Earthquake Introduction: The vibration of earth that accompanies an earthquake is one of the most terrifying natural phenomena known.

From geological point of view, earthquakes provide the evidences of the instability of the earths crust and a logical starting point for any examination of the dynamics of the earth. Earthquakes are largely confined to relatively narrow zones in the lithosphere. These zones of high seismic activity are a key to identifying the boundaries of the major lithospheric plates. Earthquakes are associated with large fractures, or faults, in the earths crust or upper mantle. Most earthquakes take place along faults in the upper 25 miles of the earth's surface when one side rapidly moves relative to the other side of the fault.

The following points should be noted in case of construction is a seismically active region 1) Tectonic features 2) Distance from the active fault 3) Magnitude of the expected earthquake 4) Nature of the foundation material 5) Dynamic characteristics of the structure to be constructed In case of a building structure are following points are to be taken care of to minimize the effect of earthquake1) Good quality construction material as per specification should be used

2) The foundation should not be on loose ground, rather it should be preferably on solid rock

3) Depth of foundation should be uniform

4) Foundation outline approximating a square gives more stability

5) The walls should be continuous in nature with few doors and windows. Too many doors and windows and discontinuous walls lower the stability

6) Doors and windows should not be in vertical rows, preferably along the diagonals

7) Reinforced concrete should be used more commonly than brick works

8) Roof should be flat and of reinforced concrete to add the lateral stiffness

9) All the parts of a building should be well tied so that it moves as a single unit during an earthquake vibration

10) Height of the building should be kept uniform , which adds to the stability

11) Construction of chimneys, arches, domes , cantilevers and other extra projections should be avoided Elastic Rebound Theory:

In geology, the elastic rebound theory was the first theory to satisfactorily explain earthquakes. Previously it was thought that ruptures of the surface were the result of strong ground shaking rather than the converse suggested by this theory.

According to this theory an earthquake is the result of the elastic rebound of previously stored elastic strain energy in the rocks on either side of the fault. In an interseismic period the earth's plates move relative to each other except at most plate boundaries where they are locked. Consider two plates moving in opposite

directions. But because they are pressed together by the weight of the overlying rock, friction locks them together. Instead of slipping taking place along the fault, the blocks are deformed in the vicinity of the fault. As the rock is strained, elastic energy is stored in it.

The deformation builds at the rate of a few cm per year, over a time period of many years. When the accumulated strain is great enough to

overcome the frictional strength of the rocks an earthquake occurs.

The blocks suddenly slip at a certain point. This point is known as the focus (or hypocenter) earthquake. Once rupture is initiated, it will travel at a high speed. In great earthquakes, the slip, or offset of the blocks can be as large as 15 m. of the

What is an earthquake? Once the frictional bond is broken, the elastic energy, which has been slowly stored over tens or hundreds of years, is suddenly released in the form of intense seismic vibrations which constitute the earthquake. The seismic waves propagate large distances in all directions away from the fault. Near the focus the waves can have large destructive amplitudes. The time required to build up elastic energy in the rocks, adjacent to a fault, is enormous compared to the time that elapses during the release of stored energy, for earthquakes last only a few minutes.

Terminology:

Focus/hypocenter: The location of an earthquake's hypocenter is the position where the energy stored in the strain in the rock is released

Epicenter: The epicenter is the point on the Earth's surface that is directly above the hypocenter or focus, the point where an earthquake or other underground explosion originates. Measurement of Earthquakes: The amount of stored energy can be measured in several ways. Two most common methods are: 1. Measuring the distortion of surveyed lines. 2. Measuring the energy of the released seismic waves. Energy released is the most precise way of measuring the size of an earthquake. But it is a long, complicated process to determine the fault dimensions, the slip and other factors needed to compute it. Thats why Richter magnitude scale is used, which is based on the amplitude of seismic waves recorded by seismographs.

Richter magnitude scale: The Richter magnitude scale, or more correctly local magnitude ML scale, assigns a single number to quantify the amount of seismic energy released by an earthquake. It is a base-10 logarithmic scale obtained by calculating the logarithm of the combined horizontal amplitude of the largest displacement from zero on a seismometer output. Adjustments are included to compensate for the variation in the distance between the various seismographs and the epicenter of the earthquake. Because of the logarithmic basis of the scale, each whole number increase in magnitude represents a tenfold increase in measured amplitude; in terms of energy, each whole number increase corresponds to an increase of about 32 times the amount of energy released. Seismographs can easily detect earthquakes of magnitude less than 1. Events with magnitudes of about 4.6 or greater are strong enough to be recorded by any of the seismographs in the world. The largest earthquakes yet recorded show Richter magnitude of about 8.5.

Determination of Earthquake Magnitude from a Seismograph Reading:

a m = log + B T

Where,

m = magnitude A = maximum trace motion a = maximum ground motion (microns = 10-6m) = A/magnification of seismograph B = correction factor that allows for the weakening of seismic waves with increasing distance from the earthquake (found from table using distance) T = duration of one oscillation or period of seismic wave (sec)

Seismograph: Seismographs are used by seismologists to measure and record the size and force of seismic waves. By studying seismic waves, geologists can map the interior of the Earth, and measure and locate earthquakes and other ground motions.

Earthquake magnitude, effects and statistics: The following describes the typical effects of earthquakes of various magnitudes near the epicenter.

This table should be taken with extreme caution, since intensity and thus ground effects depend not only on the magnitude, but also on the distance to the epicenter, the depth of the earthquake's focus beneath the epicenter, and geological conditions (certain terrains can amplify seismic signals). Types of Seismic Waves: There are mainly two types of seismic waves: 1. Body Wave 2. Surface wave 1. Body Waves: Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth. Body waves transmit the first-arriving tremors of an earthquake, as well as many later arrivals. There are two kinds of body waves: Primary (P-waves) and Secondary (S-waves).

a. P waves: P waves are longitudinal or compressional waves, which mean that the ground is alternately compressed and dilated in the direction of propagation. In solids these waves generally travel slightly less than twice as fast as S waves and can travel through any type of material. P waves are sometimes called "primary waves". When generated by an earthquake they are less destructive than the S waves and surface waves that follow them, due to their lesser amplitudes. b. S waves: S waves are transverse or shear waves, which mean that the ground is displaced perpendicularly to the direction of propagation. S waves can travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and gases) do not support shear stresses. Their speed is about 60% of that of P waves in a given material. S waves are sometimes called "secondary waves", and are several times larger in amplitude than P waves for earthquake sources. 2. Surface Waves: Surface waves are analogous to water waves and travel just under the Earth's surface. They travel more slowly than body waves. Because of their low frequency, long duration, and large amplitude, they can be the most destructive type of seismic wave. There are two types of surface waves: Rayleigh waves and Long waves. a. Rayleigh waves: Rayleigh waves, also called ground roll, are surface waves that travel as ripples similar to those on the surface of water. They are slower than body waves, roughly 70% of the velocity of S waves, and have been asserted to be visible during an earthquake in an open space like a parking lot where the cars move up and down with the waves.

b. Long Waves: Long waves are surface waves that cause horizontal shearing of the ground. They usually travel slightly faster than Rayleigh waves, about 90% of the S wave velocity.

How to Locate the Epicenter? The principal is quite similar to deducing the distance to a lightning bolt from the time interval between the flash and the sound. The lightning flash may be likened to the P waves of earthquake and the thunder to the S waves. Due to certain difference in wave velocity, the interval between the arrival of P and S waves increases with the distance traveled by the waves, and for each S-P time interval there is associated a definite distance to the epicenter. This is indicated in the travel time chart for P and S waves in the following figure.

Knowing the distance, say XA of an earthquake from a given station, one can only say the earthquake lies on a circle of radius XA, centered on station A. If however, one also knows the distances from two additional stations B and C, the three circles centered on the 3 stations, with radii XA(=1500 km), XB(=5600 km), and XC(=8600 km) intersect uniquely at the point Q, the epicenter.

How to Determine the Richter Magnitude?

To determine Richter magnitude at varying distances from the epicenter, connect on the nomogram: (A) the maximum amplitude recorded by a standard seismometer and (B) the distance of seismometer from the epicenter of the earthquake (or difference in arrival times of P and S waves) by a straight line, and read the Richter magnitude off the center scale.

Mercalli Scale and Equivalent Richter Scale: Mercalli scale I II III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII Name Instrumental Feeble Slight Moderate Rather Strong Strong Very Strong Destructive Ruinous Disastrous Very disastrous Catastrophic Effect Not felt Felt by people resting Like heavy truck passing Windows rattle Wakes sleeping people Trees sway, walls crack People fall over, buildings crack Chimneys fall, buildings move Heavy damage to buildings, ground cracks Most buildings destroyed, landslides Railroads and pipelines break Total devastation Equivalent Richter <3.0 3.03.4 3.54.0 4.1-4.4 4.5-4.8 4.9-5.4 5.5-6.0 6.1-6.5 6.6-7.0 7.1-7.3 7.4-8.1 >8.1

Disadvantages of the MM Scale:

The MM scale, while being directly oriented to building effects, relies on a methodology of subjective comparisons; its information sources consist of observations, postcard damage reports, and newspaper clippings, expressed in a Roman numeral scale.

Besides the subjectivity of the MM scale, another problem is that of its age: The listing of construction materials emphasizes masonry, and does not refer to many modern methods of construction such as glass curtain walls, hung ceilings, or precast concrete.