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LivestockandDairyDevelopmentDepartment,GovernmentofthePunjab,throughitsDepartment ofPlanningandEvaluationawardedacontracttoAGROTECH,Lahore,Pakistan,toconduct, The economic and financial feasibility of Corporate livestock production farm in Cholistan LivestockProductionZone. Thiscontractisawardedthroughletterno2073,dated270809. Againstthefollowingtermsofreferences:
1. ScopeofDairyandMeatProductionfarminCholistan.
Zone. 7. Thefeasibilitystudyshouldbebankable.
8. Civilwork/structuralleastcostdesignofLivestockfarmaccordingtoCholistanclimate.
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Underthisproject,farmersrearingherdsofCholistanicows,abreedofSahiwalcowwhich producesabovenormalquantitiesofmilkandmeat,willbeprovidedfacilitieslikebetterpedigree
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Chapter:1
ScopeofDairyandMeatProductionFarmin Cholistan
1.1
AnIntroductiontoCholistan.
1.1.1 Location
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1.1.2 Climateandsoils
Cholistanisahothyperaridsandydesert.Themeanannualrainfallvariesfromlessthan100mm inthewestto200mmintheeast,chieflyfallingduringmonsoon(JulythroughSeptember). Rainfallisveryinconsistentinquantityanddurationandprolongeddroughtsarecommononce every10years.Temperaturesarehighinsummerandmildinwinterwithnofrost.Themean summertemperature(MayJuly)is3438oCwiththehighestreachingover51.6oC[5,6]( (figure ).Thesoilsaregenerallysaline,alkalineandgypsiferouscomposedofgranites,schist, 2) gneiss,andslates.Thedunesreachanaverageheightofabout100minGreaterCholistanand about30minLesserCholistan[24,79].
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1.1.3 Socioeconomicaspectsofpastoralism.
Thetotalhumanpopulationofthisdesertisaround110,000nomadicpastoralists.Themajorityof thepeopleliveontheperipheryofthedesertandtheinteriorofthedesertisthinlypopulated.The economyoftheregionispredominantlypastoralandpeoplehavebeenpracticinganomadiclife styleforcenturies.Thenomadsownsmallertolargeherdsofcamels,cattle,sheepandgoats.The interiordesertareaisnotconnectedbyamoderncommunicationsystemandsandydeserttracks areusedfortravelbycamelsorjeeps.Localpeopleusecamelsasamodeoftransportation. Habitationsaresmallandextremelyscattered[3,10].
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1.2
LivestockProductioninCholistan.
1.2.1 Breeds
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1.2.2 Livestockproductionandavailabilityoffeed
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Atpresent,thetotallivestockpopulationinCholistanisaround134,798animalunits(AU).The animalunitisconsideredasanadultcowweighing350kg(400kgatinternationallevel)and consuming7kgdrymatterforageperdayinCholistaniconditions.Thetotalannualdrymatter foragedemandinCholistanis.34milliontonswhiletheavailabledrymatterforageis.12million tons.Thusthereisanannualshortageof0.22milliontonsdrymatterforage(Table1).Ithasbeen noticedthatatthemoment,some88,655AUareinexcessofthepresentcarryingcapacity[13]. TherangelandsofCholistanareunderseverethreatofdegradationbecauseofovergrazingand harshclimaticconditions.Duetocontinuousgrazing,thedesirablepalatablespeciesarevanishing atanalarmingrateandrelativelyunpalatablespeciesarespreadinganddominatingthelandscape. Theseverityoftheproblemcanbeseenfromthefactthatsuchhighlydesirablegrassspeciesas PennisetumdivisumandCenchrussetigerushavedisappearedfrommostpartoftheCholistan desertrangelands.
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Table1:AnnualdemandandsupplyofdrymatterforageinLesserandGreaterCholistan.
Deficit (tons)
1.2.3 Livestockproductionandhealthmanagement
Threeinterrelatedaspectsofanimalhealthi.e.feed,wateranddiseasehavebeenencounteredin Cholistandesert.Deficienciesintheavailabilityofforage(quantityandquality),drinkingwater (salineorpolluted)andfreemixingofdiseasedanimalswithhealthyonesduringgrazingexpose livestocktovarioustypesofdiseases.Veterinaryhealthcentresorhospitalsarenotavailable towardstheinteriorofthedesertandveryfewpoorlyequippedsmallunitsareavailablein peripheralcities.Livestockownersoftenbecomedistressedandhelplesswhentheirlivestock, particularlycattlefallseriouslyill.Sometraditionalhomemadeherbalpreparationsareusedto treatsickanimals.Themortalityrateisveryhighanddroughtconditionsincreasestressdueto malnutritionandlackofwatercausingvariousdiseases.Themostcommondiseasesoccurringin variouslivestockspeciesareasfollows:
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largeruminants:haemorrhagicsepticaemia,blackquarter,footandmouthdisease, anthrax,mange,surra,camelpox,endoandectoparasites,etc.;
smallruminants:enterotoxemia,pleuropneumonia,sheepandgoatpox,anthrax,liver fluke,endoandectoparasites,etc.
Table2:Deathanddiseaseincidenceamonglivestockpopulation. Items Cattle Camel Sheep Goat 59.02 34.12 12.19 19.37 9.31 7.78
1.2.4 Livestockmarketing
ThepastoralnomadsinCholistandesertarelivingverymuchbelowthepovertylineduetothe lackofeducationorofskilledlaborandtotheirentiredependenceonmeagernaturalresources. Thequantityandqualityoflivestockisnotgoodenoughtosupportafamily.Marketingis
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1.3
ConstraintsforAnimalProduction
ThemajorconstraintinlivestockproductioninCholistanDesertistheshortageofsweetwater. Thisiscompoundedbytheprolongeddroughtsofmanyyearswhentobawaterdriedout completely.InGreaterCholistan,feedforlivestockisstillavailable,butthetobawaterisdepleted andthethirstyherdsareforcedtomigratetowardssemipermanentsettlementswherewellwateris adequatebutofpoorandsalinequalitynotfitfordrinking.Thewellsareunlinedandmustbere dugeachseason.Ontheotherhandinthewesternpart(LesserCholistan)thequantitiesofboth waterandfeedareinadequate.Landlesspastoralistssufferduetothescarcityofrangelandsfor grazingintheirrigatedfringeswheretheyworkaspoorlypaidlabororastenantfarmerson farmlandsgenerallyusedforagriculturalcrops.Thecombinationoflongdistancestravelledby thelivestockinsearchofforage,harshtemperaturerisingabove50oC,inadequacyoffeed, undernourishmentandhighlysalinedrinkingwaterfromwells,allcontributetohighmortality rates.
1.4
JustificationoftheProject
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Chapter:2
IntegrationoftheFarmwithLocalProducers
Votingshareholderselectaboardofdirectorswhoformandimplementstrategiesandpolicies. Theboardofdirectorswillhireageneralmanager/farmmanagerwhoisresponsibleforthe runningofthedaytodayoperationsofthebusiness.Thegeneralmanagerhiresadditionalstaffto assistwiththeexecutionoftheseduties.Shareholdersreceiveprofitsearnedthroughtheoperation ofthebusinessthroughdividendpayments. Inadditiontodividendpaymentsasaninvestor,producersandinvestorsmayalsobeableto receiveadditionalreturnstotheirindividualfarmingoperationsasaresultoftheestablishmentof alargecommunityownedcow/calfenterprise,intheformofbettermarketingopportunities,better awarenessaboutoperationsandsourcingofinputs.
2.1 BenefitsofCommunityOwnedIntegratedLivestockProduction
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Thecow/calfenterprisewillbeastandalonebusinessmakinguseofspecializedlabor withoutrequiringadditionallaborfromtheinvestors.
ProducerscanbenefitfromthecompetitiveadvantagesGovernmentprovidesinthe cow/calfindustry.
Providesfarmerswithalternativemarketingopportunitiestofurtherdiversifytheir operations.Someoftheseopportunitiesincludesaleofcattlefeedandforage.
Abilitytohavemanurespreadonlandeitherthroughgrazingorbymechanicalmeansto improvesoilfertilityandreducefertilizerexpenses.
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Chapter:3
Riskassessment,ofCorporateLivestockProduction FarminCholistan
Theprojectmightfacedifferentinternalaswellasexternalrisks,shouldbemitigatetosmoothly runtheprojectinprofitableenvironment.
ScarcityofWater
Lowrainfall,highratesofevapotranspiration,lowgroundwaterrechargeandabsenceofperennial streamsexplainthegeneralscarcityofwaterinCholistan.Thoughthefarmwouldbeestablished intheareawheresweetundergroundwaterisavailable(areaofMojgarh).Theuseofwaterto cultivatecashcrops,orothermorewaterconsumingveritiesofcrops.Methodsofirrigation,like surfaceirrigationwouldbeareasonhighrateofevapotranspiration. TomitigateGovernmenthastotakesomesevereactionstoconservethewholeecosystem.For thatpurposeauthoritiesshouldpassonsomelawfortheconservationoftheundergroundwater.
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Risk2:
PoliticalInterference
There is a strong possibility of politicians trying to interfere in the implementation of the programme.Boththelivestockandlandbasedinterventionsoftheprogrammewill,atthepilot stage,belimitedtoasmallnumberofthepoorlocalpeople.Itwillofnecessityinvolveselection fromamongstalargenumberofapplicants. Itcouldbeviewedasamethodforpatronageand attracttheattentionoflocalpoliticians,MembersofNationalandProvincialandevencabinet Ministers.TherewouldbepressureontheProgrammeCoordinatorandteamandonimplementing partnersatthedistrictleveltoselectthebeneficiariesoftheirchoice.
In mitigation, a number of initiatives are needed to protect the programme from political interference.First,thepoliticalleadershipandtheseniorofficialsinvolvedwiththeprogramme willneedtobesensitizedtothisproblem.Second,thelevelprogrammemanagementteamswould havetobespeciallycautionedtolookoutforthisandtoresistit.Third,allsystemsandprocedures oftheprogrammeshouldremaintransparent.
Risk3:
Capacityofpartners
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Management of the Livestock component will be contracted out ensuring close links are maintainedwiththePunjabLivestockDepartment.TheLivestockDepartmentwillbeinvolvedin oversight and use of carefully selected personnel from the department for implementation of districtlevelinterventions.Privatesectorwillbeinvitedtobidforthesectoralinterventionsanda proactiveapproachwillbeadoptedtokeeptheprivatesectorengaged.
Risk4:
BusinessModeloftheFarm
Atthismomentthereisnosinglesolutiontothefuturebusinessmodelforthislivestockfarm.The twooptionsare,CooperativeentityregisteredundertheCooperativeSocietyACT1925,underthis actcommunitycooperativesocietycan runacommercialbusiness. Sincetherestofallthe businessmodelwouldrunontheCorporatestyle,whereownershipofthefarmwouldbedifferent fromtheTechnicalManagementteamofthefarm.Itwouldbeachallengetorunthefarminthis situationwithoutmajorconflictbetweenthecommunityownersandthefarmmanagement. Businessregistrationasacompany,undercompanyACT1986,wouldbeagoodproposition.A balanceofthepoweramongsttheownersandthemanagementisveryessential.
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Risk5:
HighPricesforFuel/Electricity
Risk6:
LackofMarketingEfforts/ForwardLinkage
Farmhadbeenplannedtotriggerthelocalandinternationalmarket,anylackofinterestonthis horizonwouldresultinpoormarketingoutcomesandultimatelypoorprofitability.Anotheraspect thisriskisthefactthatthisfarmwouldbeabenchmarkforthelocalcommunitytoexplorethe new marketing channels any such failure would set wrong example and would shatter the confidenceofthestakeholdersaswellaslocalcommunity.
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Risk7:
DiseaseFreeZoningatFarm
Forthelocalandinternationalmarketingthefarmshouldbediseasefreezone.Anyfailureinbio security would result in any disease outbreak and would damage the credibility of the farm. FurthercanbearisktothelocalpopulationoftheLivestock.
Aproperbiosecurityplanshouldbefollowed,andfarmshouldhavelinkagewiththelocalaswell as international accreditations bodies. General guidlines of the OIE should be folloed to establishedadiseasefreezoneatfarm.
Risk8:
GeneralRisksfortheProject
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Investorsinthebusinessmaysharedifferentgoalsleadingtoconflictsamongboardof directorsandinvestors.
Increasedregulatoryrequirementsmustbefollowedwhensettingupalargeintensive livestockoperation.
Riskoflimitedacceptancewithinthecommunitycouldleadtoshortagesofinputsrequired (e.g.capital,feed,pasture),resultingineconomiesofscalenotbeingachieved.
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TechnicalandFinancialFeasibilityofIntegrated LivestockProductionFarms
4.1
Sizeofthefarm
4.2
Land
Thefarmwouldhold500acresofland.Fortheconstructionoftheshedsandaccessorybuildings includingsilopitsetc,25acresoflandwouldbeallocated.Foddercropswouldbecultivatedon
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4.3
SiteSelection
4.4 SelectionoftheAnimals
Thebreedinganimalswouldbeselectedfromtheherdsofparticipatingmembersofthefarmfrom localcommunity.Theanimalswouldbeselectedpreferablybeintheir2ndand3rdlactationasthe animalsatthisstageprovetobemoreprofitablebecauseoftheirproductiveandreproductive performance.Forbreedinganimalsartificialinseminationwithqualitysemenwouldbedone.The averagemilkproductionperanimalwouldbeexpectedabout6litersperday,withalactation periodof250days.
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4.5Buildings
Buildingsonadairyfarmconsistofshedsfordifferentclassesofanimals,milkroom,storage facilitiesforfeedingredientsandequipment,andanattendantroom.Theanimalshedswouldbe welllighted,ventilatedyetsufficientlyprovideprotectionfromsun,winddraughtsandrain.The shedsmustbeprovidedwithwatertroughs.Theflooroftheshedsshouldpreferablybepavedto keepitcleananddry.Alongwitheachshedanopenpaddockshouldbeprovidedwithkashafloor for exercisingandloafingatnightduringsummer.Spacerequirementsandestimatedcost of differentfarmbuildingsisgiveninthedesignportion. Table3:CIVILWORKCOSTOFDIFFERENTELEMENTSINCATTLEFARM
Sr.
DescriptionofDifferentItems
Amount(Rs.)
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22 23 24
TOTALCOSTOFCIVILWORKFORTHESHEDAREA(Rs.)
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1,200,0 Tractors90HP 00 600,0 Tractors60HP 00 60,0 ChiselPlough7times6to8inches 00 140,0 Rotavators60blades 00 RaisedbedcomboPlanterforFodderCorn4RowswithFertilizer 260,0 Banding 00 35,0 00 170,0 00 260,0 00 400,0 00 500,0 00
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FuelTanker4000Lit MotorBicycle
350,0 00 80,0 00
1 1
350,0 00 80,00 0
Total
4,055,0 00
4.7
FeedRequirements
4.7.1 FeedRequirementsoftheBreeders
Thefarmwouldbedesignedsothatanimalswouldhavestallfeedingaswellasgrazing. Breedinganimalswouldbestallfedunlesstheyareinmilking,dryanimalswillbemovedto grazing.Sincegrazingwouldbemadeontheselfgrowingvegetation,whichfurtherdependenton rain,soforsuchanintensivefarmingmodel,grazingwouldbeutilizedasanextraadvantageand allotherfinancialcalculationbemadeon365daysstallfeedingassumption. Asathumbrule,totaldrymatterintakeofamaturebreedercow,isexpected3.5%ofitslivebody weightwhichisassumedtobe400450kg.Sothetotaldrymatterintakeperanimalwouldbe about1517kg.Silageisassumedtohaveabout50%drymatter,so25kgsilagewouldservethe roughagerequirementoftheanimal.Asaruleofthumb2Kgofconcentrateisrequiredfor
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4.7.2 FeedRequirementoftheHeifers.
Thecalveswouldnotmotherfed,insteadliquidmilkreplacerwillbegivenfortheperiodof60 days.InsecondphaseheifersandcalveswouldbegivenStarterrationsforaperiodof120days, duringthattimecalveswillbeofage,5monthsandwillshiftedtothirdphaseoffeedingthe grownupfeed,whichcomprisedofsilageandconcentrates,thatperiodwouldbeofabout 540days.
4.7.3 FeedRequirementforFatteningAnimals.
Calvesonfatteningprogrameither,forexportmarketor,Enidlot,wouldbegivensilageand concentrateandwouldbecompletelystalledfed.Anaverageconsumption15kgofsilageis assumedon200kgaverageweightofthefatteningcalf.Anadditional1.51.8kgofconcentrate wouldbegiventoachievethedesiredtargetweight.
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FODDERPRODUCTIONANDCONSUMPTION
PRODUCE YieldperAcre Crops GreenFodderperAnnumperAcre Cultivation GreenFodderperAnnum Silage(At50%yieldofGreenFodder) M Tons Kgs 7,8 00 Acres 150 M Tons M Tons 26 2 52 7,800,00 0 3,900,00 0
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CONSUMPTIONSILAGE BreedingAnimals ConsumptionperDayperAnimal AnnualConsumptionperAnimal AnnualConsumption Heifers&Calves ConsumptionperDayperAnimal AnnualConsumptionperAnimal (25KgsX550days/2) AnnualConsumption(80HersX6,875 Kgs) Fattening ConsumptionperDayperAnimal FeedingDay AnnualConsumptionperAnimal AnnualConsumption(600X1,500Kgs) 3,904,37 TotalConsumption Kgs 5 100.00% Nos Kgs Days Kgs Kgs 600 15 180 2,7 00 1,620,00 0 41.49% Kgs 721,87 5 2,284,37 5 Kgs Kgs 175 15 4,1 25 Nos Kgs Kgs Kgs 250 25 6,2 50 1,562,50 0 58.51%
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4.9 ManpowerRequirements:
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4.10
CapitalExpenditure
Table7:CapitalExpensesDetail.
COST Rs Fencesforlandof500Acres[Note(a)] ChainLinkCostperRaft[Note(b)] PressurizedIrrigationSystem Costperacre Machinery(Tractors,harvesters,TMRMixer,trolley, digger,crush,weighingscaleetcCostestimatefrom "Farmall") MilkingMachine(milkingline) Generators(25KVA)andElectrification Vehicles(DoubleCabinHiluxandCarryorsimilar) Drinkingwater,boring,piping,overheadtank OfficeEquipments Civilwork,animalsheds,ancillarybuildingsetc Raft Rs/Rft Acres Rs/Acre 18,700 110 150 65,000 2,057,000 9,750,000 20 10
10 10 10 10 10 10 20
26988060
48,345,060
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Table8:OperatingCostsofthefarm.
OPERATINGCOSTS CostofbreedinganimalsAmortizedoveritslifeperiod FatteningAnimalCostat12monthsage FeedcostBreedingAnimals FeedcostHeifers&Calves FeedCostFatteninganimal ManpowerCost FuelChargesTractorbasedonanestimateof20Ltrs/Day@Rs 58/Ltr VehicleRunningExpenses InseminationCost(@Rs500pershotfor240times) DepreciationAsperCapitalExpenditureschedule RepairsandMaintenance AuditorsFee BorrowingCost Insurance
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Table9:Revenuegeneratedatfarm:
REVENUE
RevenuefromSaleofFattenedanimals(600XRs85X250Kgs) 8 HeifersSale(76XRs100,000) CalvessaleMale(76XRs80,000)) MilkSale(6LtrsX250DaysXRs27X300Cows) Silage(75,000Kgs@Rs1.50perKg) FarmYardManure(Rs3,000for300animalsandRs1,000for400animals) SaleofspentCowsassumedatbuyingcostamortizedoverlifeperiod Nos Nos Rs/Annum Rs/Annum Rs/Annum Rs/Annum 3 8 3
Rupees
12,750,000 8,312,500 6,650,000 10,125,000 (6,563) 3,000,000 468,750 41,299,688
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4.11.3
ProfitEarned
Table10:Profitearnedatfarm.
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SILAGEBASEDFODDERPRODUCTIONON MODERNTECHNOLOGY
5.1 PressurizedIrrigationSystems
Duetoscarcityofwateronly25%ofrainfedareaiscultivated. Adoptionofobsoletesystem irrigationresultinpoorapplicationanddistributionefficiencies.Inmostoftheareas,thelandis highlyundulatedandprecisionlandlevelingis,therefore,notafeasibleoption.Assuch,gravity irrigationisnotpossibleintheseareas.Therefore,itisofutmostimportancethatthisscarce resourceisutilizedmostefficiently.Smallscalesprinkleranddripirrigationtechniqueshavebeen successfullyintroducedinPakistan,andareparticularlywellsuitedarealikeCholistan. Applicationefficienciescanberaisedto75to85%,permittingalmostfulluseofscarcewater supplies.Anadditionaladvantageascomparedwithsurfaceirrigationisthatefficientirrigation canbecarriedoutevenwheretopographyisundulatedandsoilislighttexturedasisthecasein
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5.2 SilageFermentationandPreservation
Qualitysilageisachievedwhenlacticacidisthepredominantacidproduced,asitisthemost efficientfermentationacidandwilldropthepHofthesilagethefastest.Thefasterthe fermentationiscompleted,themorenutrientswillberetainedinthesilage.
5.2.1 TheFermentationProcess
Harvestingforagesassilageisacompromisebetweenreducinglaborrequirementsandfieldlosses versuslossesinthefermentationprocessthatwilleventuallypreservethecrop.Idealfermentation isdependentupondecisionsandmanagementpracticesimplementedbeforeandduringthe ensilingprocess.Theprimarymanagementfactorsthatareunderthecontroloftheproducerare: 1.Stageofmaturityoftheforageatharvest. 2.Thetypeoffermentationthatoccursinthesiloorbunker. 3.Typeofstoragestructureusedandmethodsofharvestingandfeeding.
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Thefollowingsixphasesdescribewhatoccursduringensiling,storageandfeedoutof fermentedforages: PhaseI Astheforageisharvested,aerobicorganismspredominateontheforagesurface.Duringtheinitial ensilingprocess,thefreshlycutplantmaterial,andmoreimportantlytheaerobicbacteria,continue torespirewithinthesilostructure.Theoxygenutilizedintherespirationprocessesiscontained withinandbetweentheforageparticlesatthetimeofensiling.Thisphaseisundesirablesincethe aerobicbacteriaconsumesolublecarbohydratesthatmightotherwisebeavailableforthe beneficiallacticacidbacteriaortheanimalconsumingtheforage.Althoughthisphasereducesthe oxygentocreatethedesiredanaerobicconditions,therespirationprocessproduceswaterandheat inthesilagemass.ExcessiveheatbuildupresultingfromanextendedPhaseIperiodcangreatly reducethedigestibilityofnutrientssuchasproteins. Anotherimportantchemicalchangethatoccursduringthisearlyphaseisthebreakdownofplant proteins.Proteinsarefirstreducedtoaminoacidsandthentoammoniaandamines.Upto50 percentofthetotalplantproteinmaybebrokendownduringthisprocess.Theextentofprotein breakdown(proteolysis)isdependentontherateofpHdeclineinthesilage.Theacidenvironment ofthesilageeventuallyreducestheactivityoftheenzymesthatbreakdownproteins. PhaseIendsoncetheoxygenhasbeeneliminatedfromthesilagemass.Underidealcropand storageconditions,thisphasewilllastonlyafewhours.Withimpropermanagement,thisphase
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CO2,heatandacidethanol water Temperature 6990F Change* pHChange Produced 6.56.0 9084F 6.05.0 Aceticacid andlactic 84F 5.04.0 Lactic acid 84F 4.0 Lactic acid bacteria 84F 4.0 tooxygen 84F 4.07.0 Moldand yeastactivity
acidbacteria bacteria
*Temperaturedependentonambient.Ensilingtemperaturegenerallyis15higherthanambient. AdaptedfromMcCullough.
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5.2.2 GeneralSilageManagementFactors
1.MaturityandmoistureRecommendationsvarywithdifferentsilagecrops(Table2).Proper maturityassuresadequatefermentablesugarsforsilagebacteriaandmaximumnutritionalvalue forlivestock.Maturityalsohasatremendousimpactonmoisturewithunwiltedforagecropssuch ascornsilage.Adequatemoistureforbacterialfermentationisessentialandaidsinpackingtohelp excludeoxygenfromthesilage. Table12.Harvestandmoisturerecommendations. SiloType Bunker Length ofCut inches 3/81/2 1/43/8 1/43/8 1/43/8 1/43/8
Maturity milkline1/22/3 downthekernel midbud1/10 bloom,wiltto... milkorsoft dough,wiltto... whenfirststems headout 1/4to1/2" bloom,wiltto...
Stave
%moisture 6772 6570 6772 6772 6772 6368 6065 6368 6368 6368
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2.LengthofcutThemostdesirablelengthofcutisbetweentoinchdependinguponthe crop,storagestructureandamountofsilageintheration.Thiswillgiveidealcompactionofthe silageandyetallowforeaseofunloadingfromanuprightsilo.Settingthechoppertocutanyfiner couldhaveanegativeimpactuponmilkfatproductionandtheincidenceofdisplacedabomasums indairycattleduetoinadequatescratchfactor. Choppingforagestoolongmakescompactiondifficultandairwillremaintrappedinthesilage resultinginheatingandspoilage(PhaseI).Arecutterscreenisnotgenerallyrecommendedunless thesilageistoodry,asitincreasesthepowerrequirementandwillslowharvesting. 3.Filling,packing,sealingThecropshouldbeharvestedandthesilofilledasrapidlyas possible.Fillingdelayswillresultinexcessiverespirationandincreasedsilagelosses.Packing shouldbeginimmediatelywhenstoringsilageinbunkersilos.Awheeledtractorispreferredasa packingvehicle,asitwillsupplygreaterweightpersurfaceunitthanatrackedvehicle.Thesilo shouldbesealedwithanairtightcoveronceitisfilledtopreventpenetrationofairandrainfall intothesilage.Agoodgradeofplasticweighteddownwithdiscardedtireswillgenerallyprovide anadequateseal.
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5.2.3 Additionstosilage
Variousadditionstosilagehavebeensuggestedasmethodstoimproveoralterthefermentation process.Thesematerialsmaybereferredtoasadditives,conditionersandpreservatives.
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%Nitrogen 45 11 2030 81 81
Commercialproductsshouldbeappliedataratetoprovide5poundsofactualnitrogen/ton
offorage.
2
Add5lbs.dryureatoprovide5lbs.ofnitrogen.
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Chapter: 6
ParametersofDiseasefreeZoning
6.1 DiseaseControlprinciplesandstrategies
Theguidelinesinthissectionprovideastructuredframeworkfortheapplicationandrecognition ofcompartmentsorzoneswithincountries,withtheobjectivetofacilitatetradeinanimalsand productsofanimaloriginandasatoolfordiseasemanagement.Establishingandmaintaininga diseasefreestatusforanentirecountrymaybedifficult,especiallyinthecaseofdiseasesthatcan easilycrossinternationalboundaries.Formanydiseases,OIEMemberCountrieshavetraditionally appliedtheconceptofzoningtoestablishandmaintainananimalsubpopulationwithadifferent animalhealthstatuswithinnationalboundaries.
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6.2.1Principlesfordefiningacompartment
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6.2.2 Separationofacompartmentfrompotentialsourcesofinfection
ThemanagementofacompartmentmustprovidetotheVeterinaryAdministrationdocumented evidenceonthefollowing:
a)Physicalorspatialfactorsthataffectthestatusofbiosecurityinacompartment
i)diseasestatusinadjacentareasandinareasepidemiologicallylinkedtothecompartment;
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b)Infrastructuralfactors
Structuralaspectsoftheestablishmentswithinacompartmentcontributetotheeffectivenessofits biosecurity.Considerationshouldbegivento: i)fencingorothereffectivemeansofphysicalseparation; ii)facilitiesforpeopleentryincludingaccesscontrol,changingareaandshowers; iii)vehicleaccessincludingwashinganddisinfectionprocedures; iv)unloadingandloadingfacilities; v)isolationfacilitiesforintroducedanimals. vi)infrastructuretostorefeedandveterinaryproducts; vii)disposalofcarcasses,manureandwaste; viii)watersupply.
c)Biosecurityplan
i)potentialpathwaysforintroductionandspreadintothecompartmentoftheagentsforwhichthe compartmentwasdefined,includinganimalmovements,rodents,fauna,aerosol,arthropods,
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d)Traceabilitysystem
Aprerequisiteforassessingtheintegrityofacompartmentistheexistenceofavalidtraceability system.Allanimalswithinacompartmentshouldbeindividuallyidentifiedandregisteredinsuch
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6.2.3 Documentationoffactorscriticaltothedefinitionofacompartment
Vaccinationrecordsincludingthetypeofvaccineandfrequencyofadministrationmustbe availabletoenableinterpretationofsurveillancedata.Thetimeperiodforwhichallrecordsshould
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Surveillancefortheagentordisease
Diagnosticcapabilitiesandprocedures
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Figure1:MapofCholistan
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Figure2:RainfallpatterninCholistan
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Figure5:RuminantsofanoldFortonRiverHakra.
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Figure6:AtypicalCholistaniToba
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Figure7:MigrationofCattleinsearchofvegitation
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Figure8:Landwithnovegetation,signofscarcityofwater.
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