EXPERIMENTAL PROJECT: UJT AS RELAXATION OSCILLTOR

Page | 1

MARKET RESEARCH
Our topic for the experimental project is UJT AS RELAXATION OSCILLATOR. We have chosen this topic since it is interesting and easy to perform. We have selected this topic from our EDC-I file of Sem III. We have also searched for some more information on it in a book called ELECTRONICS CIRCUITS AND DEVICES written by BOLYSTED. After the selection of Topic we were provided PCB from College on which we have to make our projects. So now our work begins. We went to the shop to purchase basic things required such as graph paper, trace paper, carbon paper, nail paint, nail paint remover etc. we went to vashi, mulund and lamington road to purchase things such as resistor, capacitor, ujt and the components required for our project. And hence finally we started to make our project with great enthusiasm.

Page | 2

PROCEDURE TO MAKE A CIRCUIT

1. LAYOUT SKETCH
These complete instructions on making the PCB is how I made mine. There are many ways to make PCB's now-a-days, but if you would prefer to go a very inexpensive route and yet very accurate, the below layout will indeed suffice. From beginning to end, these step-by-step procedures will get you on your way to warm up that soldering iron when the time comes for soldering all of the components on the 'finished' PCB. Let's we begin: Print out the drawing of IC first on the graph paper. It should come out exactly like the posted measurements. Measure it to be sure it is, in fact, 116 mm's by 80 mm's. If not exact, send the document to a Paint or Graphics Program and stretch or squeeze to adjust for said measurements. This is extremely important. Make sure the measurements (length and width) are no more 'off' then 1mm. Now trace the diagram on the trace paper. Take the PCB. Place a carbon paper on it and then turn the trace and keep it on the carbon paper so that we can trace our diagram accurately on the PCB. Darken the lines so that get gets properly traced on the PCB. We should note that the Ground line and the Vcc line should always be thicker than the rest of the connecting lines. After this remove the carbon and the trace paper from PCB and observe the diagram. IF diagram is traced properly then use a permanent marker or a nail paint to draw the lines on the PCB. Then take a pair of scissors and cut out the 116 mm's by 80 mm's printed-out template. Once the markings are dried then go for the itching process.

Page | 3

2. ETCHING

In all the subtractive PCB process, Etching is the one of the most important step. The final copper pattern is formed by selective removal of all the unwanted copper, which is not protected by an etch resist. There are two developers you can use, Ferric Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid/Hydrogen-peroxide Hydrochloric (very clean)

One part Hydrochloric Acid One part Hydrogen Peroxide Four parts water NEVER store it Etches in 3 - 5 minutes Available cheap from paint shops One part Hydrochloric Acid One part Hydrogen Peroxide Four parts water NEVER store it Etches in 3 - 5 minutes Available cheap from paint shops

Ferric Chloride

Page | 4

If making a single sided PCB then you only have one side of copper to worry about. The PCB should at least be kept in the solution for 1hour or as per requirement. During etching you will normally see the PCB tracks begin to appear through the board. Etching may be speeded up by warming the solution or adding a little salt to it. Do not use a metal vessel for etching as the etchant will attack If using the Hydrochloric etchant then just drop the board in the etchant until it is finished. If you insist on using the ferric Chloride then stick one or two strips of sticky tape to the back of the board to form one or two handles so that you can pick up the board without putting your fingers in the etchant. Lay the board on the surface of the etching solution so that it floats with the COPPER SIDE DOWN. Remove the board after a few seconds to inspect the surface of the copper. All the exposed copper should turn a deep "shitty brown" color. Specks of unwanted resist or even bubbles will leave copper spots where it should not be. Remove bubbles by gently stroking the board with a paper tissue wetted with etchant. If there are specks of resist then wash and dry the board then scrape the resist of before trying again Etching may be done during full daylight or with UV present; no harm will come to the board at this stage. After the itching is completely done, remove the PCB from the solution and wash it with water. Then use a nail remover or a blade to peel off the nail paint applied on it. ERRORS

Scratches will cause wanted copper to disappear. Splashes of Ferric Chloride will stain clothes, skin, metals and even the sink. Unwanted copper remains - not etched for sufficient time.

3. DRILLING

Page | 5

The lacquer (photo-resist) on the copper tracks may be used as a protective cover to prevent oxidization of the copper during storage and also gives a little mechanical protection during drilling / handling. Drilling should always be done with a high-speed drill and very little force should be applied to the drill to press it through the board. Doing so would cause the drill bit to become blunt prematurely, especially if drilling fibre-glass PCBs. It will also cause a rough edge to the board where the drill bit comes through the board. Use good sharp drill bits up to 1mm diameter. Use a stable drill instrument.

ERRORS

Drill bit wandering with small or absent etched guide hole. Moving the board or drill during drilling can break drill bits. Using the wrong drill bit for the job. Injury to eyes - use protective shield or spectacles. Drilling the wrong places - use good lighting and count the holes. Forgetting holes - drill from one end of the board to the other. Count the holes.

Page | 6

4. SOLDERING
Soldering is the only permanent way to fix components to a circuit. However, soldering requires a lot of practice as it is easy to destroy many hours preparation and design work by poor soldering. If you follow the guidelines below you have a good chance of success. 1. Use a soldering iron in good condition. Inspect the tip to make sure that it is not past good operation. If it looks in bad condition it will not help you solder a good joint. The shape of the tip may vary from one soldering iron to the next but generally they should look clean and not burnt. 2. The heated soldering iron should then be placed in contact with the track and the component and allowed to heat them up. Once they are heated the solder can be applied. The solder should flow through and around the component and the track. 3. Having completed soldering the circuit the extended legs on the components need to be trimmed using wire clippers. The circuit is now ready for testing.

Page | 7

INTRODUCTION

A unijunction transistor (UJT) is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one junction. The UJT has three terminals: an emitter (E) and two bases (B1 and B2). The base is formed by lightly doped n-type bar of silicon. Two ohmic contacts B1 and B2 are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p-type and it is heavily doped. The resistance between B1 and B2, when the emitter is opencircuit is called interbase resistance.

Circuit symbol

There are two types of unijunction transistor:

The original unijunction transistor, or UJT, is a simple device that is essentially a bar of N type semiconductor material into which P type material has been diffused somewhere along its length, defining the device parameter . The 2N2646 is the most commonly used version of the UJT. The programmable unijunction transistor, or PUT, is a close cousin to the thyristor. Like the thyristor it consists of four P-N layers and has an anode and a cathode connected to the first and the last layer, and a gate connected to one of the inner layers. They are not directly interchangeable with conventional UJTs but perform a similar function. In a proper circuit configuration with two
Page | 8

"programming" resistors for setting the parameter , they behave like a conventional UJT. The 2N6027 is an example of such a device. The UJT is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the length of the device. When the emitter voltage is driven approximately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the P diffusion (emitter) is, current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region. Because the base region is very lightly doped, the additional current (actually charges in the base region) causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter junction and the B2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter junction is more forward biased, and so even more current is injected. Overall, the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what makes the UJT useful, especially in simple oscillator circuits. Unijunction transistor circuits were popular in hobbyist electronics circuits in the 1970s and early 1980s because they allowed simple oscillators to be built using just one active device. Later, as Integrated Circuits became more popular, oscillators such as the 555 timer IC became more commonly used. In addition to its use as the active device in relaxation oscillators, one of the most important applications of UJTs or PUTs is to trigger thyristors (SCR, TRIAC, etc.). In fact, a DC voltage can be used to control a UJT or PUT circuit such that the "on-period" increases with an increase in the DC control voltage. This application is important for large AC current control.

Page | 9

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Where, C1, C2, C3=Charging & discharging capacitor RE=Charging & discharging resistor VBB=Power supply B1=Base1 B2=Base2 R1=Output resistor R2=Temperature compensation resistor S=Switch for selecting capacitor
Page | 10

COMPONENTS LIST
SR.NO NAME OF NAME OF QUANTITY COST COMPONENT MANUFACTURER 1 2 3 4 5 UJT2646 Resistance capacitor potentiometer Connecting wires Premier advertiser 1 3 2 1 4-5 Rs.24 Rs.1(each) Rs.1(each) Rs.4 -

Page | 11

WORKING OF UJT
Although a unijunction transistor is not a thyristor, this device can trigger larger thyristors with a pulse at base B1. A unijunction transistor is composed of a bar of N-type silicon having a P-type connection in the middle. See Figure below(a). The connections at the ends of the bar are known as bases B1 and B2; the P-type mid-point is the emitter. With the emitter disconnected, the total resistance R BBO, a datasheet item, is the sum of RB1 and RB2 as shown in Figure below(b). RBBO ranges from 4-12k for different device types. The intrinsic standoff ratio is the ratio of RB1 to RBBO. It varies from 0.4 to 0.8 for different devices. The schematic symbol is Figure below(c).

Unijunction transistor: (a) Construction, (b) Model, (c) Symbol

The Unijunction emitter current vs voltage characteristic curve (Figure below(a) ) shows that as VE increases, current IE increases up IP at the peak point. Beyond the peak point, current increases as voltage decreases in the negative resistance region. The voltage reaches a minimum at the valley point. The resistance of R B1, the saturation resistance is lowest at the valley point. IP and IV, are datasheet parameters; For a 2n2647, IP and IV are 2A and 4mA, respectively. [AMS] VP is the voltage drop across RB1 plus a 0.7V diode drop; see Figure below(b). VV is estimated to be approximately 10% of VBB.

Page | 12

Unijunction transistor: (a) emitter characteristic curve, (b) model for VP . The relaxation oscillator in Figure below is an application of the unijunction oscillator. RE charges CE until the peak point. The unijunction emitter terminal has no effect on the capacitor until this point is reached. Once the capacitor voltage, VE, reaches the peak voltage point VP, the lowered emitter-base1 E-B1 resistance quickly discharges the capacitor. Once the capacitor discharges below the valley point VV, the E-RB1 resistance reverts back to high resistance, and the capacitor is free to charge again.

Page | 13

Unijunction transistor relaxation oscillator and waveforms. Oscillator drives SCR. During capacitor discharge through the E-B1 saturation resistance, a pulse may be seen on the external B1 and B2 load resistors, Figure above. The load resistor at B1 needs to be low to not affect the discharge time. The external resistor at B2 is optional. It may be replaced by a short circuit. The approximate frequency is given by 1/f = T = RC. A more accurate expression for frequency is given in Figure above. The charging resistor RE must fall within certain limits. It must be small enough to allow IP to flow based on the VBB supply less VP. It must be large enough to supply IV based on the VBB supply less VV. [MHW] The equations and an example for a 2n2647:

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Hence after completion of layout sketch, etching, drilling and soldering of PCB, our project look like as given below :

SOLDERING SIDE:

COMPONENT SIDE:

Page | 15

SUMMARY

A unijunction transistor consists of two bases (B1, B2) attached to a resistive bar of silicon, and an emitter in the center. The EB1 junction has negative resistance properties; it can switch between high and low resistance. A PUT (programmable unijunction transistor) is a 3-terminal 4layer thyristor acting like a unijunction transistor. An external resistor network programs . The intrinsic standoff ratio is =R1/(R1+R2) for a PUT; substitute RB1 and RB2, respectively, for a unijunction transistor. The trigger voltage is determined by . Unijunction transistors and programmable unijunction transistors are applied to oscillators, timing circuits, and thyristor triggering.

Page | 16

DIGITAL PROJECT:
8-BIT PARITY GENERATOR

Page | 17

MARKETING RESEARCH
Our topic for the digital project is 8-BIT PARITY GENERATOR USING IC74180. We have chosen this topic since it is interesting and easy to perform. We have selected this topic from textbook named DIGITAL ELCTRONICS by R.P. JAIN. We have also searched for some more information on it on URL like www.google.com.After the selection of Topic College has provided us the PCB on which we have to make our projects. So now our work begins. We went to the shop to purchase basic things required such as graph paper, trace paper, carbon paper, nail paint, nail paint remover etc. we went to vashi, mulund and lamington road to purchase things such as resistor, capacitor, ujt and the components required for our project. And hence finally we started to make our project with great enthusiasm.

Page | 18

PROCEDURE TO MAKE A CIRCUIT

1.LAYOUT SKETCH
These complete instructions on making the PCB is how I made mine. There are many ways to make PCB's now-a-days, but if you would prefer to go a very inexpensive route and yet very accurate, the below layout will indeed suffice. From beginning to end, these step-by-step procedures will get you on your way to warm up that soldering iron when the time comes for soldering all of the components on the 'finished' PCB. Let's we begin: Print out the drawing of IC first on the graph paper. It should come out exactly like the posted measurements. Measure it to be sure it is, in fact, 116 mm's by 80 mm's. If not exact, send the document to a Paint or Graphics Program and stretch or squeeze to adjust for said measurements. This is extremely important. Make sure the measurements (length and width) are no more 'off' then 1mm. Now trace the diagram on the trace paper. Take the PCB. Place a carbon paper on it and then turn the trace and keep it on the carbon paper so that we can trace our diagram accurately on the PCB. Darken the lines so that get gets properly traced on the PCB. We should note that the Ground line and the Vcc line should always be thicker than the rest of the connecting lines. After this remove the carbon and the trace paper from PCB and observe the diagram. IF diagram is traced properly then use a permanent marker or a nail paint to draw the lines on the PCB. Then take a pair of scissors and cut out the 116 mm's by 80 mm's printed-out template. Once the markings are dried then go for the itching process.

Page | 19

2. ETCHING

In all the subtractive PCB process, Etching is the one of the most important step. The final copper pattern is formed by selective removal of all the unwanted copper, which is not protected by an etch resist. There are two developers you can use, Ferric Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid/Hydrogen-peroxide Hydrochloric (very clean)

One part Hydrochloric Acid One part Hydrogen Peroxide Four parts water NEVER store it Etches in 3 - 5 minutes Available cheap from paint shops One part Hydrochloric Acid One part Hydrogen Peroxide Four parts water NEVER store it Etches in 3 - 5 minutes Available cheap from paint shops

Ferric Chloride

Page | 20

If making a single sided PCB then you only have one side of copper to worry about. The PCB should at least be kept in the solution for 1hour or as per requirement. During etching you will normally see the PCB tracks begin to appear through the board. Etching may be speeded up by warming the solution or adding a little salt to it. Do not use a metal vessel for etching as the etchant will attack If using the Hydrochloric etchant then just drop the board in the etchant until it is finished. If you insist on using the ferric Chloride then stick one or two strips of sticky tape to the back of the board to form one or two handles so that you can pick up the board without putting your fingers in the etchant. Lay the board on the surface of the etching solution so that it floats with the COPPER SIDE DOWN. Remove the board after a few seconds to inspect the surface of the copper. All the exposed copper should turn a deep "shitty brown" color. Specks of unwanted resist or even bubbles will leave copper spots where it should not be. Remove bubbles by gently stroking the board with a paper tissue wetted with etchant. If there are specks of resist then wash and dry the board then scrape the resist of before trying again Etching may be done during full daylight or with UV present; no harm will come to the board at this stage. After the itching is completely done, remove the PCB from the solution and wash it with water. Then use a nail remover or a blade to peel off the nail paint applied on it. ERRORS

Scratches will cause wanted copper to disappear. Splashes of Ferric Chloride will stain clothes, skin, metals and even the sink. Unwanted copper remains - not etched for sufficient time.

Page | 21

3.DRILLING
The lacquer (photo-resist) on the copper tracks may be used as a protective cover to prevent oxidization of the copper during storage and also gives a little mechanical protection during drilling / handling. Drilling should always be done with a high-speed drill and very little force should be applied to the drill to press it through the board. Doing so would cause the drill bit to become blunt prematurely, especially if drilling fibre-glass PCBs. It will also cause a rough edge to the board where the drill bit comes through the board. Use good sharp drill bits up to 1mm diameter. Use a stable drill instrument.

ERRORS

Drill bit wandering with small or absent etched guide hole. Moving the board or drill during drilling can break drill bits. Using the wrong drill bit for the job. Injury to eyes - use protective shield or spectacles. Drilling the wrong places - use good lighting and count the holes. Forgetting holes - drill from one end of the board to the other. Count the holes.

Page | 22

4. SOLDERING
Soldering is the only permanent way to fix components to a circuit. However, soldering requires a lot of practice as it is easy to destroy many hours preparation and design work by poor soldering. If you follow the guidelines below you have a good chance of success. 1. Use a soldering iron in good condition. Inspect the tip to make sure that it is not past good operation. If it looks in bad condition it will not help you solder a good joint. The shape of the tip may vary from one soldering iron to the next but generally they should look clean and not burnt. 2. The heated soldering iron should then be placed in contact with the track and the component and allowed to heat them up. Once they are heated the solder can be applied. The solder should flow through and around the component and the track. 3. Having completed soldering the circuit the extended legs on the components need to be trimmed using wire clippers. The circuit is now ready for testing.

Page | 23

INTRODUCTION
The first step in implementing any circuit is to represent its operation in terms of a Truth or Function table. The function table for an 8-bit data as input has 28 has 256 input combinations, which becomes unmanageable. Therefore, for the sake of simplicity a 4-bit data with odd parity is assumed. The receiver circuit is also based on the 4-bit data. The function table for the 4-bit data is shown. The function table represents the 16 possible combinations of 4 data bits. The 4 data bits are represented by variables D3, D2, D1 and D0. The output P represents the state of the Parity bit. Since Odd-Parity is being used therefore the 4-bit data and the parity bit should add up to give odd number of 1s. The function table shows the Parity bit set to 1 when the 16, 4-bit data input combinations have no 1s or an even number of 1s. The information in the function table is mapped directly to a four variable K-map to simplify the Boolean expression represented by the Odd-Parity generator function. None of the 1s mapped in the K-map are adjacent to each other thus the function mapped to the K-map can not be simplified.

The 2 input AND and OR gates and how many inverters would be required to implement the equation you got for P. AND: OR: NOT:

This circuit can be implemented with the chips in your lab kit, but that would leave only 1OR gate and no AND gates to implement our entire parity detection circuit !(not to mention that it would be a pain to wire up!). So, how can we simplify this further? This is one of those examples where you see why engineers can't be replaced by computers (yet - but we're working on it). The K-map guarantees us M.S.O.P. form, but that's not the simplest form for this problem.
Page | 24

Neither is the M.P.O.S. form we'd get from grouping the zeroes. This K-map shows a checkerboard pattern (every other square), meaning it implements either an XOR or XNOR function. If you look at the equation you got for P, if you did it right it can be rewritten as: P = (x'y'+xy)z' + (x'y+xy')z

we can implement this function as an XNOR of the four input variables,

Because of this property, XNOR is also known as the even function, and XOR is also known as the odd function (If we changed our truth table so that our output was 1 whenever there was an odd number of 1s, the resulting function would be an XOR; the K-map would still look like a checkerboard, but the first one would be in square 0001 instead of 0000). Create your parity detection circuit using the equation for E above as a macro in Digital Works with 4 inputs and 1 output, and wire it up on your breadboard (this will require 3 more XOR gates and one more inverter - you should have 2 7486 chips). Hook your parity generator to your parity detector and verify that it works correctly both in lab and in simulation. To test your simulation, embed your generator and detector macros in the same circuit as shown in the figure below:

Page | 25

Test your parity detector separately by disconnecting the P input from the parity generator circuit and hooking it to a switch instead. The equations in a way that we can implement with the parts we have. Certainly we have enough parts to implement A and B with just AND and OR gates, so let's just take a look at C (have to give you the answer here): C = y'z + xy We need to reformulate this equation to use something other than AND gates or OR gates. We've already used our XOR gates in part 1 of the lab. The two AND operations and one OR operation in the equation for C with NAND operations. Remember, x NAND y = (xy)' C=((y'z)'(xy)')' Using DeMorgan's Theorem, we can simplify C to: C= ((y'z)'(xy)')' = (y'z)''+(xy)'' = y'z +xy, which is our original equation for C! This means we can implement C as shown below, without changing the function at all:

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PIN ARRANGEMENT

Page | 27

PIN DESCRIPTION
Pin No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Description Input Input Even input Odd input Even output Odd output Gnd Input Input Input Input Input Input VCC

Page | 28

FUNCTION TABLE
of H at A through H Even Odd Even Odd X X Even (Pe) H H L L H L Odd (Po) L L H H H L Even (E) H L L H L H Odd (O) L H H L L H

LOGICAL DIAGRAM

Page | 29

Hence after completion of layout sketch, etching, drilling and soldering of PCB, our project look like as given below COMPONENT side

SOLDERING side

Page | 30

ANALOG PROJECT: FIRE ALARM

Page | 31

MARKET RESEARCH
Our topic for the mini project is FIRE ALARM. We have chosen this topic since it is interesting and used for many applications. We have selected this topic from magazine named as ELECTRONICS FOR YOU. We have also searched for some more information on URLs like www.google.com, www.circuitstoday.com and www.efymag.com . After the selection of Topic, College has provided us the PCB on which we have to make our projects. So now our work begins. We went to the shop to purchase basic things required such as graph paper, trace paper, carbon paper, nail paint, nail paint remover etc. we went to vashi, mulund and lamington road to purchase things such as resistor, capacitor, diode and the components required for our project. And hence finally we started to make our project with great enthusiasm and excitement.

Page | 32

PROCEDURE OF HOW TO MAKE A CIRCUIT

1. LAYOUT SKETCH
These complete instructions on making the PCB is how I made mine. There are many ways to make PCB's now-a-days, but if you would prefer to go a very inexpensive route and yet very accurate, the below layout will indeed suffice. From beginning to end, these step-by-step procedures will get you on your way to warm up that soldering iron when the time comes for soldering all of the components on the 'finished' PCB. Let's we begin: measurements. Measure it to be sure it is, in fact, 116 mm's by 80 mm's. If not exact, send the document to a Paint or Graphics Program and stretch or squeeze to adjust for said measurements. This is extremely important. Make sure the measurements (length and width) are no more 'off' then 1mm. Now trace the diagram on the trace paper. Take the PCB. Place a carbon paper on it and then turn the trace and keep it on the carbon paper so that we can trace our diagram accurately on the PCB. Darken the lines so that get gets properly traced on the PCB. We should note that the Ground line and the Vcc line should always be thicker than the rest of the connecting lines. After this remove the carbon and the trace paper from PCB and observe the diagram. IF diagram is traced properly then use a permanent marker or a nail paint to draw the lines on the PCB. Then take a pair of scissors and cut out the 116 mm's by 80 mm's printed-out template. Once the markings are dried then go for the itching process.

Page | 33

2.ETCHING

In all the subtractive PCB process, Etching is the one of the most important step. The final copper pattern is formed by selective removal of all the unwanted copper, which is not protected by an etch resist. There are two developers you can use, Ferric Chloride and Hydrochloric Acid/Hydrogen-peroxide Hydrochloric (very clean)

One part Hydrochloric Acid One part Hydrogen Peroxide Four parts water NEVER store it Etches in 3 - 5 minutes Available cheap from paint shops One part Hydrochloric Acid One part Hydrogen Peroxide Four parts water NEVER store it Etches in 3 - 5 minutes Available cheap from paint shops

Ferric Chloride

If making a single sided PCB then you only have one side of copper to worry about. The PCB should at least be kept in the solution for 1hour or as per requirement. During etching you will normally see the PCB tracks begin to appear through the board.
Page | 34

Etching may be speeded up by warming the solution or adding a little salt to it. Do not use a metal vessel for etching as the etchant will attack If using the Hydrochloric etchant then just drop the board in the etchant until it is finished. If you insist on using the ferric Chloride then stick one or two strips of sticky tape to the back of the board to form one or two handles so that you can pick up the board without putting your fingers in the etchant. Lay the board on the surface of the etching solution so that it floats with the COPPER SIDE DOWN. Remove the board after a few seconds to inspect the surface of the copper. All the exposed copper should turn a deep "shitty brown" color. Specks of unwanted resist or even bubbles will leave copper spots where it should not be. Remove bubbles by gently stroking the board with a paper tissue wetted with etchant. If there are specks of resist then wash and dry the board then scrape the resist of before trying again Etching may be done during full daylight or with UV present; no harm will come to the board at this stage. After the itching is completely done, remove the PCB from the solution and wash it with water. Then use a nail remover or a blade to peel off the nail paint applied on it.

ERRORS

Scratches will cause wanted copper to disappear. Splashes of Ferric Chloride will stain clothes, skin, metals and even the sink. Unwanted copper remains - not etched for sufficient time.

3. DRILLING
The lacquer (photo-resist) on the copper tracks may be used as a protective cover to prevent oxidization of the copper during storage and also gives a little mechanical protection during drilling / handling. Drilling should always be done with a high-speed drill and very little force should be applied to the drill to press it through the board. Doing so would cause the drill bit to become blunt prematurely, especially if drilling fibre-glass PCBs.

Page | 35

It will also cause a rough edge to the board where the drill bit comes through the board. Use good sharp drill bits up to 1mm diameter. Use a stable drill instrument.

ERRORS

Drill bit wandering with small or absent etched guide hole. Moving the board or drill during drilling can break drill bits. Using the wrong drill bit for the job. Injury to eyes - use protective shield or spectacles. Drilling the wrong places - use good lighting and count the holes. Forgetting holes - drill from one end of the board to the other. Count the holes.

4. SOLDERING
Soldering is the only permanent way to fix components to a circuit. However, soldering requires a lot of practice as it is easy to destroy many hours preparation and design work by poor soldering. If you follow the guidelines below you have a good chance of success. 1. Use a soldering iron in good condition. Inspect the tip to make sure that it is not past good operation. If it looks in bad condition it will not help you solder a good joint. The shape of the tip may vary from one soldering iron to the next but generally they should look clean and not burnt. 2. The heated soldering iron should then be placed in contact with the track and the component and allowed to heat them up. Once they are heated the solder
Page | 36

can be applied. The solder should flow through and around the component and the track 3. Having completed soldering the circuit the extended legs on the components need to be trimmed using wire clippers. The circuit is now ready for testing.

Page | 37

INTRODUCTION
An automatic fire alarm system is designed to detect the unwanted presence of fire by monitoring environmental changes associated with combustion. In general, a fire alarm system is either classified as automatically actuated, manually actuated, or both. Automatic fire alarm systems can be used to notify people to evacuate in the event of a fire or other emergency, to summon emergency services, and to prepare the structure and associated systems to control the spread of fire and smoke.

Design
After the fire protection goals are established - usually by referencing the minimum levels of protection mandated by the appropriate model building code, insurance agencies, and other authorities - the fire alarm designer undertakes to detail specific components, arrangements, and interfaces necessary to accomplish these goals. Equipment specifically manufactured for these purposes are selected and standardized installation methods are anticipated during the design. In the United States, NFPA 72, The National Fire Alarm Code is an established and widely used installation standard.

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FUNDAMENTAL CONFIGURATION

A Honeywell DeltaNet FS90 fire alarm control panel.

Fire alarm control panel: This component, the hub of the system, monitors inputs and system integrity, controls outputs and relays information. Primary Power supply: Commonly the non-switched 120 or 240 Volt Alternating Current source supplied from a commercial power utility. In nonresidential applications, a branch circuit is dedicated to the fire alarm system and its constituents. "Dedicated branch circuits" should not be confused with "Individual branch circuits" which supply energy to a single appliance. Secondary (backup) Power supplies: This component, commonly consisting of sealed lead-acid storage batteries or other emergency sources including generators, is used to supply energy in the event of a primary power failure. Initiating Devices: This component acts as an input to the fire alarm control unit and are either manually or automatically actuated. Notification appliances: This component uses energy supplied from the fire alarm system or other stored energy source, to inform the proximate persons of the need to take action, usually to evacuate. Building Safety Interfaces: This interface allows the fire alarm system to control aspects of the built environment and to prepare the building for fire and to control the spread of smoke fumes and fire by influencing air movement, lighting, process control, human transport and exit.

Page | 39

NOTIFICATION APPLIANCES

A Honeywell speaker and a Space Age Electronics V33 remote light.

Audible, visible, tactile, textual or even olfactory stimuli (odorizer).[1] to alert the occupants. Audible or visible signals are the most common and may utilize speakers to deliver live or pre-recorded instructions to the occupants. In the United States, fire alarm evacuation signals are required to use a standardized interrupted four count temporal pattern to avoid confusion with other signals using similar sounding appliances. Other methods include: Audible textual appliances, which are employed as part of a fire alarm system that includes Emergency Voice Alarm Communications (EVAC) capabilities. High reliability speakers are used to notify the occupants of the need for action in connection with a fire or other emergency. These speakers are employed in large facilities where general undirected evacuation is considered impracticable or undesirable. The signals from the speakers are used to direct the occupant's response. The system may be controlled from one or more locations within the building known as Fire Wardens Stations, or from a single location designated as the building Fire Command Center. Speakers are automatically actuated by the fire alarm system in a fire event, and following a pre-alert tone, selected groups of speakers may transmit one or more prerecorded messages directing the occupants to safety. These messages may be repeated in one or more languages. Trained personnel activating and speaking into a dedicated microphone can suppress the replay of automated messages in order to initiate or relay real time voice instructions. [2]

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BUILDING SAFETY INTERFACES

S.H. Couch F5GX non-coded fire alarm pull station below a Couch 10" bell.

Magnetic Smoke Door Holders: Wall or floor mounted solenoids or electromagnets controlled by a fire alarm system or detection component that magnetically secures spring-loaded self-closing smoke tight doors in the open position. Designed to de-magnetize to allow automatic closure of the door on command from the fire control or upon failure of the power source, interconnection or controlling element. Stored energy in the form of a spring or gravity can then close the door to restrict the passage of smoke from one space to another in an effort to maintain a tenable atmosphere on either side of the door during evacuation and fire fighting efforts. Duct Mounted Smoke Detection: Smoke detection mounted in such a manner as to sample the airflow through duct work and other plenums specifically fabricated for the transport of environmental air into conditioned spaces. Interconnection to the fan motor control circuits are intended to stop air movement, close dampers and generally prevent the recirculation of toxic smoke and fumes produced by fire into occupiable spaces.

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UK fire alarm system categories

There are many types of fire alarm systems each suited to different building types and applications. A fire alarm system can vary dramatically in both price and complexity, from a single panel with a detector and sounder in a small commercial property to an addressable fire alarm system in a multi-occupancy building. Systems have to protect both buildings and occupants. The categories of fire alarm systems are L if they are designed to protect life, P to protect buildings and M if they are manual systems. [3] Manual systems, e.g. hand bells, gongs, etc. These may be purely manual or manual electric, the latter may have call points and sounders. They rely on the occupants of the building discovering the fire and acting to warn others by operating the system. Such systems form the basic requirement for places of employment with no sleeping risk. The system is installed throughout the building - the objective being to call the fire brigade as early as possible to ensure that any damage caused by fire is minimized. Small low risk areas can be excepted, such as toilets and cupboards less than 1m. Detection should be provided in parts of the building where the risk of ignition is high and/or the contents are particularly valuable. Category 2 systems provide fire detection in specified parts of the building where there is either high risk or where business disruption must be minimised. A category L1 system is designed for the protection of life and which has automatic detectors installed throughout all areas of the building (including roof spaces and voids) with the aim of providing the earliest possible warning. A category L1 system is likely to be appropriate for the majority of residential care premises. In practice, detectors should be placed in nearly all spaces and voids. With category 1 systems, the whole of a building is covered apart from minor exceptions. A category L2 system designed for the protection of life and which has automatic detectors installed in escape routes, rooms adjoining escape routes and high hazard rooms. In a medium sized premises (sleeping no more than ten residents), a category L2 system is ideal. These fire alarm systems are identical to an L3 system but with additional detection in an area where there is a high chance of ignition, e.g., kitchen) or where the risk to people is particularly increased (e.g., sleeping risk). This category is designed to give early warning to everyone. Detectors should be placed in all escape routes and all rooms that open onto escape routes. Category 3 systems provide more extensive cover than category 4. The
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P1

P2

L1

L2

L3

objective is to warn the occupants of the building early enough to ensure that all are able to exit the building before escape routes become impassable. Category 4 systems cover escape routes and circulation areas only. Therefore, detectors will be placed in escape routes, although this may not be suitable L4 depending on the risk assessment or if the size and complexity of a building is increased. Detectors might be sited in other areas of the building, but the objective is to protect the escape route. This is the "all other situations" category, e.g., computer rooms, which may be protected with an extinguishing system triggered by automatic detection. L5 Category 5 systems are the "custom" category and relate to some special requirement that cannot be covered by any other category.

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FIRE DEPARTMENTS

The Roman emperor Augustus is credited with instituting a corps of fire-fighting vigiles (watchmen) in 24 bc. Regulations for checking and preventing fires were developed. In the preindustrial era most cities had watchmen who sounded an alarm at signs of fire. The principal piece of fire-fighting equipment in ancient Rome and into early modern times was the bucket, passed from hand to hand to deliver water to the fire. Another important fire-fighting tool was the ax, used to remove the fuel and prevent the spread of fire as well as to make openings that would allow heat and smoke to escape a burning building. In major conflagrations long hooks with ropes were used to pull down buildings in the path of an approaching fire to create firebreaks. When explosives were available, they would be used for this same purpose. Following the Great Fire of London in 1666, fire brigades were formed by insurance companies. The government was not involved until 1865, when these brigades became London's Metropolitan Fire Brigade. The first modern standards for the operation of a fire department were not established until 1830, in Edinburgh, Scotland. These standards explained, for the first time, what was expected of a good fire department. After a major fire in Boston in 1631, the first fire regulation in America was established. In 1648 in New Amsterdam (now New York) fire wardens were appointed, thereby establishing the beginnings of the first public fire department in North America.
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A Fire Departments in the United States

In the modern sense, fire departments constitute a comparatively recent development. Their personnel are either volunteer (nonsalaried) or career (salaried). Typically, volunteer fire fighters are found mainly in smaller communities, career fire fighters in cities. The modern department with salaried personnel and standardized equipment became an integral part of municipal administration only late in the 19th century.

A1 Organization
In some cities a fire commissioner administers the department; other cities have a board of fire commissioners with a fire chief as executive officer and head of the uniformed force; in still other cities a safety director may be in charge of both police and fire departments. The basic operating unit of the fire department is the company, commanded by a captain. A captain may be on duty on each shift, although in some fire departments lieutenants and sergeants command companies when the captain is off duty. Fire companies are usually organized by types of apparatus: engine companies, ladder companies, and squad or rescue companies.

A2 Fire Alarms
Fire-alarm systems came into existence with the invention of the telegraph. Today many communities are served either with the telegraph-alarm system or with telephone call boxes. Most fires, however, are reported from private telephones. Many large cities have removed all or many of their street alarm boxes because of problems associated with maintenance and with false alarm transmissions. Some boxes have been replaced with telephones. All alarms are then transmitted to the fire stations. In large cities, alarms are received at a central dispatch office and then transmitted to fire stations, frequently with the use of mobile teleprinters and computers. Apparatus is dispatched according to the nature of the alarm and location of the fire. Many modern departments are now equipped with computer-aided dispatch systems that can track the status of all units and provide vital information about the buildings where fires occur. Typically, on a first alarm, more apparatus is sent to industrial sections, schools, institutions, and theaters than to neighborhoods of one-family dwellings. Additional personnel, volunteer or off duty, is called as needed. Fires that cannot be brought under control by the apparatus responding to the first alarm are called multiple-alarm fires, with each additional alarm bringing more fire fighters and
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apparatus to the scene. Special calls are sent for specific types of equipment. Mutual aid and regional mobilization plans are in effect among adjacent fire departments for assisting each other in fighting fires.

A3 Fire Prevention
Perhaps more important than fire fighting itself in many modern industrial countries is fire prevention. In Russia and Japan, for example, fire prevention is treated as a responsibility of citizenship. Fire fighters in the U.S. are trained in basic fire-prevention methods, and fire companies are assigned inspection districts in which they attempt to prevent or correct unsafe conditions. Fire departments are charged with enforcement of the local fire-prevention code and of state fire laws and regulations. A fire-prevention bureau in the fire department usually directs fire prevention activities. It handles the more technical fire-prevention problems, maintains appropriate records, grants licenses and permits, investigates the causes of fires, and conducts public education programs. All commercial or multiple-dwelling buildings are inspected at regular intervals, and orders are issued for the correction of violations of fire laws. If necessary, court action is taken to compel compliance. In some communities protected by volunteer or part-time paid fire departments, fire prevention is the responsibility of a state or county fire marshal or of a professional fire staff in an otherwise voluntary organization. In addition, fire departments usually inspect commercial buildings for what is called prefire planning. Private dwellings may also be inspected as part of a fire department's educational program to impress the importance of fire safety on the inhabitants and to check for any unsafe conditions.

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Forest Fire and Line Crew A line crew gathers shovels and axes to make a trench to stop the oncoming forest fire. In extremely dry or remote areas, firefighters often try to contain a fire by separating it from new sources of fuel with such a firebreak, instead of attempting to extinguish it. Despite efforts to limit and prevent forest fires, millions of acres of trees are lost to fire every year.

A4 Emergencies
Many modern fire departments spend a decreasing amount of overall activity in fighting fires. Instead, fire fighters typically respond to all kinds of emergencies. For example, in the U.S. approximately 70 percent of all emergency medical calls are handled by the fire service. The same is true in many other countries. The enormous increase in transportation of hazardous materials or dangerous goods has resulted in intensified training for fire fighters, and their departments often provide them with chemical protective clothing and monitoring equipment. Fire departments also prepare and equip their members to handle emergencies that result from earthquakes, plane crashes, and violent storms. In addition, fire fighters handle incidents that require extricating trapped people from fallen structures, from cave-ins, and from other situations.

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B Fire Departments Outside the United States

Although fire fighting is largely a matter of local jurisdiction in the U.S., many countries have more centralized fire departments. Italy has a national fire service (Corpo Nazionale-Vigili del Fuoco) organized into 92 provinces, administered from 12 regional centers. In the United Kingdom, local fire departments are organized into county, borough, and special district departments, all under a chief inspector of fire services. In France, fire protection is administered in sectors, except in Paris, where the fire department is operated by the Sapeurs-Pompiers, a brigade of the French= army, and in Marseille, where it is administered by the navy. The Japanese government administers 43 regional and 3 metropolitan fire departments. In Denmark, local governments contract for fire-fighting services with companies under supervision of the Ministry of Justice. In Germany, professional fire brigades operate in large cities; volunteer brigades serve the small towns. In all industrial countries fire fighters undergo training, beginning with probationary fire fighters' school and continuing throughout a fire fighter's career. Great Britain has several fire training centers. In Russia, fire schools are in Moscow and Saint Petersburg; Sweden and Denmark have similar schools. In some European countries fire protection and fire fighting are among the courses included in teaching safety engineering.

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International fire service and fire protection associations bring together leaders of the fire services of many nations. In Europe Comit Technique International de Prevention et d'Extinction du Feu (CTIF) has over 30 member nations, including Russia. The Organizacin Iberoamericana de Proteccin Contra Incendios (OPCI) brings together the fire service leaders of all Latin American countries. The Asia-Pacific region is served by the Asian Pacific Fire Safety Association (APAC).

III FIGHTING THE FIRE

Most fire fighting consists of applying water to the burning material, cooling it to the point at which combustion is no longer self-sustaining. Fires involving flammable liquids, certain chemicals, and combustible metals often require special extinguishing agents and techniques. With some fuels the use of water may actually be dangerous.

A Fire Engines
The first fire engines, which appeared in the 17th century, were simply tubs carried on runners, long poles, or wheels; water was still supplied to the fire site by bucket brigade. The tub functioned as a reservoir and sometimes housed a hand-operated pump that forced water through a pipe or nozzle to waiting buckets. The invention of a hand-stitched leather hosepipe in the Netherlands about 1672 enabled fire fighters to work closer to the fire without endangering their engines and to increase the accuracy of water placement. At about the same time the development of pumping devices made it possible to draw water from rivers and ponds.

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In the early 19th century copper rivets replaced the stitching on hoses, and 15-m (50-ft) lengths coupled with brass fittings enabled fire fighters to convey water through narrow passages, up stairways, and into buildings, while the pumps operated in the street. Cotton-covered rubber hose was developed around 1870. The steam-pump fire engine, introduced in London in 1829 by John Ericsson and John Braithwaite, was used in many large cities by the 1850s. Most steam pumpers were equipped with reciprocating piston pumps, although a few rotary pumps were used. Some were self-propelled, but most used horses for propulsion, conserving steam pressure for the pump. Steam fire engines were used in fighting the Chicago fire of 1871. With the development of the internal-combustion engine early in the 20th century, pumpers became motorized. Because of problems in adapting geared rotary gasoline engines to pumps, the first gasoline-powered fire engines had two motors, one to drive the pump and the other to propel the vehicle. The first pumper using a single engine for pumping and propulsion was manufactured in the United States in 1907. By 1925 the steam pumper had been completely replaced by motorized pumpers. The pumps were originally of the piston or reciprocating type, but these were gradually replaced by rotary pumps and finally by centrifugal pumps, used by most modern pumpers. At the same time, the pumper acquired its main characteristics: a powerful pump that can supply water in a large range of volumes and pressures; several thousand feet of fire hose, with short lengths of large-diameter hose for attachment to hydrants; and a water tank for the initial attack on a fire while fire fighters connect the pump to hydrants, and for areas where no water supply is available. In rural areas, pumpers carry suction hose to draw water from rivers and ponds. Current standards for pumper fire apparatus require that a fire pump have a minimum capacity of 2840 liters (750 gallons)per minute at a pump pressure of 10.35 bar (150 psi). They also call for a water tank capacity of at least 1893 liters (500 gallons).

B Auxiliary Equipment
Auxiliary vehicles are equipped with specialized equipment for effecting rescue, ventilating buildings, and salvage. Aerial ladders that typically extend to 30.5 m (100 ft) are carried on hook and ladder vehicles that also hold various kinds of tools and equipment, including heavy-duty jacks and air bags, extrication tools,
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oxyacetylene torches, self-contained breathing apparatus, and resuscitators. Other more basic equipment includes axes, shovels, picks, battering rams, power saws, hooks, and wrenches. Elevating platform trucks can raise fire fighters and equipment, including the water delivery system, as high as 30.5 m (100 ft). Rescue trucks carry a wide assortment of specialized emergency equipment, including the type that might be used in building collapses and cave-ins. Field communications units carry sophisticated electronic equipment for use in managing fire and emergency operations. Salvage trucks carry implements for reducing water damage, including large waterproof covers, dewatering devices, and tools for shutting off water flow from sprinkler heads. Hazardous materials response units are staffed with specially trained personnel equipped with protective clothing and monitoring devices for use at chemical spills and similar incidents.

C Fireboats
Shipboard fires present special problems ranging from small fires in cabin cruisers to tanker fires involving thousands of metric tons of oil. Some of the special problems include complicated ship layouts, the danger of capsizing, and the difficulty of pinpointing and gaining access to the source of the fire. Fireboats, in sizes ranging from small, high-speed, jet-propelled rescue craft to large fire tugs, carry substantially all the fire-fighting equipment found on land apparatus. These include pumps, ladders, and rescue equipment, as well as special equipment necessary for marine fire fighting and water rescues, including rotating and angled nozzles, portable pumps, floating booms, foam-making apparatus, and special extinguishers such as carbon dioxide systems.

D At the Fire
The basic tactics of fighting a fire can be divided into the following categories: rescue operations, protection of buildings exposed to the fire, confinement of the fire, extinguishing the fire, and salvage operations. The officer in charge, usually designated as the fireground commander, surveys the area and evaluates the relative importance of these categories. The commander also estimates what additional assistance or apparatus may be needed. Rescue operations are always given priority. Fire fighter safety has assumed increasing importance. Once the fireground commander has appraised the situation, fire fighters and equipment are deployed. Pumper, ladder, and other truck companies, as well as
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rescue squads, are assigned to different areas of the fire, usually in accordance with the number and types of hose streams the fireground commander considers necessary to control the fire and prevent its spread. In accordance with standard procedure for first alarms, fire companies go immediately to their assigned locations without waiting for specific orders. Special plans cover contingencies such as a fire covering a large area, a large building, or a particularly hazardous location. Usually on a first alarm one of the pumpers attacks the fire as quickly as possible, using preconnected hose lines supplied by the water tank in the truck, while larger hose lines are being attached to the hydrants. Members of the ladder and rescue companies force their way into the building, search for victims, ventilate the structurebreak windows or cut holes in the roof to allow smoke and heat to escapeand perform salvage operations. Ventilating the structure helps to advance the hose lines with greater safety and ease, and also serves to safeguard persons who may still be trapped in the building. Temperatures within a burning building may exceed 815 C (1500 F). Brightly burning fires principally generate heat, but smoldering fires also produce combustible gases that need only additional oxygen to burn with explosive force. The hazards to which fire fighters and occupants of a burning building are exposed include the breathing of superheated air, toxic smoke and gases, and oxygen-deficient air, as well as burns, injuries from jumping or falling, broken glass, falling objects, or collapsing structures. Handling a hose is difficult even before the line is charged with water under pressure. Nozzle reaction forces can amount to several hundred pounds, requiring the efforts of several people to direct a stream of water.

D1 Types of Nozzles
Various nozzles are capable of projecting solid, heavy streams of water, curtains of spray, or fog. Fire trucks carry a selection of nozzles, which are used according to the amount of heat that must be absorbed. Nozzles can apply water in the form of streams, spray, or fog at rates of flow between 57 liters (15 gallons) to more than 380 liters (more than 100 gallons)per minute. Straight streams of water have greater reach and penetration, but fog absorbs heat more quickly because the water droplets present a greater surface area and distribute the water more widely. Fog nozzles may be used to disperse vapors from flammable liquids, although foam is generally used to extinguish fires in flammable liquids.
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D2 Water Additives
A variety of chemicals may be added to water to improve its ability to extinguish fires. Wetting agents added to water can reduce its surface tension. This makes the water more penetrating and facilitates the formation of small drops necessary for rapid heat absorption. By adding foam-producing chemicals and liquids to water, a fire-blanketing foam is produced. Foam is used to extinguish fires in combustible liquids, such as oil, petroleum, and tar, and for fighting fires at airports, refineries, and petroleum distribution facilities. A chemical additive can expand the volume of foam 1000 times. This highexpansion foam-water solution is useful in fighting fires in basements and other difficult-to-reach areas because the fire can be smothered quickly with relatively little water damage.

D3 Salvage
This term refers to the methods by which fire fighters protect merchandise, household goods, and the interiors of buildings from smoke and water damage. Objects are covered with waterproof covers, and water is removed by water vacuums, mops, squeegees, water chutes, and portable pumps. Almost all fire departments carry salvage equipment in their apparatus. Fire departments in some large cities maintain special salvage companies.

E Forest Fires
Forest fires, often called wildland fires, are spread by the transfer of heat, in this case to grass, brush, shrubs, and trees. Because it is frequently difficult to extinguish a forest fire by attacking it directly, the principal effort of forest fire fighters is often directed toward controlling its spread by creating a gap, or firebreak, across which fire cannot move. Firebreaks are made, and the fire crews attempt to stop the fire by several methods: trenching, direct attack with hose streams, aerial bombing, spraying of fire-retarding chemicals, and controlled back-burning. As much as possible, advantage is taken of streams, open areas, and other natural obstacles when establishing a firebreak. Wide firebreaks may be dug with plows and bulldozers. The sides of the firebreaks are soaked with water or chemicals to slow the combustion process. Some parts of the fire may be allowed to burn themselves out. Fire-fighting crews must be alert to prevent outbreaks of fire on the unburned side of the firebreaks.
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Fire-fighting crews are trained and organized to handle fires covering large areas. They establish incident command posts, commissaries, and supply depots. Twoway radios are used to control operations, and airplanes are employed to drop supplies as well as chemicals. Helicopters serve as command posts and transport fire fighters and their equipment to areas that cannot be reached quickly on the ground. Some severe wildfires have required more than 10,000 fire fighters to be engaged at the same time. The U.S. Forest Service maintains research laboratories, which develop improved fire-fighting equipment and techniques, and a school that trains fire fighters in the latest fire-fighting techniques. International conferences on wildland fire prevention and fire fighting have been held with greater frequency in recent years.

IV PRIVATE FIRE PROTECTION

Commercial and industrial buildings usually have some sort of internal, or private, fire-protection system installed.

A Sprinkler Systems
A sprinkler system is an integrated system of underground and overhead piping, designed in accordance with fire protection engineering standards, and connected to one or more automatic water supplies. The system is usually activated by heat from a fire, and the sprinkler heads then discharge water over the fire area. Sprinkler systems are nearly 100 percent effective. Many sprinkler systems are supervised electrically from a central station, and alarms are transmitted to a fire department whenever the sprinklers operate or when a valve in the sprinkler system closes for any reason. If a fire-fighting unit arriving at a fire finds that the sprinkler system is not receiving sufficient water and pressure, a pumper is connected to the sprinkler system to supply additional water.

B Standpipe Systems
Many high-rise or other large buildings have an internal system of water mains (standpipes) connected to fire-hose stations. Trained occupants or employees of the building management operate the hoses until the fire department arrives. Fire fighters can also connect their hoses to outlets near the fire.

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C Alarm Systems
Buildings may also be equipped with detection systems that will transmit an alarm. Some detectors are designed to respond to smoke, and others to heat. In many jurisdictions, detection systems are required in public buildings, apartment houses, and sometimes even in private homes. Two major types of smoke detectors are available. One is an ionization device that contains a small radioactive source for ionizing the air molecules between a pair of electrodes, permitting a very small current to flow between the pair. If smoke particles from a fire enter this space, they reduce the flow of current by adhering to the ionized molecules. The drop in current sets off a buzzer or other alarm. The second type of smoke detector uses a photoelectric cell. In some of these detectors, smoke that enters obscures a steady beam of light; in others, the smoke scatters a light ray from a diode so that the cell can detect it. In either case the change sets off an alarm. The alarm may sound locally, or it may be designed to alert a central station with notification to the fire department. Photoelectric detectors are slower than ionization detectors, and sometimes both principles are combined. Both types can be run by batteries or by building current.

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CIRCUIT DIADRAM

SPECIFICATIONS
1) Resistor R1 =1KE R2=4.7KE R3=1K R4=47KE VR1=100KE 2) Capacitors-C1,2-0.01uF C3 100 uF/16v 3)IC1555 4)T1- BC548 5) Loud Speaker 8 ohm 6)Diode- IN4148
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CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION
The circuit consists of one NE555 IC, resistors, capacitors, diode (thermistor) and loud speaker. The 555 has three operating modes:

Monostable mode: in this mode, the 555 functions as a "oneshot". Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bouncefree switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) etc Astable - free running mode: the 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation, etc. Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: the 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include bouncefree latched switches, etc. Diode control the speaker where diode is dependent on the temperature.

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WORKING OF FIRE ALARM

Many fire alarm circuits are presented here,but this time a new circuit using a thermistor and a timer to do the trick. The circuit is as simple and straight forward so that , it can be easily implemented.The thermistor offers a low resistance at high temperature and high resistance at low temperature. This phenomenon is employed here for sensing the fire. The IC1 (NE555) is configured as a free running oscillator at audio frequency. The transistors T1 drive IC1. The output(pin 3) of IC1 is couples to base of transistor T1which drives the speaker to generate alarm sound. The frequency of NE555 depends on the values of resistances R5 and R6 and capacitance C2.When thermistor becomes hot, it gives a low-resistance path for the positive voltage to the base of transistor T1 through diode D1 and resistance R2. Capacitor C1 charges up to the positive supply voltage and increases the the time for which the alarm is ON. The larger the value of C1, the larger the positive bias applied to the base of transistor T1 (BC548). As the collector of T1 is coupled to the base of transistor , the transistor provides a positive voltage to pin 4 (reset) of IC1 (NE555). Resistor R4 is selected s0 that NE555 keeps inactive in the absence of the positive voltage. Diode D1 stops discharging of capacitor C1 when the thermistor is in connection with the positive supply voltage cools out and provides a high resistance path. It also inhibits the forward biasing of transistor T1.

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USES
Fire-alarm systems came into existence with the invention of the telegraph. Today many communities are served either with the telegraph-alarm system or with telephone call boxes. Most fires, however, are reported from private telephones. Many large cities have removed all or many of their street alarm boxes because of problems associated with maintenance and with false alarm transmissions. Some boxes have been replaced with telephones. All alarms are then transmitted to the fire stations. In large cities, alarms are received at a central dispatch office and then transmitted to fire stations, frequently with the use of mobile teleprinters and computers. Apparatus is dispatched according to the nature of the alarm and location of the fire. Many modern departments are now equipped with computer-aided dispatch systems that can track the status of all units and provide vital information about the buildings where fires occur. Typically, on a first alarm, more apparatus is sent to industrial sections, schools, institutions, and theaters than to neighborhoods of one-family dwellings. Additional personnel, volunteer or off duty, is called as needed. Fires that cannot be brought under control by the apparatus responding to the first alarm are called multiple-alarm fires, with each additional alarm bringing more fire fighters and apparatus to the scene. Special calls are sent for specific types of equipment. Mutual aid and regional mobilization plans are in effect among adjacent fire departments for assisting each other in fighting fires.

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Hence after completion of layout sketch, etching, drilling and soldering of PCB, our project look like as given below

Soldering side

Component side

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

www.circiutstoday.com www.wikipedia.com www.google.com www.allaboutcircuits.com Microsoft Encarta encyclopedia www.datasheetarchive.com R.P. Jain, Modern digital electronics www.hitachi.com National Geographic

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