked on every side, the was a constant inner goading to sober and industrious behaviour, the outward sign of grace. Eternal damnation might be the consequence of indiscipline at work, and God was the most vigilant overseer of all. The utility of Methodism as a work-discipline is obvious, but Methodism successfully performed a dual role as the religion of both the exploiters and the exploited because of indoctrination: the Methodists

inherited from Welsey the conviction that children were sinful, and that their sinfulness had to be broken.

12. Reflect on the main consequences Agricultural change and write them down.

of

the

It refers to a series of circumstances that produced an improvement in agriculture, a sustained improvement in crops, agricultural methods and output, that took place in the U.K during the 18 th and 19th centuries. During the 18th century there was a fast growth in population in Britain and Ireland. This population had to be fed which led to improvements in the techniques and a change in the organisation of farming and crops. This change of crops and better methods of farming led to a higher productivity enabling the population to be fed, and produced a shift of exces labour to the towns to work in the new industries. One of the processes that led to this change was the enclosure of the medieval common fields. This process had started in the 16th century and became common in the 1740s. It was a mutually agreed arrangement between landowners and tenants, by which lands were enclosed, parcelled and divided up.

13. Discuss the implications of the loss of the American Colonies. The loss of the 13 colonies in North America in 1783 after the war of independence deprived Britain from its most populous colonies and marked the end of the 1rst British Empire. Despite this setback,. British rule continued in the Caribbean and in upper and lower Canada. Following the defeat of Napoleonic France in 1815, Britain enjoyed a century of dominance, and expanded its imperial holdings across the world. The loss of the American colonies is considered as the event defining the transition between the first and second empires.

14.

Describe the role women in XVIII century society.

During the eighteenth century, married womens lives revolved to a large extent around managing the household, a role which in many cases included partnership in running farms o r home businesses. The defiance of English rule and the onset of the war disrupted the usual patterns of life in many ways including impacting how women responded to events surrounding them. While the essential role of most women continued to be managing all aspects of their households, doing so took on political overtones: the commitment of the women was critical to maintaining the tea boycott and the decision to boycott British goods caused home manufacturing to become both a statement of defiance and a n ecessity. Even those women whose social standing afforded increased leisure took up spinning and other activities to replace imported goods. In the early days leading up to Lexington and Concord, they prepared food for militia musters and made cartridges. War, when it came, touched everyone: resources were scarce leading to high inflation; invading troops destroyed farms and homes; and the absence of husbands and fathers left some in danger of starvation. Some women were able to continue to manage homes, farms and shops but others were unable to survive on their own and forced to abandon their homes and follow their husbands with the army. Women who travelled with the army were known as campfollowers and did so for many reasons: inability to provide for themselves at home; fear of attack; eviction by troops; desire to be with husbands; the attraction of a paying job and rations (even if their pay and rations were minimal), or in some cases as sutlers selling to the army. Well over 20,000 women followed one army or another and transformed camps into small towns. In some ways, women were an important element because they carried out tasks such as laundering and nursing (both of which were paid) which men were unwilling to do and without which the army would have been even more seriously depleted by disease. In addition, women performed duties as cooks, food foragers, spies and water carriers (all unpaid). However, the number of women generally exceeded that which would have been required and often represented a nuisance to commanding officers: women and accompanying children used scarce rations and slowed the movement of the army. Nevertheless, they were tolerated because they performed important jobs for the welfare of the armies and for fear that the men would desert if their families were sent home.

15. Write system.

the

main

implications

of

the

enclosure

The enclosure movement restricted the ownership of public far mlands specifically to the wealthy landowners. As a result of this movement, there was an exodus of unemployed farm workers from the country into the cities, adding to the strength of Britains work force.

UNIT 7, The nineteenth century

1. Why did the government change the political system in 1832? Because the first Reform Bill expanded right to vote and restructured representation in Parliament

2. Were men and women equal in Victorian Britain? No they werent, since only men could vote in elections.

3. Did the Factory Acts solve the problems of children in factories? Not really

4. Why was the education act of 1870 considered very important? It set the framework for schooling of all children between ages 5 and 12 in England and Wales. It was drafted by William Forster, a Liberal MP, and it was introduced on 17 February 1870 after campaigning by the National Education League, although not entirely to their requirements.

5. What was the main consequence of the Act of Union of 1800 for Ireland? The act of union abolished the parliament in Dublin, providing instead for Ireland to be represented at Westminster by 4 bishops and 28

peers in the house of Lords, and by 100 elected members in the house of commons. However, the result pleased no one and Dublin declined in glamour and prosperity as estates in Ireland were neglected and fell into decay due to abs entee landlords. The Catholics had the most to resent at the way things turned out. The ruling protestant minority was naturally opposed to the abolition of the Dublin Parliament.

6. Why was the 1867 Reform Act so relevant? It reduced the property qualification to the point where the urban working class became eligible to vote. With this act, the right to vote was given to every male adult householder living in the towns. Male lodgers paying 10 p were also granted to vote. In all, the act gave the vote to about 1.500.000 men. In effect, it enfranchised the working classes in the towns.

7. What was Chartism? It was a political organisation founded in 1838. It evolved into Britains first national working-class movement.

8. What was Queen realignment?

Victorias

role

in

the

political

Victorias role after the realignment was one of mediation between departing and arriving prime ministers who were chosen by the party in control of the House of Commons.

9. What were the dimensions of the British Empire during the Victorian Era? During the reign of Victoria, the empire doubled in size, encompassing Canada, Australia, India and various places in Africa and the South Pacific. Her reign was almost free of war, with an Irish uprising (1848), the Boer Wars in South Africa (1881, 1899-1902) and Indian rebellion (1857) being the only exceptions.

By 1870, Britain was the most industrialised and most powerful country in the world. It possessed the worlds largest Empire protected by a very formidable navy. Imperialism was popular, and during this period Britain added to her colonial possessions. The 19th century was marked by the full expansion of the British empire. Victoria was named empress of India in 1878. By 1870, Britain was the most industrialized and the most powerful country in the world. It possessed the world s largest empire protected by a very formidable navy. (New Zealand, India, South Africa, Canada, Australia, Malaysia, Egypt, Nigeria and Rhodesia, and covered one sixth of the Earths land surface.

10.

How did the Treaty of Amiens affect Britain?

The loss of Britains 13 American colonies in 1776 -1783 was compensated by new settlements in Australia from 1788, by the spectacular growth of Upper Canada (now Ontario) after the emigration of loyalists from what had become the United States. The Napoleonic Wars provided further additions to the empire; the Treaty of Amiens (1802) made Trinidad and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) officially British, and in the Treaty of Paris (1814) France ceded Tobago, Mauritius, Saint Lucia, and Malta.

11. Research the main social reforms that took place in the Victorian Era and write in depth about one of them. Queen Victoria succeeded her uncle William IV in 1837. She became queen when she was 18 y old. Victorias long reign witnessed an evolution in English politics and the expansion of the British Empire, as well as political and social reforms on the continent. Even in her dotage, she maintained a youthful energy and optimism that infected the English population as a whole. Victorias was the longest reign in English history and her reign has been considered as one of the defining periods of British history. When she died of old age, an entire era died with her.

During the Victorian period, Britain had a leading role as the first industrial nation and the pioneer railway transport. It was also an imperial leadership, reflected by the importance of India as the most significant colony of the century. Queen Victoria refused any further influence from her domineering mother and ruled in her own stead.

12.

Summarize the main consequences of the Industrial

Revolution. The Industrial Revolution was a period from the 18th to the 19th century where major changes in agriculture, manufacturing, mining, transportation, and technology had a profound effect on the socioeconomic and cultural conditions of the times. It began in the United Kingdom, then subsequently spread throughout Europe, North America, and eventually the world. The Industrial Revolution marks a major turning point in human history; almost every aspect of daily life was influenced in some way. Most notably, average income and population began to exhibit unprecedented sustained growth. In the two centuries following 1800, the world's average per capita income increased over 10 -fold, while the world's population increased over 6-fold.[2] In the words of Nobel Prize winning Robert E. Lucas, Jr., "For the first time in history, the living standards of the masses of ordinary people have begun to undergo sustained growth. ... Nothing remotely like this economic behaviour has happened before." [3] Starting in the later part of the 18th century, there began a transition in parts of Great Britain's previously manual labour and draft-animal based economy towards machine-based manufacturing. It started with coal. the mechanisation of
[4]

the textile industries, and was the increased by

[5]

the development use the of refined introduction

of iron-making techniques Trade expansion

enabled

of canals, improved roads and railways.

The introduction of steam power fuelled primarily by coal, wider utilisation of water wheels and powered machinery (mainly in textile manufacturing) underpinned the dramatic increases in production capacity. [5] The development of all-metal machine tools in the first

two decades of the 19th century facilitated the manufacture of more production machines for manufacturing in other industries.

13. the

Choose one city or town in England and research social conditions there during the Industrial

Revolution. In the early 18th century, British textile manufacture was based on wool which was processed by individual artisans, doing the spinning and weaving on their own premises. This system is called a cottage industry. Flax and cotton were also used for fine materials, but the processing was difficult because of the pre processing needed, and thus goods in these mat erials made only a small proportion of the output. Use of the spinning wheel and hand loom restricted the production capacity of the industry, but incremental advances increased productivity to the extent that manufactured cotton goods became the dominant British export by the early decades of the 19th century. India was displaced as the premier supplier of cotton goods. Lewis Paul patented the Roller Spinning machine and the flyer-andbobbin system for drawing wool to a more even thickness, developed with the help of John Wyatt in Birmingham. Paul and Wyatt opened a mill in Birmingham which used their new rolling machine powered by a donkey. In 1743, a factory was opened in Northampton with fifty spindles on each of five of Paul and Wyatt's machines.

14. Reflect Union1800.

upon

the

consequences

of

the

Act

of

The act of union of 1800, effective from 1-1-1801, brought into existence a political entity called the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. Pitt succeeded in forcing this measure through the Parliaments of Westminster and Dublin. He thought that the Irish problem required, instead of a separate and independent Ireland, a full-scale union between Ireland and Britain.

The Act of Union abolished the parliament in Dublin, providing instead for Ireland to be represented at Westminster by 4 bishops and 28 peers in the House of Lords, and by 100 elected members in the House of Commons. The Catholics had the most to resent at the way things turned out. The ruling protestant minority was naturally opposed to the abolition of the Dublin Parliament. Pitt sidetracked their opposition by well placed bribes and by winning the support of the catholic majority. This he achieved by means of a pledge which he ful ly intended to honour, the promise of catholic emancipation, giving the community full equality of rights with the Anglo- Irish protestants. The act of union was passed without any element of catholic emancipation being included, and Pitt resigned in Febr uary 1801 when it became obvious that the kings opposition made it impossible for a subsequent bill to redress the omission. Pitt was out of office for only three years, until the king recalled him in 1804 to continue the war against Napoleon. Catholic emancipation was brought back by Daniel O Coell, an experienced campaigner who had achieved prominence in 1800 for his speeches in Dublin against the Act of Union. From 1823, he organised a network of Catholic associations throughout Ireland to demand an end to discrimination. In 1828, OConnell contested a by-election for the century of Clare and won the seat. The result put Catholic Ireland into a state of chaos. The Emancipation Act was passed in 1829, removing nearly all the barriers against Catholics holding public office. OConnell took his seat and became the leader of the Irish members and worked towards the achievement of his main aim, the repeal of the union of 1800. The act of Union that was duly negotiated between Britain and Ireland in 1800 again represented the continuation of the English parliament, but with less marginal adjustments in terms of political representation to accommodate Irish interests.

15. Research one of the British possessions during its empire in the XIX century and summarize its history. (e.g: India)

In the wake of the Indian Mutiny (1857), the British crown assumed the East India Companys governmental authority in India. Britains acquisition of Burma (Myanmar) was completed in 1886, while its conquest of the Punjab (1849) and of Baluchistan (1854-76) provided substantial new territory in the Indian subcontinent itself. By the end of the 19th century, India remained the most significant of the imperial possessions, becoming known as the jewel in the crown of Queen Victoria. This status was emphasized in 1876 when her prime minister, Disraeli, secured for her the title empress of India. She became empress of India in 1878

UNIT 8 THE 19th CENTURY (II)

1. How did the railway change the lives of people in Victorian Britain? The railway is considered to be one of the greatest factors in the transformation of Britain into an industrial nation. It is hard to consider the scale of 19 th century development without the railway, due to its importance both on strategic and economic grounds. It moved goods, foods and people faster than canals or horsedrawn wagons. There was a huge employment of people either on the railways themselves,, building new tracks or in goods delivery services. The lives of millions were changed as, suddenly, the masses were able to travel. The railways opened up enormous opportunities and moved vast volumes of freight and passengers in the 19th century.

2. How safe were the working conditions in Victorian Britain? Living conditions in cities became unsanitary and impoverished. Factories subjected men, women and even children workers at low

wages, hard punishments,, and unprotected work around dangerous machinery

3. Why have there been objections to the term of Industrial Rev? The Indus. Rev. Produced severe social problems, as Britain became the worlds most urbanised country. Over half of the population now lived in cities. The social problems were to be found especially in the area of housing, education and health ca re

4. Why do we remember Florence Nightingale? She was the most important women in history of nursing (medicine). Known as the lady with the lamp.. She fought for effective reform of the entire system of military hospitals and medical care.

5. How was leisure time spent in Victorian Britain? Weatherpermiting, people went to many wonderful parks, most of them with a lake , with usually a band stand with people playing there. If it rained, they played board games. People would also go to the theatre, see a show

6. What are the impacts of Indus. Rev. On the lives of the British people during that time? Changes of activity, new places to live. New towns were built. The steam engine is the basis of the Industrial Rev. (coal was needed) wherever a factory was built, a new town was built around it for the workers. Before this, all these people had been agricultural workers

7. How crucial were the railways to the Victorian economy?

They were totally essential. Not only for the transport of people, but mostly for the transport of goods. Before railways, most heavy goods were transported by barge (by canal or river). Thanks to the trains, good could be transported more easily, to more places, and amazingly faster.

8. Mention some of the inventions that shaped the Indus. Rev The steam engine is the basis of everything else. In practical terms, railway engines, boats, any factory machine...

9. How many people died as a consequence of the Great Famine? 1 million.

10. How did the great Famine affect the emigration in Ireland? Many Irish people migrated. A large part of the Irish population lived as impoverished tenant farmers, generally in debt to British landlords. The need to survive on small plots of rented land created the perilous situation where vast numbers of people depended on the potato crop for survival. While the population of Europe rose during this period, population growth in Ireland was particularly dramatic. Unlike Britain, Ireland lacked major industrial centres. Jobs were scarce

11. Summarize the main consequences of the Indus. Rev. The Indus. Rev. Is a term applied to the social and economic changes that marked the transition from a stable agricultural and commercial society relying on complex machinery rather than tools. It meant the widespread replacement of manual labour by new inventions or machinery..

The Industrial Rev. Originated in Engl., and was manifested in a series of technological and social innovations, which came about for several reasons. One most important starting points dates back to the creation of the bank of Engl. In 1694. The Industrial Rev. had a number of important consequences. It changed the face of nations, giving rise to urban centres requiring vast municipal services. It created a specialised and independent economic life and made the urban worker more completely dependent on the will of the employer than the rural worker had been. Relations between capital and labour were aggravated, and there was social unrest. The Indus. Rev was a great turning point in the history of Great Britain, which changed from a basically urban and industrial society.

12. Choose one technological innovation that took place during the Indus. Rev and write about its importance BoatsThe era of the steamboat began in America in 1787 when John Fitch (1743-1798) made the first successful trial of a forty -five-foot steamboat on the Delaware River on August 22, 1787, in the presence of members of the Constitutional Convention. Fitch later built a larger vessel that carried passengers and freight between Philadelphia and Burlington, New Jersey

13. Chose one means of transport that was developed during the industrial re. And discuss its importance Railways In early 1800s the Industrial Revolution needed quicker, cheaper transport. The Bridgewater Canal was already proving inadequate in the Northwest. Earliest railways were simple wagons on wooden rails, used to carry coal, etc, short distances to rivers or coasts. By 1810 there were about 300 miles of such trackways. First Public Railway: 1801 Surrey Iron railway (horse-drawn). First steam locomotive: 1804 (pulling coal at a mine) built by Trevithick. George and Robert Stephenson were building similar (but improved) locomotives after 1814.

First steam powered railway: 1825 Stockton Darlington Railway, built by Stephensons for Edward Pease, businessman. Horses were also used but it was proved that locomotives were more efficient. 1830 Liverpool Manchester line opened Stephensons asked to be engineers and also asked to build the locomotives after the success of their Rocket at the Rainhill trials in 1829. In 1841 Isambard Kingdom Brunel (shipbuilder) built the London to Bristol Railway (the Great Western), using the 7 foot gauge to Stephensons 4 foot 8 1/2 inch gauge (width between rails). This was standardised to 4 foot 8 after 1892. Railways became hugely popular with passengers as well as greatly successful in moving goods 1844 cheap trains Act said that companies should run a certain number of cheap trains each day.

14.

Discuss the main consequences of the great Famine

In the 19th century, especially in the late 1800s, hope for better life encouraged record emigration from Ireland. While Irish peasants were forced to subsist on potatoes, other crops were being grown in Ireland, and food was exported for market in Engl. And elsewhere. Beef cattle raised in Ireland were also exported for English tables. The y of 1845 was a turning point in Irelands history. Although famine had been common in the 19 th century Ireland, the Great Famine of 1845 has been considered the hardest one.

15. Write about working conditions for children at the beginning of the Industrial Rev. And how they improved during the 19th century. Potatoes were very vulnerable to disease and no cure existed in Ireland for the dreaded potato blight, a fungus called Phytophthora Infestans. The summer of 1845 was mild but very wet and provided the perfect weather conditions for the blight to spread.

UNIT 9 The early 20th century

1. Of which party was David Lloyd a member? Member of the Welsh Council of the RCGP since 1992.

2. How can the British governments economic policy in the early years after the W. W 1 be described? After the 1rst W.W, the U.K entered a period of decline, going through a social, economic ans ideological crisis. W.W 1 proved costly in terms of human lives and sacrifices and people expected to be rewarded with a better life afterwards. They expected their soldiers to come back to a land fit hor heroes and instead they could only offer them low wages and unemployment.

3. What was Labour Prime Minister James McDonalds response to the declining economy at the beginning of the depression? He tried to avoid the issue by repeating the socialist argument that the capitalist system was the problem, and that as such, he could not be expected to do anything about unemployment within the capitalist system. This statement was followed not long after by the dissolution of the Labour government, and the beginning of the long y of the depression. However, the economy was not faltering everywhere in Britain. Some new industries such as car manufacturing, rayon production and electrical engineering were very successful. The problem was that they were concentrated in the Midlands and in some areas of South East England, while there was virtually no presence of these industries in the north and in Wales, hit by the economic crisis.

4. How did women win the vote? Since June, 1917, women became entitled to vote in the general election of 1918. The law as seen as a success for womens suffrage, although it was a restricted franchise, since women under 30 could not vote. Women had to wait until July 1928 to gain political equality with men.

5. How far did womens war efforts contribute to gaining the vote in 1918? They managed it in 1918, but it was a restricted franchise, since women under 30 could not vote. Women had to wait until 2 nd July, 1928 to gain political equality with men.

6. What contribution did women workers make in the first W.W? They kept the country and society functioning by doing, in addition to the house wife and mother jobs, all the jobs men couldnt do cause they were at war.

7. Why is the Easter Rising considered a turning point in Irish history? It was a republic that was declared during the rebellion, and it meant a fracture in Irish politics between constitutionalism and militantism.

8. Which British Prime Minister was responsible for signing the Munich Pact? Chamberlain signed the Munich pact in 1938, granting Hitler the Czech Sudetenland to appease the dictator. The appeasement policy proved to be a failure, since soon Hitler showed his wish for a total European domination, to which the British had to reply with a declaration of war. The path to W.W II lay clear.

9. Why did the Anglo- Irish Treaty arouse tensions among the Irish? A truce was signed between the IRA and the Irish on 11 July 1921,, and in December 1921, the terms of an Anglo -Irish Treaty between the British government and the representatives of Dil iream were agreed, by which Britain accepted the claims of the Irish to independence, but only in southern Ireland, while the six counties, which became the province of Northern Ireland or Ulster would remain united with Britain. The new Irish free State accepted the sovereignty of the British crown. The island was split into 2 parts. The 6 north- eastern counties remained part of the U.K while the south was a dominium within the British Empire. The U.K was renamed The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland to reflect the change. Besides, a council of Ireland was set up to manage relations between the 2 Irish states. The republicans who wanted the independence of all Ireland opposed the Treaty.

10.

What was the policy of appeasement?

The appeasement policy was the efforts by France and Britain in the 1930s to allow Nazi Germany to have pretty much anything it wanted in the hopes that eventually Hitler would be appeased and cease his aggressive policies. thus they let him build up the german armed forces in contravention of the treaty of Versailles. They let him put German troops in the Rheinland violating the same treaty. They let annex Austria. They let him take the Sudetenland from Czechoslovakia. Then they let him take the rest of Czechoslovakia. The affect of the policy was that each time Hitler was allowed to get away with something, far from being appeased, it simply whetted his appetite for more. Finally they realized he would never be appeased and they would have to fight in order to stop him. Had they fought several years earlier there would have been a far shorter and less destructive war. Read more: http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_was_the_appeasement_polic y_and_how_did_it_affect_World_War_2#ixzz1BUB4mCIl

11. Could the womens Radical Suffrage have occurred in any contry other than in the U.K? Yes, in fact, in ended up happening in most countries.

12. Describe the political battle between the Conservative and Labour Parties in Britain during the inter-war years. What evidence is there of Labours impact on the generally Conservative British government? What factors kept the Labour Party from establishing and maintaining control over the government?

13. Write key arguments in favour of the against British womens suffrage. The first country that offered women the franchise without limits and the right to present as candidates in political elections was Australia in 1902. In the U.K, women acquired a limited right to vote 1918, and on the same terms as men in 1928. In 1865, John Stuart Mill helped to found the first British woman suffrage association and organised campaigns for the cause. 1903- Womens social and political union

14. Search for arguments for and against the view that the first W.W was decisive for women in the U.K to gain the vote. During W.W 1, the womens suffrage movement suspended its campaign, since most women suffragists and suffragettes volunteered to help in the war effort. They did the jobs usually done by men in industries key to the war, such as munitions factories and weapon manufacturers, but they also worked on the buses and trams, on farms, in hospitals and in offices. Thus, they contributed not only to the war effort, but also to the running of the country. Women took on mens jobs as they went off to fight in the war, so when most young

men were in the army, women were delivering the mail or driving the busses. This gave women suffragists and suffragettes respect and admiration, which had a favourable effect on public opinion.

15. Discuss the importance Independence in 1919.

of

the

Declaration

of

Dil iream made the Irish declaration of Independence, which proclaimed Irish freedom and ratified the Republic of Ireland and the power of the Irish parliament as the only organ responsible to make laws on the people of Ireland. It was followed by the establishment of some de facto political organs. In its crucial line the declaration pronounced that ... we, the elected representatives of the ancient Irish people in national Parliament assembled, do, in the name of the Irish nation, ratify the establishment of the Irish Republic and pledge ourselves and our people to make this declaration effective by every means at our command The 1rst elections of the Northern Ireland parliament were held in May 1921 and the Unionists got 40 of the 52 seats. The Parliament first met in Belfast, June 1921, The new northern Ireland prime minister was the Ulster unionist leader, Sr James Craig.

UNIT 10: 1950-2000

1. In which decades was the British Empire gradually transformed? The major change of the Empire was that Britain pulled out of the colonies and created the Commonwealth instead that includes countries such as Australia, New Zealand...

2. What was the aim of the rise of the comprehensive school? It had a double purpose: -to raise the cultural level of the population

-Abolish social differences by allowing youngsters unprivileged background to get to higher education

from

an

3. When did Britain enter the European Community? In 1973, Edward Health achieved his long-held ambition to lead Britain into the European Community after many y of campaigning on European issues. E. Health finally achieved British membership and in 1973, Britain entered the European common market, now European community (EEC). Health remained Prime Minister until 1974. Economically, the era was character ized by numerous strikes and restrictive practises

4. What did the miners achieve after the 1984-5 strike? It was Margaret Thatchers most serious union confrontation, but the miners returned to work without achieving any settlement. As Ms Thatcher intended, this event was a turning point in the progressive loss of power of the unions in Britain.

5. Which plan set out the Good Friday Agreement? Blairs original programme placed a time limit on the talks, insisting that a package be agreed by May 1998 as the basis for a referendum. In Belfast, 10th April, 1998, both governments and the relevant political parties formally agreed to the holding of a referendum along lines close to those jointly proposed by Blair and Ahern. The Agreement was reached and signed in Belfast on Friday, April 10th by the British and Irish Governments and endorsed by most Northern Ireland political parties. It was also overwhelmingly endorsed by the people of Ireland, north and south, in referenda held simultaneously on 22 May 1998. The Agreement reached at the conclusion of the Multi-Party negotiations altered the context in which the governments objectives with regard to Northern Ireland and Anglo-Irish relations were pursued.

The referendum took place in May 1998. A 94% vote in the republic supported the Good Friday Agreem ent and the proposed change in the constitution. In Northern Ireland 71% voted for agreement

6. What did the Race Relations Act in 1965 ban? In 1965, Britain enacted the Race Relations act, which prohibited discrimination on the basis of race in public places such as restaurants and on public transportation. The scope of the prohibitions was expanded in amendments made in 1968 and 1976. In the 1991 census, Britains ethnic minorities numbered some 3 million, or about 5.5% of the population. The black community consisted of 500.00 of Caribbean origin and 380.000 deriving from Africa and elsewhere. The Asian groups included 825.000 Indians, 500.00 Pakistanis, 165.000 Bangladeshis and 165.000 Chinese. Notably, fish and chips have been overtaken by curry as t he most popular British takeaway. In the XXI century, Britain is a more open, more multi-racial society than ever before.

7. What is the meaning of new labour? Blair transformed the Labour party into what he called new Labour, which came to mean a party with streamlined campaigning systems, strong centralised control and a resolute determination to win the vote of Middle England or the middle classes.

8. Why can we refer to the sixties as a time of Cultural Revolution? The 60s were like a magical decade. It started as a prolongation of the 50s youth rebelliousness. Symbolised by the film Rebel without a cause J.Dean. Engl. Produced an outcast of creation in many fields; music, poetry theatre..

There was a real explosion of creation. During those y. Youth tended to drink beer and take speed. The 60s was a time of great social and cultural change that went hand in hand with an explosion in the creative arts.

9. Why was Margaret Thatcher called the Iron Lady? Thatcher was the first woman to become prime minister. She served until 1900 and was, the longest serving prime minister in 150 y. The new conservative government under Thatcher supported a regime of conservative policy making, by reducing the government borrowing , freezing expenditure and privatising state-owned industries. Thatchers victory in the general election heralded a sea change in Britain, replacing the old mood of consensus with the aggressively adversarial stance described as conviction politics. Thatcher managed to break union resistance through a series of laws that included the banning of sympathy strikes and boycotts. Because she was very strict. She organised an amazing expedition to the Islas Maldives to fight the Argentineans, cause they claimed the isles were theirs. By the late 1980s, Thatcher kept using her apparent sense of invincible power, which led to her being called the Iron Lady, to push through her policies

10. Which international issue made Tony Blair lose popular support? Following the devastating Sept, 11, 2001, terrorist attacks in the USA, the British government became the most visible international supporter of the Bush administration in its war on terrorism. Government officials visited Muslim nations to seek their participation in the campaign, and British forces joined the Americans in launching attacks against Afghanistan after the Taliban government refused to hand over Osama Bin Laden. The Blair government was also a strong supporter of the United States position that military action should be taken against Iraq if United Nations weapons inspections were not

resumed under new, stricter conditions, and committed British forces to the U.S led invasion of Iraq, in March 2003. Blairs strong support for the invasion, and the failure to find any weapons of mass destruction in Iraq, were factors in Labours thirdplace finish in the June, 2004, local elections; the results reflected the British public dissatisfaction with the countrys evolvement in Iraq.

11.

Reflect upon the Northern Ireland peace process.

The majority of the population was unionist and wished to remain part of the U.K, but a significant minority, known as the nationalists, wanted a united Ireland. The political parties in Northern Ireland generally reflect the sectarian divide. On the Protestant side there are two main parties; the official unionists (heirs of the old unionist party (SDLP) has consistently waged a non-violent, democratic campaign for a united Ireland and for reconciliation between the two communities. Sinn Fein has close links with the IRA, and has never condemned its terrorist activities.

12. Research the history of the Commonwealth and the consequences for Great Britain. It was born as a consequence of colonisation. Many ex -colonies became members of the Commonwealth. It had secured trade and cultural partners. It has meant an influx of the Commonwealth countries

13. Describe the main ethnic minorities that make up Multicultural Britain and consider if they are really integrated Asians (Indians, pakis, Chinese...) west Indians At the turn of the century, GB and Ireland were viewed as increasingly multicultural societies. Focusing on the case of GB,it is noticeable that they are cities such as London that are regarded as a micro multicultural society within multicultural Britain. In London we will find Irish, Pakistani, Indian, Bangladeshi, Caribbean...

Most colonies were granted immigration after the 2 nd W.W and then Britain encouraged immigration from the former colonies to deal with the labour market. In the spring of 1948, the government placed advertisements in Jamaica, inviting immigrants to make the journey across the Atlantic, a journey made in the other direction, many generations earlier, by their ancestors in slave ships. The arrival of the West Indians transformed Britain into a multiracial society. There was yet little religious diversity because the new immigrants were nearly all Christians. A t this stage, only one long established British group differed from the majority in both race and religion. The Jews, welcomed in Britain from the 1650s , and immigrating in large numbers in the late 19 th and early 20th century, were a settled community. Hindus and Sikhs arrived from the republic of India, and Hindus also came from East Africa, after Ugandas Indian population was expelled in 1972. Muslims came from Pakistan and Bangladesh. Hard predictions were made about the effect of these new arrivals on British society, and tension led to a few race riots. However, in the longer term, many people with differing cultures have successfully integrated into the country, and some have risen to high positions.

14. Discuss the consequence of British participation in the Iraq war. Terrorist bombing attacks in the tub of London. The Islamic supporters of the Jihad started having Britain as a target to aim at (enemies). On July, 7, 2005, London suffered 4 coordinated bombing on its underground and bus system, which killed more than 50 people and injured some 700. The attacks, which broadly resembled the March 2004, bombings in Madrid, appeared to be the work of Islamic suicide bombers; 3 of the suspected ones were born in Britain. Evidence uncovered by the British police indicated that the attacks may have been directed by a member of Al Qaeda. A second set of suicide bombings was attempted later in the month, but the bombs failed to detonate.

15. Write about the role of the British Commonwealth in the XXI century Most former British colonies are members of the Commonwealth, a non political, voluntary association of equal members, in which the UK has no privileged status. 15 members of the Commonwealth continue to share their head of state with the UK, as Commonwealth realms. Today Engl. Is the primary language of up to 400 million people and is spoken by about one and a half billion as a first, second or foreign language. British colonial architecture, such as in churches, railway stations and government buildings, continues to stand in many cities that were once part of the British Empire. British settlement of Ireland has left its mark in the form of divided Catholic and protestant communities in Northern Ireland.