CE317

CE317
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies

Technical and practical integration in housing
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition
Table of contents
1.
1.1 1.2 1.3
Introduction
What are low and zero carbon technologies? Why should we use them? Drivers for using low and zero carbon technologies in housing
4
4 4 5
2.
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Low energy design

Insulation Ventilation Thermal mass Heating systems Flue gas heat recovery systems
7
7 7 8 9 9
3. 4.
4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4
Typical household energy consumption Solar photovoltaic (electricity)

The solar resource Basic principles Types of photovoltaic cell A typical solar PV system
10 11
11 11 12 13
5.
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5
Solar thermal (hot water)

Basic principles Types of solar thermal collector Heat transfer medium Circulation and control system A typical solar thermal hot water system
14
14 14 15 15 16
6.
6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4
Wind
The resource Basic principles Large and small-scale turbines A typical wind turbine system
17
17 18 18 18
7.
7.1 7.2 7.3
Micro-hydro
The resource Basic principles A typical micro-hydro scheme
19
19 19 19
8.
8.1 8.2 8.3 8.4 8.5 8.6
Biomass
The resource Types of fuel Basic principles Types of system Liquid biofuels A typical biomass system
20
20 20 21 21 22 22
Cover: VELUX solar hot water collectors

2
9.
9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5
Heat pumps
Ground source Heat pump and distribution system Water source Air source A typical ground source heat pump system
23
23 24 25 25 25
10.
10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4
Community heating and combined heat and power

Community heating Biomass-fired boilers Combined heat and power (CHP) A typical community CHP system
26
26 26 26 27
11.
11.1
Micro-CHP
A typical micro-CHP system
28
28
12.
12.1 12.2
Standalone and grid-connected systems

Standalone Grid-connected
29
29 29
13.
13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8
Suitability: urban and rural environments

Solar thermal and PV Wind Micro-hydro Biomass Ground source heat pumps Air source heat pumps Community heating and CHP Micro-CHP
30
30 30 31 31 31 31 31 31
14.
14.1 14.2
Capital and maintenance costs

Individual dwellings Community scale
32
32 33
15.
15.1 15.2 15.3 15.4 15.5 15.6 15.7 15.8
Sources of grant funding

Feed-in tariff and renewable heat incentive Bio-energy Capital Grants Scheme Scottish Biomass Heat Scheme Community Sustainable Energy Programme Scottish Community and Householder Renewables Initiative Renewable Obligation Certificates Reduced rate of VAT Energy Saving Trust database
34
34 34 34 34 34 34 34 34
16.
Developing a renewable energy strategy
35 36
Appendix A Further information
1.
Introduction
Home energy use is responsible for over a quarter of UK carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions, which contribute to climate change. To help mitigate the effects of climate change, the Energy Saving Trust has a range of technical solutions to help UK housing professionals build to higher levels of energy efficiency. This guide gives an overview of low and zero carbon (LZC) generation technologies available for use in domestic applications, their costs, technical and practical limitations and integration. It is aimed primarily at building professionals, housing associations and developers, who will benefit from considering how to incorporate renewable energy at an early stage in the design process. The guide covers all types of electricity and heat generating technologies that are commonly available, including both those suited to the individual building and community level. It also identifies which of these technologies are best suited to urban, rural, newbuild or refurbishment applications.
Table 1: Low and zero carbon technologies Heat output Zero carbon generation Solar thermal hot water (photovoltaic pump or thermosyphon) Solar thermal hot water Biomass Heat pumps District heating Micro or community combined heat and power Energy efficiency Mechanical ventilation and heat recovery Passive flue gas heat recovery device Electrical output Solar photovoltaic Wind Micro-hydro
Low carbon generation
1.1
What are low zero carbon technologies?
The scope of technologies covered within this guide includes both those that are zero carbon in operation (powered by 100% renewable energy) and those that are considered to be low carbon in operation1 (powered at least in part by fossil fuels). Renewable energy is energy derived from naturally occurring and naturally replenished energy flows that cannot be exhausted. These include solar, wind, hydro and biomass all of which are ultimately driven by solar energy. Low carbon sources: Use fossil sources to generate heat or electricity far more efficiently than conventional alternatives and thus produce fewer carbon emissions (e.g. heat pumps, district heating and CHP).
In some scenarios, low carbon sources may be more cost and/or carbon-effective than zero carbon sources. The suitability of LZC technologies is site-specific, and may be dependent on factors such as location, orientation, topography, development size, energy demand profile and mains gas availability.
1.2
Why should we use them?
We are consuming energy in ever-increasing quantities, mostly from fossil fuels. Home energy use represents more than a quarter of UK carbon emissions. 1.2.1 Climate change Burning fossil fuels leads to a significant increase in the levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) within the atmosphere, which is the principal cause of climate change. As climate change progresses, established weather patterns will become more unpredictable, with serious impacts on water supply, the built environment, biodiversity, health, agriculture and business. (See the Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change2 and the Environment Agency publication The climate is changing: time to get ready3).
Use renewable energy as a principle source but also require a

proportion of fossil energy input (e.g. transport of biomass, solar thermal hot water with a mains-powered pump).
1. All equipment, whether low or zero carbon in operation, has carbon emissions associated with its manufacture, distribution, installation and decommissioning. Any differences in embodied or life cycle carbon emissions are not considered here. 2. hm-treasury.gov.uk/stern_review_report.htm 3. publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/GEHO0205BIRS-e-e.pdf 4
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Introduction
1.2.2 Energy security There are significant amounts of fossil fuels locked away in the earths crust that can be extracted at an almost unchecked rate. Ultimately, however, they represent a finite resource. The UK has for many years had access to large deposits of oil and gas under the North Sea. However reserves are declining fast and we now have to rely on increasing amounts of fossil fuel sourced from outside our borders. By 2020 we could be dependent on imported energy for three quarters of our total primary energy needs4. Many of the regions where the largest deposits remain are distant and have a history of political instability. In order to maintain the security of our energy supply into the future it is vital that we reduce our usage and diversify our supply.
1.3.2 Renewables Obligation The Renewables Obligation is a UK government requirement for licensed electricity suppliers to source a specific and annually increasing percentage of the electricity they supply from renewable sources. The current level is 9.1% for 2008/09, rising to 15.4% by 2015/167. Renewables Obligation Certificates (ROCs) are issued to electricity generators in order to demonstrate that they have reached the required level. Alternatively, these can be purchased on the open market from those who generate renewable energy, or a buyout can be paid8. 1.3.3 Code for Sustainable Homes The Code for Sustainable Homes is the Governments key strategy vehicle for driving sustainability in the domestic construction sector. It is a credits-based rating system that encompasses many aspects of sustainability, from energy and water through to pollution and the use of materials. There are nine categories in total. Each of the discrete credits is either achieved or withheld and the final score translates into a star rating from one to six. (See energysavingtrust.org.uk/housing/thecode) 1.3.4 Planning requirements and the Merton rule National planning policy in England is outlined in a series of documents known as Planning Policy Statements (PPS). The following three PPSs are relevant to energy planning for new residential developments:
1.3 Drivers for using low and zero carbon technologies in housing
Drivers for increasing the uptake of LZC technologies in housing exist at several levels. Legally binding international commitments to reduce emissions such as the Kyoto Protocol and EU Energy Performance of Buildings Directive have given rise to a number of UK, national and regional level drivers and incentives, which are explained in further detail below. 1.3.1 UK Building Regulations Part L Approved Document Part L of the UK Building Regulations requires reasonable provision to be made for the conservation of fuel and power in buildings. Part L1A sets out minimum energy performance requirements for new dwellings, in the form of limiting fabric U-values and air permeability, efficient building services, effective controls and overall target CO2 emission rates. Part L1B, which has slightly less onerous requirements in many cases, deals with the refurbishment of dwellings5. The overall target CO2 emissions and those predicted to be achieved by the dwelling are measured using the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP)6. These standards are set to rise, leading to increased use of LZC technologies in domestic buildings.
PPS 1: Delivering Sustainable Development (2005). PPS 22: Renewable Energy (2004). PPS: Planning and Climate Change a Supplement to PPS 1
(2007). These documents set out the principles that local planning authorities should apply when considering new development in their regions.
4. Department of Trade and Industry (2003) Our Energy Future Creating a Low Carbon Economy [online], HMSO, Available at: dti.gov.uk/energy/whitepaper/ourenergyfuture.pdf 5. See planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115314110382.html 6. See bre.co.uk/sap2009 7. BERR. berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/energy/sources/renewables/policy/renewables-obligation/what-is-renewables-obligation/page15633.html 8. The buyout value is set by OFGEM each year. For 2008/09 it was 35.76/MWh. 5
Introduction
The Merton Rule takes its name from a requirement introduced by the London Borough of Merton in October 2003. It required all new non-residential developments above a threshold of 1,000m2 to incorporate renewable energy production equipment to provide at least 10% of predicted energy requirements. In practice and over time, the Merton rule can apply to both commercial and residential developments, and the term is now generally used to express a requirement for a 10% renewable energy component (or more in some cases and usually in addition to any Code for Sustainable Homes requirements) in any newbuild context. For calculation purposes, a conversion of energy requirement to CO2 emissions is used to discourage the use of electricity for heating. The most recent PPS, Planning and Climate Change, has taken important steps forward in recognising that policies are most effective if they:
National planning policies for Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland relating to LZC energy are contained in the following documents:
Scotland: Scottish Planning Policy (SPP) 6: Renewable Energy

(2007). (2005).
Wales: Technical Advice Note (TAN) 8: Renewable Energy Northern Ireland: PPS 18: Renewable Energy.
1.3.5 Feed-in tariffs In October 2008, the UK parliament published the Energy Act10, which enabled the Government to introduce a feed-in tariff. This was introduced in April 2010. A feed-in tariff is an incentive structure to encourage the adoption of renewable electricity generating technologies below 5MW capacity, e.g. solar photovoltaic (PV) panels and wind turbines. Regional or national electricity utilities will be obligated to pay generators for all the electricity they generate in addition to buying any electricity exported both at rates set by the government. This reduces the payback times of eligible technologies, making them more financially attractive.
Allow both low and zero carbon sources of generation. Include elements of both on and near site generation. Are not applied as a blanket rule, but instead can be tailored
to specific sites depending on the available potential. The term Merton plus may be used to describe this approach in national policy. It outlines the opportunity for local planning authorities to require higher building standards ahead of the national timetables set by central government9 (e.g. that all homes should be zero carbon from 2016) but only where this is justified and by using national standards such as the Code for Sustainable Homes, rather than developing local standards.
9. These are outlined in the Department for Communities and Local Government publication, Building a Greener Future. 10. Full text (amendment 5) available at publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld200708/ldbills/072/amend/ml072-ir.htm 6
2.
Low energy design
The first and most immediately effective strategy for reducing fossil fuel dependence is to increase energy efficiency and reduce usage wherever possible. Well-insulated buildings designed to take advantage of passive heating, cooling and ventilation, and incorporating efficient lights and appliances can reduce the energy needed to maintain a comfortable living environment. The energy hierarchy, when applied to buildings, is: 1. 2. 3. Improve the thermal properties and airtightness of the building fabric. Reduce demand by improving the efficiency of building services. Meet the remaining demand with LZC energy sources.
ventilation, through purpose-designed, controllable openings like trickle ventilators and extractor fans. Where air infiltration has been reduced to less than 5m3/m2/h @ 50Pa (half the level currently required for building regulations compliance), significant energy efficiency improvements are possible with balanced mechanical ventilation systems incorporating heat recovery (MVHR).
Intake (cool fresh air)
Extract (warm stale air)
Exhaust (cool stale air)
Fabric
Services
Renewables
Supply (warmed fresh air)
2.1
Insulation
Figure 1: Heat recovery ventillator In MVHR systems, warm, stale air is extracted via a system of ducting and is passed through a heat exchanger. Fresh incoming air is preheated via the exchanger and ducted to the living room and other habitable rooms. If the system has a low specific fan power of 1.0 W/l/s or less and a heat recovery efficiency of 85% or more (or equivalent performance), the energy saved can also be recognised through SAP Appendix Q.
Increasing insulation levels significantly beyond current building regulations requirements is the cheapest and most effective method of reducing CO2 emissions. Insulation requires no maintenance or adjustment to generate energy savings, and should last the life of the building. It reduces heat losses and gains through the building envelope, allowing the installed capacity and therefore cost of heating/cooling systems, whether LZC or fossil fuel, to be minimised. Insulation should, wherever practical, be evenly distributed around the exposed elements of a dwelling to minimise overall heat loss and thermal bridging (which can lead to condensation problems). Around 30% of the total heat lost through a buildings fabric can be as a result of thermal bridging. The Energy Saving Trusts Enhanced Construction Details (ECDs)11, address the issue of reducing heat losses through thermal bridging.
2.2
Ventilation
Significant reductions in heat loss can also be achieved by reducing air infiltration through the building fabric and pursuing an airtightness strategy. A key feature of this is adequate
11. See energysavingtrust.org.uk/business/Business/Building-Professionals/Helpful-Tools/Enhanced-Construction-Details 7
Low energy design
2.3
Thermal mass
This:
A central feature of any building designed to make the most of passive solar energy is high thermal mass. Exposed thermal mass elements have the ability to absorb and store heat from, and release heat to, the internal spaces, increasing their thermal inertia.
Provides stable daily temperatures in both summer and winter. Delays the daily peak temperatures relative to the external air
until later in the day.
Reduces demand on heating systems and improves thermal

comfort during summer.
Peak temperature delayed by up to 6 hrs 30C Up to 6-8C difference between peak external and internal temperature Internal temperature with high thermal mass Internal temperature with low thermal mass 15C Day Night Day External temperature
Figure 2: The impact of increasing building fabric thermal mass12
Key considerations
New dwellings should, wherever possible, be positioned to

take maximum advantage of solar gains, daylight and any existing protection from external elements. east/west where possible, with the main glazed elevation facing as close to south as possible. facing glazing to reduce the risk of summer overheating. East and west facing glazing can be difficult to shade effectively.
Exposed internal thermal mass should be used to provide a

more stable internal temperature and reduce the risk of overheating.
Houses should be oriented so that their long axis lies
To maximise passive solar gain, the dwellings should be
Appropriate solar shading should be installed on south Over-shading within 30 of south should be avoided.
planned internally so that main living areas are on the south side of the building, with unheated spaces or infrequently used spaces on the north side. Dwellings should also be spaced at least twice their height apart (north to south). external temperature (e.g. thermostatic radiator valves, weather compensators) should be specified. Rooms subject to high solar gain should have their own zone temperature control.
Heating systems and controls which respond to internal and
12. Butler, D. (2007) Ventilation and building fabric using thermal mass and hybrid ventilation, presented at: Low Carbon Technology Briefings: Low energy cooling keeping our buildings cool in a warmer climate, BRE, Watford, 17 April 2007. 8
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Low energy design
2.4
Heating systems
Heating systems must be sized correctly for the actual heat loss from the dwelling (with allowance for warm-up). Over-sizing is likely to waste energy, whilst under-sizing will not achieve the desired temperature. Ideally, a professional heating engineer should calculate heat demand and emitter (e.g. radiator) size, although the Energy Saving Trust Domestic Heating Design Wizard can be used to help determine the heating system capacity needed13. Heating controls that respond to incidental and solar gains and provide adequately zoned heating to all parts of the dwelling should be provided. As fabric performance is improved, reducing space-heating losses, the energy used in heating domestic hot water becomes relatively more significant. Condensing boilers are typically less efficient in hot water-only mode, as the return feed from the heating coil in the hot water storage tank is at a relatively high temperature, which reduces condensing performance. SAP 2009 recognises this by having separate summer and winter seasonal efficiencies. In a similar way, the efficiency of a condensing boiler in heating mode can be improved by employing low-temperature delivery methods like underfloor heating.
Hot flue gasses
Condensing boiler Domestic hot water Mains cold water
Central heating
Mains cold water
Figure 3: Passive flue gas heat recovery device There are three ways the system can save energy: Instant savings During production of hot water, heat is recovered from the flue products and instantly used to warm the cold water feed. Deferred savings When the boiler is firing for space heating purposes, the system recovers heat from the flue products and stores it. The heat is later transferred to pre-heat the cold water feed of the domestic water. Reduced wasted hot water Instantaneous combi boilers, despite their name, take a little time to provide hot water, mainly because the water and heat exchangers within the boiler require warming before the domestic water can be heated to an acceptable temperature. This means some water may be wasted because it is not warm enough. FGHRS may reduce the amount of rejected lukewarm water. This option is only applicable to combi boilers without a keep hot facility. The extent to which savings are made depends on a number of interacting factors, such as the boiler fuel and efficiency, relative demand for space and water heating, and the hot water draw-off pattern. These are taken into account in a calculation procedure which has been included in Appendix Q of SAP. Further information on SAP Appendix Q, the test methodologies and test results of eligible systems can be found at www.sap-appendixq.org.uk14
2.5
Flue gas heat recovery systems
Flue gas heat recovery systems (FGHRS), which can be fitted to new or existing condensing boilers, typically consist of a heat exchanger device located between the boiler and the flue. They can increase boiler efficiency by capturing some of the heat in boiler flue gases that would otherwise be wasted, and make use of it to reduce the amount of fuel that has to be burned when providing hot water. Passive flue gas heat recovery devices (PFGHRDs), a sub-section of FGHRS, have no active elements and therefore require no maintenance or adjustment by the occupier. The heat recovered is mostly from the condensation of water vapour in flue products and the application of FGHRS is restricted to condensing boilers, because non-condensing types are not generally adequately protected against the corrosive effects of condensate. Where the device has a heat store within it, energy recovered during space-heating production can also be used to later offset the heat required for providing domestic hot water.
13. See energysavingtrust.org.uk/housing/boilersizing 14. SAP Appendix Q provides a route for recognition of new or improved technologies since the previous version was released (2005). It is likely that FGHRS and MVHR technologies will be included with SAP 2009. 9
3.
Typical household energy consumption
The average household electricity consumption for lights, appliances cooking, heating and cooling varies across the UK but averages to around 4,700kWh per annum15. For dwellings built to 2006 building regulations, overall energy consumption by end use has been estimated as follows16: Hot water consumption and draw-off patterns vary depending on the number, age and lifestyle of occupants in a given household. Table 2: Reference data
Typically, hot water demand is between 45 and 55 litres per person per day17, with little variation in hot water consumption profiles from winter to summer18. Only once energy efficiency and passive design have been applied to the greatest extent practicable should LZC technologies be considered to meet at least part of the reduced demand. The following sections discuss the range of LZC technologies suitable for application to the domestic sector.
Dwelling type Total floor area (m2) Energy requirements (kWh/yr) Space Water Lighting and appliances Cooking Total CO2 emissions (kgCO2/yr) Space Water Lighting and appliances Cooking Total
Top floor flat 60.9 2,270 2,813 2,201 1,173 8,456 440 546 929 227 2,142
Mid-terraced 78.8 2,232 3,228 2,719 1,264 9,443 433 626 1,147 245 2,452
End-terraced 78.8 2,893 3,228 2,719 1,264 10,103 561 626 1,147 245 2,580
Semi-detached 88.8 3,423 3,412 3,057 1,314 11,205 664 662 1,290 255 2,871
Detached 104.0 4,451 3,762 3,635 1,386 13,233 863 730 1,534 269 3,396
Notes: Standard total floor areas (TFA) have been assumed per dwelling type. The figures provided are calculated for dwellings built to the Approved Document L1A 2006 regulatory standards. The CO2 emissions assume that the heating, hot water and cooking fuel is mains gas for all dwelling types. It is assumed that no secondary heating is provided and that all of the space heating and hot water requirement is met by the main heating system (86% efficient). The energy requirement figure provided do not include production, delivery and appliance conversion losses. The CO2 emissions incorporate production, delivery and appliance conversion losses.
15. The total UK domestic electricity consumption of 117.589 terawatt-hours (TWh) (The Digest of UK Energy Statistics 2005) and 25.2 million UK households (Mid-year Household Estimates published in 2004 by the Office for National Statistics). 16. Taken from CE190 Meeting the 10% target for renewable energy in housing a guide for developers and planners. 17. BERR. berr.gov.uk/files/file16568.pdf 18. DTI. berr.gov.uk/files/file16522.pdf 10
4.
Solar photovoltaic (electricity)
4.1
The solar resource

predictable in terms of average daily and annual patterns. It is greatest at midday and during summer when the sun is highest and the days are longest. The global solar irradiation (i.e. the total solar energy received per m2) and potential for photovoltaic (PV) generation (considering the efficiency of all components in a PV system) at the optimum angle in each location is shown in figure 4.
Each year, on average, every horizontal square metre of the UK receives solar energy amounting to between 750 and 1,100 kWh, depending on the latitude and prevailing weather conditions. Some of this energy is received as direct sunlight and some is diffuse sunlight scattered by clouds, the atmosphere and reflected by surrounding objects19. Therefore, the amount of energy received on any given day varies seasonally and with cloud cover, but is
18%
Proportion of annual solar irradiation
16% 14% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2%

September November December
0%
February January August March April June July May
Figure 5: Variation in average monthly solar irradiation (London)
4.2
Basic principles
PV cells convert solar radiation directly into electricity through the interaction of light with electrons in a semiconductor material. Solar cells are built using layers of semiconductors which create a small potential difference between the layers. When exposed to solar radiation, an array of cells connected together (called a module) creates a usable amount of direct current (DC). This is usually converted to alternating current (AC) for household use or for export to the National Grid. A typical domestic system consists of several modules, an AC/DC inverter, fuse box, isolator and an import/export meter. The performance ratio of a solar PV system describes the actual energy yield as a proportion of the theoretically expected yield. System losses can be caused by deviation from module nominal efficiency, module soiling and inverter and wiring losses. The performance ratio is typically 0.7 to 0.75.
Figure 4: Typical seasonal variation in the solar resource in London (at optimum inclination from the horizontal)
19. The diffuse component varies between around 40% in summer to 80% in winter.
October
11
Solar photovoltaic (electricity)
Using integrated solar modules, e.g. solar roof tiles, can offset cost and embodied energy by replacing materials that would otherwise have to be used in construction. PV modules are commercially available in a range of different types: traditional aluminium framed modules, roof integrated systems, solar tiles and semi-transparent atrium roof systems.
Polycrystalline Polycrystalline silicon cells are manufactured from many different crystals rather than a single one. The cells are less expensive to manufacture and have lower efficiencies compared to monocrystalline cells, meaning that a slightly greater roof area is required per kilowatt peak (kWp) power. However, where available roof area is not a restriction, polycrystalline cells are generally more cost-effective.
Figure 6: Solar roof tiles
Figure 8: Polycrystalline solar cell Back-contact modules Most crystalline PV modules consist of cells electrically connected on both front and back surfaces of the module. These contacts on the front of the module shade part of the PV cells (up to 8%) reducing the power output. The back-contact cell improves module efficiency by eliminating this shading, and has the potential to increase automation of the module assembly process, since all connections are in the same plane. Some manufacturers report production efficiencies of over 19% using this technique. Amorphous silicon Amorphous silicon is deposited as a thin strip or film. Cells are produced more quickly and cheaply but have significantly lower efficiency. They are ideally suited to applications where there is a large surface area available, so tend to be more suitable for commercial buildings. Amorphous cells perform slightly better in diffuse sunlight than mono or polycrystalline modules. They do, however, have a shorter lifetime and suffer an initial drop in efficiency (15-35%) in the first few months, which then stabilises. Manufacturers take this into account, quoting an initial, stable product power output.
4.3
Types of photovoltaic cell
Monocrystalline The most efficient and expensive form of silicon for producing solar cells, monocrystalline silicon is grown from a single crystal and cut into wafers. The manufacturing process is both time and energy intensive.
Figure 7: Monocrystalline solar cell
12
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Solar photovoltaic (electricity)
Hybrid silicon Heterojunction with intrinsic thin layer (HIT) modules, which include both amorphous and crystalline layers, tend to have the greatest seasonal efficiency in temperate climates such as the UK. They are correspondingly more expensive, but lose less performance at high temperatures than crystalline modules. Second generation thin film Second generation thin film technology uses lower-temperature manufacturing techniques such as vapour deposition and ultrasonic nozzles to deposit several very thin layers of semiconductor materials on glass or ceramic substrates. This has reduced the cost of manufacture compared with first generation PVs. Amorphous silicon, copper indium diselenide (CIS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe) cells are already being manufactured with other promising materials at the research and development stage.
Second-generation thin-film technologies are newer and less well understood. They may be expected to have a similar lifetime to amorphous modules, of some 25 to 30 years. The inverter and other components within the PV system have a lower durability, of around 15 years. They may need to be replaced one or more times during the lifetime of the PV modules.
Si monocrystalline Si HIT monocrystalline Si polycrystalline CIS/CIGS CdTE Amorphous Si 0% 5% 10% 15% Best lab result 20% 25%
Production module efficiency
Global solar cell demand (GW)

35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015
Crystalline solar
Thin-film solar
Figure 11: Relative efficiencies of different solar cells
4.4
A typical solar PV system
A typical system installed on a newbuild house might have the following characteristics:
Capacity Capital cost Output CO2 saving
2kWp 7,000 9,000 1600kWh/annum 840kg CO2/yr*
Figure 10: Crystalline silicon has led the way for solar PV, but future solar growth will mostly come from thin-film. Source: Photovoltaics World
4.3.1 Relative Performance and Durability Crystalline modules are commonly warranted for 20 or 25 years but may be expected to have a useful lifetime of 40 years or more. Towards the end of this cycle, the output does tend to drop off somewhat, an effect observed more keenly with amorphous and hybrid modules.
*assuming grid displaced electricity emissions factor of 0.529kg of CO2 equivalent per kWh (kgCO2/kWh).
13
5.
5.1
Basic principles
Solar energy can also be used to heat buildings, swimming pools, or most commonly, domestic hot water. A collector absorbs the solar radiation and converts it into heat energy, which is removed by a heat transfer fluid such as water, antifreeze or air. In most systems, a small pump is required to circulate the heat transfer fluid to where it is immediately needed, or to a store from which it can be removed and used later. In the case of solar water heating systems, this store is usually a hot water cylinder. A back-up heat source is required to ensure that the water is heated to a sufficient temperature both to eliminate the risk of leigionella20 and maintain the water temperature during periods of low solar radiation.
1 Automatic air vent 2 Flow meter 3 Expansion vessel 4 Pressure release valve 5 Pump 6 Pump gate valves 7 Non-return valve 8 Solar drain 9 Cold feed cut off valve 10 Hot water drain valve 11 Fill valve and gauge 12 Differential controller
Note that the diagram shows one of the most common arrangements, although there are many other possible configurations21:
Forced (pumped) or thermosyphon circulation. Direct or indirect solar loop (indirect shown above,
incorporating a heat exchanger).
Direct or indirect primary domestic hot water loop (direct

shown; a thermal store would be indirect).
Single (either twin coil or with direct acting heat source such
as combi boiler) or primary and secondary stores. air/antifreeze or drain back.
Freeze protection employed: freeze tolerant pipes, use of Stagnation protection employed: drain back (open vented) or
5.2 Types of solar thermal collector
fully filled (sealed and pressurised with an expansion vessel).
4 Solar collector
There are three main types of collector for use in domestic solar hot water (SHW) systems - unglazed, flat plate and evacuated tube. 5.2.1 Unglazed collectors Some manufacturers supply unglazed solar collectors for heating swimming pools. These simple collectors require larger surface areas but can be a very cost effective method for providing solar heated water at relatively low temperatures. 5.2.2 Flat plate Flat plate collectors consist of flat, dark-coloured absorber plates (made from metals such as copper or aluminum, polymers or a combination) attached to tubes through which the heat transfer fluid passes. The plates are enclosed within a glazed, insulated box that behaves like a mini-greenhouse to retain heat within the collector. The addition of glazing reduces the amount of light that reaches the collector, but also reduces the heat loss significantly, allowing greater temperatures to be achieved. Most commercially available panels also have a selective coating to reduce the amount of heat re-radiated into the atmosphere.
12
Hot water header tank
Supply to hot water taps Pipes to and from heating boiler
2 6 5 6 11
7 3
10
Figure 12: Solar thermal system
20. Although intended for commercial premises where storage volumes are typically greater than for domestic applications, Approved Code of Practice L8: Legionnaires' disease: The control of legionella bacteria in water systems provides further guidance (see Appendix A.). 21. For further details see Appendix A. 14
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Solar thermal (hot water)
5.2.3 Evacuated tube Evacuated tube collectors consist of rows of parallel glass tubes, each containing a metal absorber with a selective coating. During manufacture, air is evacuated from the tubes. The resulting vacuum reduces conduction away from the collector, improving its performance, especially at high temperatures. Evacuated tubes can have either heat pipes (where each tube is connected into a manifold through which the heat transfer fluid passes externally) or direct flow and return internal pipework configuration. Heat pipes mean that tubes can be easily replaced without draining the system, however direct flow and return systems are more versatile in terms of mounting position.
5.3
Heat transfer medium
Commercially available systems are either direct or indirect. In a direct system, it is the water in the store that passes through the collector. In the more common, indirect system, the heat transfer loop through the collector is separated from the store by a heat exchanger. Water is less viscous than glycol, so required pump power can be reduced, minimising the energy clawback from pumping. Direct connection with the solar loop also improves stratification within the store, ensuring that the collector inlet temperature is as low as possible, which increases performance and pump on time. Direct heating is the more efficient arrangement. However, there is a risk of scalding water reaching the taps unless an indirect domestic hot water loop, such as a thermal store, is used. Freeze-tolerant (e.g. polymer) pipes must also be specified with appropriate controls to prevent these reaching very high temperatures.
Sunlight absorbed as heat by the dark inner surface of the evacuated-tube
ev ac ua ted Co -tu pp be er No he loc nat ks tox Co pip in ic ret ld e he liq va he urn p at uid at s ou pip to r l iqu e the to b ifie rep ott s ea om and tc o yc f th le e
5.4
H to ot v he the apo at t ur pip op ris e of es th e
Circulation and control system
The circulation system can be either active or passive. Active systems use an electric pump to circulate the heat transfer fluid, (some installations use a small PV module to generate electricity for driving the pump and solar controller). In a typical system a controller will compare the temperature of the solar collectors with the temperature of the water in the storage cylinder(s). If the collector temperature is a certain number of degrees hotter than in the storage cylinder, the controller will switch on the pump. Passive systems do not require a pump at all. In a thermosyphon system, the collector is placed lower than the store and the heat transfer fluid circulates through the collector loop by natural convection. Off-the-shelf passive systems, common in some warmer parts of Europe, are not sold in the UK, although if the roof arrangement allows the storage tank to be located at a greater height than the collectors, a bespoke system may be designed using commonly available components. Pipe runs between the collectors and the store must be kept short, of wide diameter and continually rising or falling as appropriate to enable the thermosyphon to operate spontaneously. Lacking any control system, thermosyphon systems are not well protected against freezing and overheating.
Figure 13: Evacuated tube collector Both flat plate and evacuated tube collectors perform well in both direct and diffuse sunlight. In general, evacuated tube collectors are both slightly more expensive and around 10 to 20% more efficient than flat plate collectors. They are best suited to situations where available unshaded roof area is limited. However, some modern flat plate collectors are double glazed and the performance of these approaches that of evacuated tubes. Glazed flat plate collectors usually integrate into the building fabric better than evacuated tubes. Both wall and roof-integrated flat plate options are available.
Gl as s
15
5.5
A typical solar thermal hot water system
A typical system installed on a newbuild house might have the following characteristics:
Area Capital cost Output CO2 saving
4m2 3,000 5,000 1,400kWh/annum 350kg CO2/yr*
During the summer months, solar-thermal hot water systems will typically provide over 80% of domestic hot water demand, but less during winter. Over the course of the year, a solar fraction the proportion of energy required for domestic water heating that is provided by solar means of around 35% could be expected with the system illustrated. Solar fractions of up to 70% have been reported in some studies, depending on the collector area relative to water consumption and the means of pumping. The Energy Saving Trust is undertaking a field trial to monitor the actual performance of up to 100 domestic solarthermal hot water systems across the UK. The trial will identify the actual energy and carbon sayings achieved by different manufacturers systems when installed in a variety of property types, with a varying profile of households. The field trial will include both flat-plate and evacuated tube systems. Results are anticipated in summer 2010.
*assuming 80% efficient gas boiler is displaced; emissions factor of 0.198kgCO2/kWh for mains gas.
16
6.
Wind
6.1
The resource
The UK is by far the windiest of any country in Europe, with approximately 40% of the total on and offshore resource. The large majority of this is available only to large-scale wind farms, although in some locations generation on a domestic scale is feasible. Resource availability is well matched to demand patterns, with average wind speeds greater during the winter months.
12% 10% 8%
UK is representative of short grass terrain. The NOABL database should not be used for suburban or urban areas or for installations with nearby obstacles. 6.1.2 Siting Ideal locations are exposed (for example coastal sites or at the top of a smooth hill) with no obstructions in the immediate vicinity, especially in the direction of the prevailing wind. The turbine should be mounted at the greatest height possible, since wind speed increases with height. The least expensive way to increase the power output from a wind turbine is to increase its tower height.
4
Proportion of annual wind power
6% 4% 2% 0%
February January August March April June July May
3.5
Power increase factor
September
November
December
October
2.5
Month
Figure 14: Variation in average monthly wind power output

6.1.1 Assessing the resource Before considering any installation, the proposed site should be assessed for wind resource, in relation to the size and budget of the development. Regular measurement using on-site anemometry, taken over a period of at the least several months (preferably a year), is the most accurate way to assess the feasibility of installing a wind turbine at the proposed site. To give an approximate measure of feasibility, mapping tools are available to help predict the likely wind resource at a given location. The Carbon Trust has released an online Wind Yield Estimation Tool22, which incorporates details about the location, surrounding landscape, hub height and the type of turbine to calculate the annual mean wind speed as well as the likely energy generation and carbon savings. This is the most rigorous tool currently available when applied to urban or suburban areas. The NOABL wind speed database was created to identify suitable places to locate large turbines and wind farms. This database takes into account undulations of the terrain, i.e. hills and valleys, but does not account for local topography elements or obstacles such as trees or buildings. As such, it assumes the whole of the
1.5
9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Height above surface
Figure 15: How power increases with height Turbulence will decrease performance and may reduce expected equipment life. The turbine should also be sited away from the turbulent air flow, preferably upwind or a long way downwind (considering prevailing wind direction).
Region of highly disturbed flow 2H H 2H 20H Zone of disturbed flow over a small building
Prevailing wind
Figure 16: How buildings disrupt the wind
22. carbontrust.co.uk/wind-estimator 17
Wind
6.2
Basic principles
6.4
A typical wind turbine system
A turbine consists of a rotor, which converts wind power into rotating shaft power, a gearbox, to increase the speed of rotation, and an electrical generator. Most turbines have a horizontal axis with two or three blades similar in profile to the wing of an aeroplane. Turbines range in size from small, battery-charging applications used for caravans and boats the multi-megawatt turbines used in wind farms. Small-scale, vertical-axis turbines are also commercially available.
A typical small scale wind turbine installed on a 15m pole in a rural area (>5m/s windspeed at hub height) might have the following characteristics:
6kWe 20,000 25,000 10,000kWh/annum 5,290kg CO2/yr
6.3
Large and small-scale turbines
Large-scale turbines are one of the most mature and costeffective renewable technologies, generating electricity at a cost comparable to fossil fuel power stations. As the rotor size decreases, its area and available power output is reduced in relation to the square of its diameter. So if the diameter of rotor is halved, power output is reduced by a factor of four at given wind speed. Differences in wind speed between locations have an even greater effect on power output, which varies as the cube of wind speed. Several recent studies have been undertaken in the UK to estimate wind resource in urban areas. One such study, the Warwick Wind Trials, monitored the performance of several types of microgeneration turbine across 26 sites during 2007-08 and considered issues such as social acceptability. The project concluded that using unmodified wind speed data by postcode from the NOABL database and manufacturer power curves for turbines can lead to overestimating likely energy output by factors of between 15 and 1723. The Energy Saving Trust has collected data from an additional 58 fully monitored sites and further sites where customers provide monthly inverter readings. Conclusions based on a total of 114 sites can be summed up simply - wind turbines work, but only when installed properly and in an appropriate location.24
A micro-wind turbine, pole-mounted in the same location might have the following characteristics:
1kWe 2,500 5,000 750kWh/annum 400kg CO2/yr
23. Warwick Wind Trials: warwickwindtrials.org.uk/ 24. Energy Saving Trust micro-wind field trial: Location, Location, Location energysavingtrust.org.uk/Generate-your-own-energy/Energy-Saving-Trust-field-trial-of-domesticwind-turbines 18
7.
Micro-hydro
7.1
The resource
Intake Weir
Of all the technologies featured in this guide, hydropower is perhaps the oldest method of harnessing renewable energy for mechanical and electrical power. Turbines can be used to extract power from moving water in a similar way to wind turbines. A key advantage is that if the waterway is dammed, water can be stored at height and its gravitational potential energy released periodically to match demand patterns. Opportunities are fairly limited for additional inland hydro schemes in the UK because the good quality, most commercially attractive resource has been almost completely developed. On a scale more suited to single or groups of dwellings, run-ofthe-river schemes are inherently more environmentally friendly than big dams. These methods do not flood land or obstruct rivers in ways that restrict the movement of river and marine life. Hydro power is more cost effective as the head (height of stored water) increases, although if there is a waterway local to the development with a reasonable drop in height across the site (of the order of a several metres) it is almost certainly worth further investigation. Determining the energy available from a micro-hydro scheme will depend upon both the head and varying flow rate available at the site. Estimating the resource can be complex and time-intensive, and therefore the advice of specialist micro-hydro consultants should be taken whenever assessing the potential of a proposed scheme.
Penstock Transmission lines
Transformer
Power house
Tailrace
Figure 17: Micro-hydro system The penstock transports water under pressure from the intake to the turbine. A small diameter penstock costs less than one of larger diameter, but will incur significantly more head-loss due to increased friction when water flows through a smaller diameter pipe. The powerhouse contains the turbine and generator set. Many different types of turbine are available and have specific characteristics that are suited to specific sizes of scheme. After passing through the turbine the water is released through an outflow back into the river or stream.
7.3
A typical micro-hydro scheme
A typical low head system might have the following characteristics:
7.2
Basic principles
Capacity Capital cost Output 10kW 10,000 30,000* 50,000kWh/yr** 26.5 tonnes CO2/yr
Hydro schemes range in size from a few hundred watts to several hundred MW. Micro-hydro generally refers to schemes under 100kW capacity, and most domestic systems are considerably smaller. The maximum capacity of hydro system that can be installed at a given site can be roughly estimated as: Head (m) x Flow (m3/s) x 5 = kW Figure 17 shows the main components of a typical micro-hydro scheme. The intake diverts a proportion of the water flow into a length of pipe, known as the penstock, from the normal river flow. Water intakes are often incorporated into a weir and have screens to prevent fish and rubbish from entering the penstock pipe.
CO2 saving
*Indicative cost; capital costs are highly site specific. **Indicative output; highly dependent on flow and head. (Sowton Mill, Devon)25.
25. Sowton Mill: devon.gov.uk/renewable_energy_guide_case_study_5.pdf 19
8.
Biomass
8.1
The resource
8.2
Types of fuel
In common with fossil fuels, biomass emits CO2 and other pollutants when it is burnt. However, the amount of CO2 released is equal to that absorbed when the tree was growing, so the process is carbon neutral except for energy used in planting, harvesting, processing and transporting the biomass. Even allowing for these emissions, replacing fossil fuel energy with wood will typically reduce net CO2 emissions by over 90%. In order for biomass to be a truly renewable energy source, the fuel must come from a sustainable source (i.e. it is replenished) and should be used in close proximity to where it has been grown. Unlike other renewable energy options, wood can be stockpiled and used as and when its needed.
Logs Logs are the simplest and cheapest form of woody biomass, with the minimum processing required. Freshly felled timber contains a high proportion of moisture, and should be seasoned or oven dried before use. This reduces the moisture content from around 50% to 20%, improving combustion and reducing the amount of smoke and tar produced. Woodchip Woodchip is widely available and relatively cheap. It is derived from forest/park/garden waste, recycled wood waste, or farmed timber crops such as short rotation coppice willow. It has the lowest energy density of the types considered here, meaning that a greater storage volume is required. There is also a need to pay particular attention to quality assurance; for problem-free use, woodchips need to achieve high uniformity in size and have a low moisture content. Pellets Wood pellets are typically made of compressed sawdust waste from manufacturing of timber products, which may otherwise have gone to landfill. The result is a drier, denser fuel (8-10% moisture content) with twice the energy density of logs and four times that of woodchip. Burning cleaner, they also produce less ash, reducing the cleaning and disposal effort. The use of pellets is well established in Sweden, Austria, Denmark and North America and is gaining popularity in the UK, although there are currently a limited number of pellet suppliers in the UK. Supplier information can be obtained from logpile.co.uk
Atmospheric carbon dioxide, water and sunlight Carbon released back into the hemisphere Converted into new plant material through photosynthesis
Which is harvested and burnt
Figure 18: The biomass cycle
Potential for energy crops

The Biomass Task Force report to government26 suggests that of a total agricultural holding of 17 million hectares in the UK, around one million hectares of land may be available for non-food uses equivalent to roughly half the area of Wales. At the present time less than 2,000 hectares of land is under energy crop cultivation.
Harvested on a three year cycle, farmed timber crops such as short-rotation coppice willow currently yield around 20-25odt (oven dried tonnes) per hectare, although there is potential for this to be improved. Each dry tonne provides the equivalent of approximately 5,000 kWh27, meaning that one million hectares could meet the annual space and domestic hot water heating requirements (6,800kWh) for approximately 5.3 million semi detached houses built to 2006 building regulations (or a tenth of the total UK domestic space and water heating demand28).
26. Biomass Task Force report (2005) defra.gov.uk/farm/crops/industrial/energy/biomass-taskforce/pdf/btf-finalreport.pdf 27. cse.org.uk/pdf/sof1116.pdf 28. berr.gov.uk/energy/statistics/publications/ecuk/page17658.html 20
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Biomass
High
8.4
Types of system
Low Wood chip Logs Pellets Heating oil Figure 19: Comparative volumes of fuel required to supply annual space heating and hot water energy requirement The greater energy density of pellets means delivery results in lower emissions per km when compared to logs or woodchip. Unfortunately, the vast majority of pellets are imported from outside the UK, so the distances travelled will be greater. The net energy balance (and its effect on carbon emissions) will therefore need to be evaluated depending on the source. Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have shown that where pellets are sourced from within 50km, pellet transport is responsible for 7% of total emissions (i.e. those related to planting, harvesting, processing and transportation). If this distance were increased to 500km, the emissions from delivery would increase to approximately 43% of the total29.
Stoves A log or pellet burning stove is ideal for providing secondary room heating in conjunction with a main central heating system. Typical capacity ranges from 5-15kW although heat output can be regulated down to 2kW on some models. Higher output versions may have an integral back boiler to divert a proportion of their output to heating water for domestic hot water or central heating, rather than 100% space heating. Highly insulated dwellings may receive enough heat for the entire house from a centrally located stove (which can be integrated with a back boiler to supply domestic hot water), freeing up space required by a boiler, since the stove itself provides a room feature. A back-up source would be needed to provide domestic hot water during the summer season when space heating is not required. Stoves are typically manually controlled.
Convector fan ensures more even distribution of heat Fuel hopper
8.3
Basic principles
Automatic fuel feed at optimum rate
The combustion process can be extremely inefficient if not properly controlled. Burning logs in open fires is very inefficient; with 80% of the heat lost up the chimney. Controlling the process, and in particular the air supply, is a key factor in ensuring that this heat is not lost. Domestic scale biomass systems are technically and aesthetically well advanced, offering a highly efficient alternative to fossil fuel based systems. Modern wood burning appliances can achieve efficiencies of 60 to 90%; they use microprocessors to set and maintain temperature by regulating the rate fuel and air are fed to the combustion chamber. Output is variable and can be reduced to around 30% of the maximum to match demand, although efficiency is greatest, and the amount of tar and ash production least, when operated at maximum capacity.
Flames are visible through window
Air is drawn into the burn chamber
Correct air and fuel rates result in clean burn and little ash for disposal
Figure 20: Cutaway diagram of a typical stove
29. Bennett, S. J. (2007) Review of Existing Life Cycle Assessment Studies of Microgeneration Technologies, (Energy Saving Trust) 21
Biomass
Boilers Fully automatic log, pellet and woodchip boilers are available for larger scale applications. Designed for installation in kitchens or utility rooms, log and pellet boilers are suitable for large households where space and water heating demand is greater than 8kW (pellets) or 12kW (logs). Small-scale woodchip boilers from around 25kW and above are better suited to communal schemes and apartment blocks.
8.5
Liquid biofuels
Biofuels can be derived from non-woody biomass plant stock, such as rape seed, soya and palm oil (or on a very limited scale from used cooking oils). Biofuels known as fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) are suitable for blending with fuel oil to be used in oil-fired boilers for home heating. The blends are typically 5% FAME with 95% fuel oil. Although it is possible to convert boilers to run on 100% FAME, there are practical difficulties to be overcome in that FAME tends to degrade rubber seals and cloud or gel at low temperatures. It is important that the combustion properties of biofuels are consistent; FAME for heating purposes should meet the requirements of EN 14213. Further information is available from OFTEC: OFTEC Information Sheet 56 Introduction to Bio-Liquids for Home Heating and Cooking (2009).
8.6
A typical biomass system
A typical pellet boiler for a newbuild house might have the following characteristics:
Capacity Capital cost Efficiency Output Figure 21: Pellet-fed boiler Biomass boilers are generally suitable for connection to an existing central heating system. They work best in conjunction with a thermal store, allowing the boiler to operate at higher and more constant loads, which maximises its efficiency. CO2 saving
20kW 10,000 85% 8,000kWh/yr* 1,720kg CO2/yr**
*Equivalent to the heat demand for space and water heating for the dwelling. **Assuming 80% efficient gas boiler is displaced; emissions factor of 0.028kgCO2/kWh for biomass pellets.
22
9.
Heat pumps
Heat pumps use electricity to move heat from one place to another via a heat transfer medium, from lower to higher temperature. Heat energy is removed from a low temperature source and upgraded within the heat pump by a compression and evaporation cycle to heat air or water inside the building. Heat pumps can use ground, water or air as the heat source, depending on availability in a given scenario.
Heat Compressor pump Evaporator Condenser Heat distribution system
9.1
Ground source
Expansion valve
Energy gained from solar irradiation is stored as heat in the earth. Its high thermal mass leads it to react more slowly to seasonal changes in temperature than the air above it. Figure 22 illustrates the seasonal variation in ground temperature.
Ground heat exchanger
22 20 18 16
Temperature C
14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May 24hr mean air Ground @ 1.7m Far field @ 75m Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Figure 23: GSHP system house. In order to avoid interference between adjacent trenches, they should be dug at least 3m apart. Ground water plays a part in conducting heat to the ground loops, so they should be located in an area that is either built on nor sealed from the rain.
Time of year
Figure 22: Ground temperatures throughout the year
Ground source heat pump (GSHP) systems consist of a ground loop, a heat pump unit and a heat distribution system. A waterantifreeze mixture circulates in a ground loop, extracting lowgrade heat from the earth and passing through the heat pump (a schematic is shown in figure 23). The ground loop can be either laid horizontally in trenches or vertically in boreholes. The choice of horizontal or vertical system depends on the land area available, local ground conditions and excavation costs. Horizontal ground loops require a relatively large area of land for the trenches. Even if the most compact slinky type ground loop is specified, the length of trench required is approximately 10m per kW capacity, around 40-50m for a medium newbuild detached
Figure 24: Ground loop

23
Heat pumps
Vertical ground loops are inserted into boreholes (usually between 15-20m deep), as represented in figure 23. They are ideal in locations where ground area is limited, but are more expensive to install. Heat pumps can be either closed or open loop systems. The majority of domestic systems have a closed loop arrangement, with ground and distribution separate.
the sole means to supply domestic hot water, COP is significantly reduced, as the temperature lift required is so much greater.
5 4.5 4 3.5 3 2.5 2 30 35 40 45
Glycol at 0C
Spring water at 0C
9.2
Heat pump and distribution system

Desired temperature level (i.e.+70C)
COP (efficiency ratio)
50
55
60
65
Heated water temperature C
100%
Useful heat
Figure 26: Variation in coefficient of performance
Heat pump
25%
Supplied electricity
The COP of a ground source heat pump system is typically between 3 and 4 (i.e. 3 to 4 times more heat energy is output than the electrical energy consumed). More recent units have efficiencies approaching 5. Air source units (see figure 27) have a lower COP, typically between 2 and 3. Some heat pumps can also reverse the cycle to provide cooling in summer, although these are more expensive and heat mode efficiency may be reduced. It should be noted that COP measurements are based on laboratory tests under standard test conditions and do not necessarily measure how the heat pump performs in actual use. A heat pump's performance will vary depending on the weather and how much supplementary heat is required. Therefore, a more realistic measurement is to calculate the average COP on a seasonal basis (comparable to a SEDBUK rating for boilers). This is referred to as the Seasonal Performance Factor (SPF) for the heating season. This is especially true for air-to-air heat pumps operating in humid climates, which may need extra energy to defrost the evaporator coil. The Energy Saving Trust is undertaking a field trial of 80+ installations of in-situ air and ground source heat pumps in domestic properties across the UK to determine the actual performance of the technology, measured as SPF. The project will also determine the factors that influence system performance, such as customer behaviour.
Temperature gain
75%
Ambient heat
Temperature of heat source (i.e.+5C)
Figure 25: Heat gain in a GSHP system A heat pump unit consumes electricity in operation but delivers more heat to the dwelling than the amount of electricity used. A schematic is shown above. The efficiency, known as the coefficient of performance (COP), is therefore greater than 100%. Seasonal COP, which takes into account the variation in performance over the year, should be used to compare between units. The difference in temperature between the heat source and the distribution system is a key factor in determining the overall efficiency of the heat pump. The smaller the difference, the higher the COP will be. It is therefore important to use the lowest possible temperature distribution system to maximise the COP. Where the delivery system is radiators, or where heat pumps are used as
24
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Heat pumps
9.3
Water source
In locations close to bodies of water, the cost of installation can be reduced by using the water as a heat source. This eliminates the cost of excavation associated with the ground loops. Such systems sometimes include a heat exchanger to transfer heat between the ground water and a common water loop inside the building (i.e. closed loop), although where a suitable source of groundwater is available, SPF can be increased by adopting an open-loop configuration, where water from the aquifer, lake or stream passes once-through the system.
expelled to the outside. MVHR systems only operate effectively in dwellings with a reasonably high degree of airtightness.
9.5
A typical ground source heat pump system
A typical GSHP system used for both space (low temperature underfloor) and to meet 50% water heating demand with electric immersion top-up in a newbuild house might have the following characteristics:
9.4
Air source
Capacity Capital cost SPF Output CO2 saving
8kW 6,000 9,000 3.2 (heat pump) 1.0 (immersion) 8,000kWh/yr* 70kg CO2/yr
Where neither ground nor water source is an option, external air can be used as the heat source. In this case it is the cooling of the external evaporator coil that allows heat to be absorbed from the air. The mean temperature of the air is lower than that of the ground during the heating season and the efficiency of air source heat pumps is correspondingly reduced. Where a source of solar warmed air is available, such as from an atrium or conservatory, the SPF can be improved.
*Assumes GSHP unit delivers 4,500kWh space heating + 1,750kWh water heating; immersion delivers 1,750kWh.
Low-pressure, low-temperature vapour
Reversing valve
High-pressure, high-temperature vapour Inside coil Warm inside air Refrigerant releases heat to air and returns to a liquid state
Outdoor coil
Refrigeration absorbs heat from air and boils to vapour Compressor Expansion device
Note: GSHP are now accredited under SAP Appendix Q. The typical system here is based on different figures and could be imported upon using SAP Appendix Q certified system. www.sap-appendixq.org.uk
Low pressure, low-temperature liquid
High pressure, high-temperature liquid
Figure 27: Air source heat pump system
Air source heat pumps can be configured to heat water for underfloor heating, or to provide warm air which is circulated to heat the building. Air-to-air systems can be successfully integrated within mechanical ventilation with heat recovery (MVHR) systems, using as the source of heat the stale air being
25
10. Community heating and combined heat and power
10.1
Community heating
Larger-scale urban housing schemes present the opportunity for significant carbon savings by incorporating community heating or combined heat and power (CHP). This relies on a central heat source, a heat distribution network and heat exchangers within each dwelling or building. Dwellings connected to the heat network have a hydraulic interface unit instead of a boiler. This regulates the heat taken from the heat main as required by the occupant for space and domestic hot water heating. It typically takes up less space than a wall-mounted boiler. Internal distribution and control systems are similar to those of a conventional boiler system. The central heat source can operate on a variety of fuels. One of the advantages is that the central boilers can easily be replaced as technologies advance, leaving the distribution network in place.
A coal fired power station typically converts only 30-35% of the primary energy in coal into electrical power30. Even the most modern and efficient fossil fuel power stations (Combined Cycle Gas Turbine plants) lose half of their energy in conversion. Transmission losses through the National Grid amount to a further 2-3% of the total. This accounts for the high cost and carbon emissions associated with grid-supplied electricity.
Used Wasted
10.2
Biomass-fired boilers
Conventional power generation
CHP
Operating biomass boilers on a community scale (from 20kW to over 1,000kW) brings a number of advantages besides economies of scale. A central storage and boiler house means co-ordinating deliveries and ash disposal and maintenance is more straightforward and less expensive. High capacity biomass boilers are generally designed for use with woodchips. They will perform at their maximum efficiency when operated at, or close to, total capacity, and are therefore best suited to providing base-load heat demand, with alternatively fuelled boilers operating as an auxiliary back-up to fulfil peak load demand. As technology advances, models are becoming available with sophisticated controls allowing the boiler to modulate and follow the heat load as it varies, without significant reduction in efficiency.
Figure 28: Proportion of primary fuel turned into useful energy
CHP works on the principle that generating electricity locally enables that low-grade heat to be put to use heating homes and non-domestic buildings. CHP systems range in size from a few kilowatts to many megawatts. Units are usually based on internal combustion engines which are able to supply heat networks serving everything from clusters of dwellings through to large community sized systems. The majority of CHP systems run on natural gas, although other fuels including waste materials, biomass fuels or even hydrogen can be used. They have higher capital and maintenance costs than conventional heating using central boiler plant (however the additional capital costs may be offset by financial support). The key technical challenge in designing a CHP system is to balance the thermal and electrical loads. Systems are usually designed to match the base load heat requirement for the communal heat network, with top-up boilers supplying the remainder as required to meet the peak thermal load. Any surplus of electric power during the heating season can be exported to the grid.
10.3
Combined heat and power
A vast amount of low-grade heat is wasted by fossil fuel-fired power stations, as they are usually designed with high capacities (to capitalise on efficiencies of scale) and sited away from population centres.
30. World Energy Outlook 2004, IEA, ISBN 92-64-10817-3 (2004). 26
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Community heating and combined heat and power
If there is little or no space heating demand (for example, outside the main heating season), then running the system for water heating and power only may result in a heat surplus. Most CHP systems use thermal storage for the purpose of smoothing out the peaks and troughs in demand to allow for more continuous operation.
Heat supply Housing or other buildings Heat and hot water Electricity
10.4
A typical community CHP system
A typical system installed at a community level serving around 500 flats in high-rise apartment blocks might have the following characteristics:
Capacity
Boiler house
250kWe 1.5:1 80% 2,500 3,500 per dwelling* 1,600MWh/yr thermal** 1,100MWhe/yr 300 tonnes CO2/yr 600kg CO2/yr per dwelling
Heat to power ratio Overall efficiency Capital cost Output
Fuel
CHP
Top-up stand-by boilers
Top-up and stand-by electricity
Electricity from CHP Electricity sales to customers Import/export metering and control
External electricity sales
CO2 saving
Figure 29: Schematic of a domestic CHP system. In practice, heat and electricity from CHP systems are supplemented by top-up boilers and by connection to the electricity distribution network. This ensures reliability of supply and provides opportunities for electricity sales to other customers.
*Including heat network. The district heat network typically accounts for the majority of the capital cost associated with the project. Costs are highly site specific. **Based on 4,500 hours operation per annum.
10.3.1 Energy services companies An energy services company (ESCO) is an organisation or contractual body set up to deliver a long-term energy service to housing. An ESCO is able to design, finance, build, own and operate local decentralised energy systems; it is contracted to provide community heating and/or power to connected customers. An ESCO may be set up specifically as part of a newbuild development or significant refurbishment involving construction of a community heating/CHP plant, solar panels or wind turbines. In some cases, ESCOs are set up by energy supply companies as wholly-owned subsidiaries; in others they are set up by landlords or by the residents themselves. ESCOs are often not-for-profit organisations and any financial surplus goes to improve the energy efficiency of the housing they serve or to expand the customer base.
27
11. Micro-CHP
Micro-CHP units generate heat and power on a scale to suit a single dwelling. These units replace the existing domestic boiler, perform the same space and domestic hot water heating function and also generate electricity as a byproduct. Their operation is controlled by heat demand so that no heat is ever wasted. Extra electrical power will often be required from the grid, but electricity may be exported when an excess is generated. There are a number of micro-CHP technologies including Stirling engine, internal combustion engine and fuel cell, each of which have different operating characteristics, notably in terms of heat to power ratio. The majority of domestic scale systems available in the UK are based on the Stirling engine, which generates between 1 and 3kW of electric power (kWe) and 6 to 12kW of heat (kWth). Matching the plant to building needs is critical to good performance, even more so than with other technologies. If a unit is oversized relative to heat demand, then running hours will be low, and insufficient electricity will be generated to compensate for the relatively low heating efficiency. If its undersized, then substantial amounts of top-up space and water heating will be required from other appliances, which may be relatively inefficient.
Exhaust 5%
Cost effectiveness is improved by running the CHP for as many hours per day as possible. This makes currently available microCHP units less feasible in smaller dwellings, where heat demand is lowest. Hours in operation can be maximised by slightly undersizing the plant and combining it with a thermal store.
11.1
A typical micro-CHP system
A typical micro-CHP system installed in a newbuild house might have the following characteristics:
Capacity Heat to power ratio Capital cost Thermal output Electrical output Thermal efficiency CO2 saving
1.1kWe 6:1 4,000 - 6,000 8,000kWhth/yr 1,330kWhe/yr 75% 570kg CO2/yr*
Electricity 15%
*Avoided emissions due to electrical generation of 700kg CO2/yr. Additional heating emissions due to lower heating efficiency of 130kg CO2/yr.
Electricity import/export Gas 100% Micro CHP unit Heat 80%
Figure 30: Micro-CHP schematic energy flows Micro-CHP is an emerging technology, with a very limited range of products available at present, although a number are under development. Reliability and performance of early systems has been an issue31, however this will no doubt improve as the technology matures.
31. Refer to the Carbon Trust Micro-CHP Accelerator - Interim Report www.carbontrust.co.uk/publications/publicationdetail.htm?productid=CTC726 28
12. Standalone and grid-connected systems
It is unlikely that the amount of electricity generated by an LZC system exactly matches demand at any given time of the day, let alone for the duration of it. So a major consideration is how to store that energy. LZC technologies generating electricity can be either standalone or grid-connected.
12.2
Grid-connected
Grid-connected systems do not need a battery array to store energy. Any unused or excess electricity can be sold to the local electricity supply company and exported to the grid. Although energy is not stored as such within the national grid, at any given time it can be used elsewhere. When local demand exceeds generation, electricity is imported from the grid. The National Grid is controlled under very tight tolerances in terms of voltage and frequency, so an inverter is needed to convert DC power to AC at a quality and standard acceptable to the grid32. The Distribution Network Operator (DNO) typically pays for each unit exported at a lower rate than the cost of imported electricity. ROCs may be claimed for any electricity generated, which can be sold to electricity supply companies at the market rate33. An alternative available from several electricity supply companies is a fixed rate for every kWh of electricity generated regardless of whether it is exported or used on site. This simplifies metering arrangements34. Net metering arrangements may be available in future, where the net of the electricity generated and consumed is calculated over a specified period of time, and the customer billed for the balance. Feed-in tariffs have the potential to increase the price paid by DNOs for exported electricity beyond the cost of that imported.
12.1
Standalone
Standalone systems operate completely independently of the national grid. The LZC technologies are connected directly to an array of batteries which stores the electricity generated and acts as the main power supply for the dwelling. The size of the battery array will determine the amount of energy that can be stored. An inverter may or may not be used to convert the direct current (DC) electricity produced into alternating current (AC) for domestic use. The size of the inverter will determine the number and power of appliances that can run concurrently. Many systems currently in use operate in conjunction with an auxiliary generator to provide backup during periods of low output. Standalone systems are rare. The most common application for off-grid systems is at the scale of individual dwellings in remote locations, where the cost of grid connection is prohibitive. Further information is available at off-grid.net
32. All grid-connected generators must comply with connection agreements G83 (less than 3.7kW) or G59 (greater than 3.7kW). 33. For the latest market price see e-roc.co.uk/trackrecord.htm - currently 51.81 per MWh (Jan 09) 34. Further information on current tariffs for exporting electricity to the grid is available at energysavingtrust.org.uk/Generate-your-own-energy/Sell-your-own-energy 29
13. Suitability: urban and rural environments
13.1
Solar thermal and PV
Solar thermal hot water and PV systems are suitable in most situations. Key considerations are the orientation of available roof space and any shading from trees, buildings or chimneys. Even partial shading of a PV array is to be avoided, since yield will fall by more than the area shaded due to the electrical arrangement of the modules. The greatest amount of solar energy is captured if panels are as close to perpendicular to the suns rays as possible. Ideally the panels should be oriented as close to south as possible; output from panels on east or west facing roofs is typically 10% less than for south-facing (at optimum tilt). The optimum tilt in the UK is around 33 to 35 from to the horizontal, although this is not critically important and panels are often mounted in line with the roof pitch. A tilt of between 15 and 50 will provide over 95% of the maximum annual output. A steeper tilt will make panels comparatively more effective in winter when the sun is lower in the sky, although total output for the year will be slightly reduced. This can be an effective strategy to increase output of solar hot water systems, since solar energy captured (in summer) that exceeds 100% of domestic hot water demand can be less easily stored or exported compared to electricity from PV. Installation is more straightforward for newbuild developments, or refurbishments where roofing work must be carried out, since roof access is required. Newbuild also represents an opportunity to integrate solar panels into the building fabric, reducing material costs. The structural strength of the roof should be confirmed for older buildings to ensure that they can withstand the weight and potential wind loading. Evacuated tube collectors of a similar size tend to be heavier than flat plate. Following recent changes to legislation, installation of buildingmounted microgeneration technologies is typically covered under permitted development rights and planning permission is not generally required. However advice should be sought for listed buildings or those in conservation areas. Blocks of flats have a relatively small roof area available compared to houses and will be correspondingly less effective per dwelling. PV does, however, complement CHP in that it generates most electricity during the summer when heat demand is low and CHP systems may be generating less electricity or not in operation.
Where possible, panels should be installed at a pitch of greater than 15 to enable self-cleaning of dust and debris by the rain. In urban areas, dust accumulation can cause a power reduction up to 10%.
13.2
Wind
Wind turbines are generally much better suited to rural locations, since wind speeds are significantly higher and less turbulent. There is also a greater opportunity for pole-mounting turbines, further increasing the available resource with height. Buildingmounted turbines may be an option in suburban areas, although care should be taken with older buildings, as vibration of the turbine in operation can lead to structural issues. Communityscale turbines are often the best and most cost effective option. Urban locations are not well suited, with the possible exception of tower blocks.
13.3
Micro-hydro
Hydro power is almost always a competitive option if the resource is available. However this is the case in a minority of rural areas only. An environmental impact assessment should be carried out and planning authorities consulted to ensure the relevant regulations and appropriate permissions are obtained. The Environment Agency normally requires an abstraction licence.
13.4
Biomass
Biomass boilers on the individual dwelling level are best suited to refurbishments in rural areas. A large volume of fuel is required and availability of storage space, ease of delivery and potential for local supply are all factors to consider. Additionally, the equipment itself requires a relatively large footprint within the dwelling. Biomass appliances are not widely available in very low capacities, so tend to be better suited to larger rural properties or refurbished houses, which are more likely to have greater thermal losses. A biomass system can be easily incorporated within an existing wet heating system. It is an excellent option for properties that are not on the gas grid. Smoke Control Areas in many urban locations require the installation of appliances from an approved list. There is currently
30
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Suitability: urban and rural environments
a limited number of approved biomass stoves and boilers to choose from35. Availability of fuel is a major consideration, as the infrastructure has yet to become fully established. A list of biomass fuel and system suppliers is available at logpile.com. System vendors may also be able to assist in arranging fuel supply contracts. For large newbuild developments, where a number of flats or houses are being built, district heating systems using biomass as the heat source are ideal.
Although the units are a great deal quieter than they used to be, noise impact in urban areas should not be disregarded, as it can be a problem, particularly at night.
13.7
Community heating and CHP
Whether newbuild or refurbishment, dwelling density is key to minimising distribution network costs and heat losses and so making community schemes economically feasible. The cost effectiveness increases with scale and population density, since the average district heating network costs are less per dwelling. Refurbishment projects are rarely done on the scale required, except perhaps in tower blocks. Only at over 50 dwellings or ideally at or above 500 dwellings, do significant carbon savings become available. Biomass CHP is an excellent low carbon option, but is only available to communities of considerable size. Hydraulic interface units tend to be smaller than a boiler, so community heating is a great option for flats and small houses where space is at a premium. It is helpful if non-domestic buildings are connected to the distribution network in order to smooth the heat demand profile, especially for CHP. The most appropriate applications of CHP in existing housing are likely to be on single sites with large numbers of dwellings, such as estates that already have communal heating from central boiler houses. In these cases, when the CHP plant is installed, existing heat distribution systems can often be re-used with little or no modification.
13.5
Ground source heat pumps
Heat pumps are most suitable for newbuild installation as the dwelling can be designed for low-temperature systems (like underfloor heating) and have high levels of insulation to reduce the heating requirement and therefore the size and cost of the system. Most existing buildings rely on high-temperature distribution systems which are expensive to replace. Performing the groundworks is also far less disruptive and less expensive in a newbuild scenario. Ground source heat pumps (GSHP) require a significant area of adjacent land, so are not likely to be suitable for urban locations. They are suitable for both rural and suburban developments, although the cost of installing the ground loop increases significantly if space is restricted, because vertical boreholes are needed. Heat pumps are an ideal solution for properties that are off the gas grid. The higher carbon intensity of the alternative fuels (oil or solid fuel) reduces the relative cost of carbon savings.
13.6
Air source heat pumps
In contrast, air source heat pumps are particularly suitable for urban applications. In more rural locations, GSHP may be favoured due to the greater seasonal performance factor (SPF). Again, newbuild developments that are designed for underfloor heating can achieve the best performance. Seasonal performance factor for air/water heat pumps (air source, underfloor wet system) is somewhat better than the same air/air heat pumps, although the latter are relatively easy to install and can represent an economic investment for existing buildings.
13.8
Micro-CHP
Micro-CHP is suitable for a wide range of scenarios. However, a gas connection is currently required, making them unsuitable for some rural properties - although there is no reason that oil or biomass fired units could not be developed in time.. At the other end of the scale, the relatively large thermal output and physical size of the units makes them less suitable for flats or smaller/better insulated urban houses.
35. Further information on Smoke Control Areas and exempt appliances is available at uksmokecontrolareas.co.uk 31
14. Capital and maintenance costs
Where applicable, installed costs are calculated by adding together costs per installation and per kW. For example, an 8kW ground source heat pump (bore holes) for a newbuild dwelling would be expected to cost approximately: 3,170 + (790 x 8kW) = 9,490
14.1
Individual dwellings
Table 2: Capital and maintenance costs for individual dwellings Technology Fixed cost (/installation) Newbuild Solar thermal* Solar PV Wind (<2.5kWe, building mounted) Wind ( 6-15kWe, pole mounted) Ground source heat pump (trench) Ground source heat pump (bore holes) Air source heat pump Biomass boiler (10kW, individual) Micro hydro (5-10kWe, medium head) Gas CHP (1.1kWe, stirling engine) Gas CHP (5.5kWe, reciprocating engine) Condensing gas boiler (20kW) Condensing oil boiler (20kW) 1,420 3,170 3,170 4,000 10,000 10,000 5,000 13,000 2,000 2,500 2,500 3,000 4,170 4,170 4,300 Retrofit 2,000 Marginal cost (/kW) Newbuild 820 4,000 5,005 3,325 560 790 280 2,500 Retrofit 950 5,250 Annual maintenance cost (% of capex) 1.5% 1.0% 1.0% 1.0% 0.5% 0.5% 2.0% 3.0% 4.0% 4.0% 4.0% 5.5% 5.5%
*Where fixed and marginal costs are shown, these should be added together to give installed cost. For solar thermal systems, assume approximately 0.7 kWth output per m2 whether flat plate or evacuated tube.36
36. As agreed by several European solar thermal associations. See rac-f.org/IMG/doc/Recommendation_to_convert_thermal_area_to_capacity.doc 32
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Capital and maintenance costs
14.2
Community scale
Table 3: Capital and maintenance costs for community-scale dwellings Technology Fixed cost (/installation) Newbuild Wind (50-1000kWe, community scale) Biomass boiler (<50kW, cluster) Biomass boiler (200kW, community) Biomass CHP (1MWe) Gas CHP (100kWe, community) Gas CHP (1MWe, community) 10,000 900 per dwelling** 300 per dwelling** Marginal cost (/kW) Newbuild 2,475 250 410 3,415 2,045 1,000 Annual maintenance cost (% of capex) 1.0% 3.0% 2.0% 4.0% 4.0% 3.0%
**Fixed cost does not include district heat network installation costs, which are highly site-specific. These typically account for the majority of the total capital cost associated with the project.37
37. Potential for Microgeneration Study and Analysis: berr.gov.uk/files/file27558.pdf 33
15. Sources of grant funding
15.1
Feed-in tariff and renewable heat incentive
The Government introduced a feed in tariff in April 2010 so that people and businesses who generate their own electricity from low carbon sources will be paid for doing so. A similar scheme for renewable heat is planned to follow in April 2011. energysavingtrust.org.uk/generate-your-own-energy/sell-your-ownenergy/Feed-in-tariff-scheme
15.5 Scottish Community and Householder Renewables Initiative

The Scottish Community and Householder Renewables Initiative (SCHRI) provides funding to householders and advice and funding to communities. Grants of up to 30% of installation costs to a maximum of 4,000 are available to householders. Grants of up to 100,000 are available for community projects in addition to free support and advice throughout the installation process. The amount of funding awarded is determined on a case-by-case basis, with the average grant being in the region of 50%.40
15.2
Bio-energy Capital Grants scheme
The Bio-energy Capital Grants scheme is aimed at businesses, organisations and charities in the commercial, industrial and community sectors that are considering investing in biomassfuelled heat and/or CHP projects. Grants of up to 500,000 were available, although restricted to England only.38
15.6
Renewable Obligation Certificates
15.3
Scottish Biomass Heat Scheme
The Renewables Obligation is described in section 1.3.2. Microgeneration installations generating 50KWe or less may be entitled to claim support under the Renewables Obligation (RO). Eligible renewable sources are: landfill gas, sewage gas, hydro over 20MW (commissioned after 1st April 2002), hydro under 20 MW, onshore and offshore wind, co-firing of biomass, other biomass, geothermal power, tidal and tidal stream power. Some energy from waste is also eligible and specific details can be found on the BERR website41 or from Ofgem who administer the Obligation42.
The Scottish Biomass Heat Scheme provides grants for installation of biomass heating systems in small-medium scale enterprises (SMEs) across Scotland. The Scottish Government is keen to encourage the development of district heating, and would particularly welcome applications for district heating demonstrators from private developers. Up to 50% funding of the additional capital costs of a biomass heating system compared to an equivalent fossil-fuel system can be supported under the scheme, subject to a maximum of 100,000.
15.7
Reduced rate of VAT
15.4
Community Sustainable Energy Programme
The Community Sustainable Energy Programme (CSEP) provides grants to community-based organisations for the installation of microgeneration technologies and energy efficiency measures. Grants of up to 50,000 or 50% of the project value (whichever is lower) are available. Products and installers must be certified under MCS. It also provides project development grants that help community organisations assess the feasibility of installing any combination of the microgeneration technologies supported. Grants of up to 5,000 or 75% of the feasibility study cost (whichever is lower) are available. Consultants registered with CSEP must be used39.
VAT on many energy saving materials and heating systems is payable at the reduced rate of 5%. This is most applicable to refurbishments, since all VAT can be recovered on newbuild developments. Further information is available at: hmrc.gov.uk/VAT/sectors/consumers/energy-saving.htm
15.8
Energy Saving Trust database
Householders can search the Energy Saving Trust database for grants available for LZC installations and energy efficiency measures in their area. See energysavingtrust.org.uk/gid
38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 34
See bioenergycapitalgrants.org.uk/ See communitysustainable.org.uk/ See energysavingtrust.org.uk/scotland/Scotland/Scottish-Community-and-Householder-Renewables-Initiative-SCHRI See berr.gov.uk/energy/sources/renewables/policy/renewables-obligation/microgeneration/page39851.html See ofgem.gov.uk/Sustainability/Environment/RenewablObl/Pages/RenewablObl.aspx
16. Developing a renewable energy strategy
The approach is broadly similar regardless of the type of system involved. The use of renewable energy technology should always be combined with energy efficiency. The carbon reductions achieved from energy efficiency measures will generally be greater than those from LZCs. The following step-by-step approach should follow a consideration of energy efficiency measures. Step 1: Assess the potential
Step 3: Consult with tenants, local residents and contractors
Some renewable energy measures may have an impact on

local residents.
If refurbishing, tenant approval for the scheme is important as

it is required by most grant funding schemes.
Tenants and prospective residents will need to be informed and

educated about the benefits of renewable energy technology. Step 4: Develop a specification
Consider LZC technologies during feasibility stages (RIBA stage B). If refurbishing, consider whether additional works (e.g. re-roofing) will facilitate the installation of LZC systems. space heating, water heating and electric power requirements (for appliances and lighting). Estimate the contributions that may be made by renewable energy. themselves to different types of buildings and sites.
Identify the current and/or projected energy demand. Evaluate Identify the appropriate options different technologies lend Compare the carbon emissions reductions achievable from the
various renewable energy technology options, taking into account the type of fuel or energy to be offset. Step 2: Assess the required investment
Specify the technology and the required performance of the

dwellings, in terms of fuel use, fuel costs and carbon emissions. Step 5: Apply for funding
Review and select from the many grant funding schemes

designed to promote the development of LZC energy.
Consider seeking non-government grant finance. Examine the potential for Renewable Obligation Certificates
(ROCs). Step 6: Implementation
Consider what can be afforded, evaluate residents benefits and

identify the available grant funding, loans and other support mechanisms. Complete a feasibility study including whole-life costing, to establish the net present value (NPV) of the proposal.
Apply for planning permission, obtain competitive tenders and

implement the scheme.
35
Appendix A - Further information
Lifecycle energy and carbon payback for LZC technologies

Bennett, S. J. (2007) Review of Existing Life Cycle Assessment Studies of Microgeneration Technologies, Energy Saving Trust energysavingtrust.org.uk/Global-Data/Publications/Review-of-Existing-Life-Cycle-Assessment-Studies-of-Microgeneration-Technologies2
The effects of climate change

Stern Review on the Economics of Climate Change hm-treasury.gov.uk/stern_review_report.htm Environment Agency The climate is changing: time to get ready publications.environment-agency.gov.uk/pdf/GEHO0205BIRS-e-e.pdf Direct Gov Effects of Climate change direct.gov.uk/en/Environmentandgreenerliving/Thewiderenvironment/Climatechange/DG_072929 Met Office UK Climate Projections 2009 metoffice.gov.uk/climatechange/guide/ukcp/
Drivers
UK Building Regulations 2006, Parts L1A and L1B planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115314110382.html Domestic Heating Compliance Guide (Buildings Regulation 2nd tier document) tehva.org.uk/downloads/PartL_Compliance_Guide.pdf Standard Assessment Procedure, SAP 2009 bre.co.uk/sap2009 CLG The Code for Sustainable Homes, Technical Guide communities.gov.uk/publications/planningandbuilding/codeguide NHBC The Code Simply Explained nhbcfoundation.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=k3s7ZwBf84c%3d&tabid=339&mid=774&language=en-GB CLG Building a Greener Future communities.gov.uk/publications/planningandbuilding/building-a-greener PPS 1: Delivering Sustainable Development: communities.gov.uk/planningandbuilding/planning/planningpolicyguidance/planningpolicystatements/planningpolicystatements/pps1/ PPS 22: Renewable Energy communities.gov.uk/planningandbuilding/planning/planningpolicyguidance/planningpolicystatements/planningpolicystatements/pps22/ PPS: Planning and Climate Change Supplement to PPS 1: communities.gov.uk/planningandbuilding/planning/planningpolicyguidance/planningpolicystatements/planningpolicystatements/ ppsclimatechange/
36
Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Appendix A Further information
Practice Guidance on PPS: Planning and Climate Change pas.gov.uk/pas/core/page.do?pageId=94314 Scotland: Scottish Planning Policy (SPP) 6 Renewable Energy scotland.gov.uk/Publications/2007/03/22084213/0 Wales: Technical Advice Note (TAN) 8: Renewable Energy wales.gov.uk/topics/planning/policy/tans/tan8/?lang=en Northern Ireland: PPS 18: Renewable Energy planningni.gov.uk/index/policy/policy_publications/planning_statements/pps18.htm BIS UK National Planning Policies berr.gov.uk/energy/sources/renewables/planning/policy-uk/page18653.html HMRC Stamp Duty Land Tax Relief hmrc.gov.uk/Budget2007/bn26.pdf
Low-energy design
Accredited Construction Details planningportal.gov.uk/england/professionals/en/1115314255826.html CE297 Enhanced Construction Details: Introduction and Use (Energy Saving Trust) Energy Saving Trust Domestic Heating Sizing Wizard SAP Appendix Q sap-appendixq.org.uk CE124 Energy efficient ventilation in dwellings: A guide for specifiers (Energy Saving Trust) CE137 Improving airtightness in dwellings (Energy Saving Trust) CE319 - Sustainable site layout; Guidelines to creating a sustainable housing development (Energy Saving Trust) To be published in 2010
Solar PV
Photovoltaic Geographical Information System (PVGIS) sunbird.jrc.it/pvgis/
37
Solar hot water

HSE Legionnaires Disease hse.gov.uk/legionnaires/ CE131 Solar water heating systems: Guidance for professionals, conventional indirect models (Energy Saving Trust) GIR 88 Solar Hot Water Systems in New Housing (Energy Saving Trust) Carbon Trust (2008) ECA770 Solar thermal technology: A guide to equipment eligible for Enhanced Capital Allowances carbontrust.co.uk/publications/publicationdetail.htm?productid=ECA770 DTI (2001) URN 01/1292 Side by side testing of eight solar water heating systems berr.gov.uk/files/file16826.pdf DTI (2002) URN 02/1402 Further Testing of Solar Water Heating Systems berr.gov.uk/files/file16544.pdf
Wind
Carbon Trust Wind Yield Estimation Tool carbontrust.co.uk/wind-estimator Carbon Trust Small scale wind energy greenspec.co.uk/documents/whitepapers/CT_Wind_Energy_v2.pdf Warwick Wind Field Trials warwickwindtrials.org.uk/ Energy Saving Trust Wind Field Trial energysavingtrust.org.uk/Generate-your-own-energy/Energy-Saving-Trust-field-trial-of-domestic-wind-turbines
Micro-hydro
microhydropower.net
Biomass
Defra Biomass Task Force report defra.gov.uk/farm/crops/industrial/energy/biomass-taskforce/pdf/btf-finalreport.pdf Log Pile logpile.co.uk OFTEC Information Sheet 56 Introduction to Bio-liquids for Home Heating and Cooking oftec.org/documents/FactSheetPub56_issue1_01May2009_BioFuels.pdf Pilkington Energy Efficiency Trust Low Carbon Heating with Wood Fuel Pellet bioenergy.org/downloads/PelletReport.pdf
38
Heat pumps
CE82 (GPG339) Domestic Ground Source Heat Pumps: Design and installation of closed-loop systems (Energy Saving Trust) GIR72 Heat Pumps in the UK: a monitoring report (Energy Saving Trust) Getting warmer: a field trial of heat pumps (Energy Saving Trust)
Community heating and CHP

Combined Heat & Power Association chpa.co.uk/
Micro-CHP
Carbon Trust Micro-CHP Accelerator - Interim Report carbontrust.co.uk/publications/publicationdetail.htm?productid=CTC726
Grant funding
Microgeneration Certification Scheme microgenerationcertification.org/ Low Carbon Buildings Programme lowcarbonbuildings.org.uk/home/ Bio-energy Capital Grants scheme bioenergycapitalgrants.org.uk/ Scottish Biomass Heat Scheme scotland.gov.uk/Topics/Business-Industry/Energy/19185/20805/BioSupport/BioSupportIntro Community Sustainable Energy Programme communitysustainable.org.uk/ Scottish Community and Householder Renewables Initiative energysavingtrust.org.uk/scotland/Scotland/Scottish-Community-and-Householder-Renewables-Initiative-SCHRI Renewables Obligation berr.gov.uk/energy/sources/renewables/policy/renewables-obligation/microgeneration/page39851.html
39
General interest
NHBC Publications nhbc.co.uk/AboutNHBC/NHBCFoundation/ National Energy Foundation nef.org.uk/index.asp Centre for Sustainable Energy cse.org.uk/
Trade associations
Solar Trade Association solar-trade.org.uk British Wind Energy Association bwea.com British Hydropower Association british-hydro.org The Institute of Domestic Heating Engineers idhee.org.uk/homeframes.html Residential Ventilation Association feta.co.uk Eco Solar Equipment Ltd ecosolarequipment.co.uk NHBC nhbc.co.uk Solartwin solartwin.com STROMA stroma.com Energy Equipment Testing Service eets.co.uk Department of Communities and Local Government communities.gov.uk
40
Secon Solar Ltd seconsolar.com Solar Trade Association solar-trade.org.uk Waterheater Manufacturers Association waterheating.fsnet.co.uk/wmadefault.htm Mark Group markgroup.co.uk Zenex Technologies Ltd. zenexenergy.com EDF Energy edfenergy.com OFTEC oftec.org.uk Scottish Solar Energy Group sseg.org.uk The Energy Consultancy energyinst.org.uk Chartered Institute of Plumbing and Heating Engineers ciphe.org.uk
41
CE317
Further information The Energy Saving Trust provides free technical guidance and solutions to help UK housing professionals design, build and refurbish to high levels of energy efficiency in domestic newbuild and renovation. They are made available through the provision of training seminars, downloadable guides, online tools and a dedicated helpline. For more information call 0845 120 7799, email bestpractice@est.org.uk or visit energysavingtrust.org.uk/housing
Further reading A complete list of Energy Saving Trust housing professionals guidance can be found in Energy Efficiency is best practice (CE279). To download this, and to browse all available Energy Saving Trust publications, visit energysavingtrust.org.uk/housing/publications Low carbon futures: zero carbon case studies (CE310) Essex Energy Village, Colchester: a case study (CE306) Building the first Code level 5 homes: a case study of Mid Street, South Nutfield (CE300) Renewable energy in housing case studies (CE28) Solar water heating systems guidance for professionals, conventional indirect models (2006 edition) (CE131) Solar hot water systems in new housing a monitoring report (2001 edition) (GIR88) Domestic ground source heat pumps: design and installation of closed-loop systems (2004 edition) (CE82) Enhanced Construction Details (CE297 and CE302)
Energy Saving Trust, 21 Dartmouth Street, London SW1H 9BP Tel 0845 120 7799 Fax 0845 120 7789 bestpractice@est.org.uk energysavingtrust.org.uk/housing
CE317 Energy Saving Trust September 2010. E&OE The Energy Saving Trust Housing programme is grant aided by the Department of Energy and Climate Change. This publication (including any drawings forming part of it) is intended for general guidance only and not as a substitute for the application of professional expertise. Any figures used are indicative only. The Energy Saving Trust gives no guarantee as to reduction of carbon emissions, energy savings or otherwise. Anyone using this publication (including any drawings forming part of it) must make their own assessment of the suitability of its content (whether for their own purposes or those of any client or customer), and the Energy Saving Trust cannot accept responsibility for any loss, damage or other liability resulting from such use. So far as the Energy Saving Trust is aware, the information presented in this publication was correct and current at the time of the last revision. To ensure you have the most up to date version, please visit our website: www.energysavingtrust.org.uk/housing The contents of this publication may be superseded by statutory requirements or technical advances which arise after the date of publication. It is your responsibility to check latest developments.

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Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition

Low energy design

Typical household energy consumption Solar photovoltaic (electricity)

Solar thermal (hot water)

Cover: VELUX solar hot water collectors

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition

Community heating and combined heat and power

Standalone and grid-connected systems

Suitability: urban and rural environments

Capital and maintenance costs

Sources of grant funding

Developing a renewable energy strategy

Appendix A Further information

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition

Low carbon generation

What are low zero carbon technologies?

Why should we use them?

Use renewable energy as a principle source but also require a

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition Introduction

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition

Scotland: Scottish Planning Policy (SPP) 6: Renewable Energy

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition

Low energy design

Intake (cool fresh air)

Extract (warm stale air)

Exhaust (cool stale air)

11. See energysavingtrust.org.uk/business/Business/Building-Professionals/Helpful-Tools/Enhanced-Construction-Details 7

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition

Low energy design

Reduces demand on heating systems and improves thermal

Figure 2: The impact of increasing building fabric thermal mass12

New dwellings should, wherever possible, be positioned to

Exposed internal thermal mass should be used to provide a

Houses should be oriented so that their long axis lies

To maximise passive solar gain, the dwellings should be

Heating systems and controls which respond to internal and

Hot flue gasses

Condensing boiler Domestic hot water Mains cold water

Mains cold water

Flue gas heat recovery systems

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition

Typical household energy consumption

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition

Solar photovoltaic (electricity)

The solar resource

Proportion of annual solar irradiation

16% 14% 12% 10% 8% 6% 4% 2%

Figure 5: Variation in average monthly solar irradiation (London)

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition

Solar photovoltaic (electricity)

Figure 6: Solar roof tiles

Types of photovoltaic cell

Figure 7: Monocrystalline solar cell

Production module efficiency

Global solar cell demand (GW)

Figure 11: Relative efficiencies of different solar cells

A typical solar PV system

Capacity Capital cost Output CO2 saving

2kWp 7,000 9,000 1600kWh/annum 840kg CO2/yr*

Domestic Low and Zero Carbon Technologies 2010 edition