IN TR O D U C TIO N TO H EA T TR EA TM E N T OF W ELDED STRUCTURES A N D TE C H N IC A L D A TA

1. Welding Process & its Effects

The welding process applied to metals joins two components together by fusion. The surfaces to be joined are raised locally to melting point by a source of heat provided by a variety of welding methods based on electric arc, electric resistance, flame. The process energy creates a localised molten pool into which the consumable is fed, fusing with the component surfaces and/or previously deposited weld metal. As the molten pool is moved along the joint axis, the components are heated, non-uniformly and subsequently cooled, also nonuniformly. Neighbouring elements of material try to expand and contract by differing amounts in accordancee with the sequence of the localised thermal cycle. Characteristically the cooling weld metal contracts under conditions of severe restraint, leading to the introduction of thermally induced stresses. As contraction tries to take place and the stress system strives to reach its lowest level to achieve stability, distortion will occur as yielding takes place. If the joint is restrained and cannot distort, then high levels of stress will occur and may lead to failure in the form of cracking.
Unrestrained Contraction Causes Distortion

A longitudinal force on the weld is required to close the gap giving a tensile stress whilst corresponding compressive stresses in the plate material provide the equilibrium.
Fused Weld Metat

'as cast' type of structure develops. In the region of parent metat at the fusion face raised to melting point, metallurgical restructuring takes place to give the heat affected zone (HAZ).

Residual stresses will act in two principle directions; longitudinal stresses parallel to the joint and transverse stresses normal to the joint.

(Tj Weld Metal (1Q HAZ (3} Parent Plate

In steel the heat affected zones are generally harder than the parent material with corresponding loss of ductility and resistance to impact. Since the basic sources of weld failure are a consequence of thermal behaviour, a series of potential solutions arise based on the application of heat. The welding processes have to be controlled so that the residual stresses are minimised to protect the integrity of the overall fabrication and the metallurgical structures of the weld metal and heat affected zones are controlled to give properties which are not inferior to those of the parent material which have been used in the design of the product. A series of heat treatment operations are associated with the welding processes, arising from the need to control these changes. These form the basis of the subject of Heat Treatment Engineering.

Residual Stress Directions

The distribution of longitudinal residual stresses in the section will be as shown with tensile component confined to the region of the joint.

In making a joint, gaps would occur at the plate ends if the weld metal were allowed to expand and contract without restraint.

Stress Distribution

It should not be forgotten that the value of the tensile stresses can be high often exceeding yield point magnitude. So far the mechanical effects of welding in the form of residual stresses have been considered. The deposition of weld metal in a molten pool and the localised melting of the joint faces of the components, along with subsequent cooling, all have metallurgical implications affecting the microstructure of these regions. Cooling after welding can be relatively rapid. From the molten pool of weld metal an

Unfused Weld Metat

2. Preheat & Postheat

Preheating involves raising the temperature of the parent material locally, on both sides of the joint to a value above ambient. The need for preheat is usually determined by the pertinent fabrication code and verified by the weld procedure qualification test. Preheat may be required as an aid to welding for one of four basic reasons. To control the rate of cooling, especially in the heat affected zone, to reduce hardness. High carbon and low alloy steels harden if they are quenched from high temperatures (above cherry red). Exactly the same process can happen in a welded joint at the fusion face with the parent material. By raising the temperature of the base metal to be welded, to reduce the temperature differential between ambient and the resultant heat input, hardening may be controlled as the weld cools. Reducing hardness reduces the risk of cracking. preparartion area is dry and remains dry throughout the welding operation. The presence of preheat, and associated benefits on cooling rate, helps to facilitate the diffusion of the hydrogen molecules out of the metallic structure.
Heat Affected Zone iHaz)

Compensation for heat loss. Thicker section steels with high thermal conductivity benefit from preheat during welding with improved fusion. Where preheat is applied, every effort should be made to ensure that the correct levels for a particular application are attained, both uniformly over the length of the joint and for the duration of the welding process.
Thin Section Thick Section

Moisture is also introduced from the welding consumables being

OXYGE N

present in electrode coatings and fluxes. To obtain the maximum benefits from preheat in controlling hydrogen, it must be accompanied by careful controls over removal of moisture from the welding consumables by following manufacturers baking and storage instructions. To reduce thermal stresses. Thermal strains are set up as the molten weld pool cools. Partially made welds can crack as the parent metal restrains the contraction of the weld metal and the cross sectional area of the joint is insufficient to with stand the resultant stress. Preheat can control the level of strain by reducing temperature differentials and reducing cooling rates.
The solid curve shows the temperature in the heat affected zone as the arc passes by The dotted curve is the temperature when preheat is used. Preheating provides slower cooling

Low

High

Guidance for the need to preheat is generally obtained from the national fabrication codes, which will list recommended minimum temperatures for steel types grouped by composition and also relate the minimum section thickness to which they apply. For the purposes of illustration, the preheat requirements of high pressure pipework codes BS2633, ANSI B31.1rand ANSI B31.3 are compared.

RED HOT FILE aUENCHED IN WATER BECOMES HARD

RED HOT FILE COOLED SLOWLY BECOMES MALLEABLE ANDDUCVLE

Ma\sfi3l Hardens MB tan a! Softens

To control the diffusion rate of hydrogen in a welded joint. The intensity of the electric welding arc breaks down water, present as moisture, into its base elements of hydrogen and oxygen. Both of these gases are easily dissolved into the weld metal at high temperatures and hydrogen can play an important role in weld and heat affected zone cracking with a phenomenon known as hydrogen or cold cracking. Preheat can also help by ensuring that the weld

Post Heat This is the term given to the extension of preheat on completion of welding at the same or increased temperature. Its purpose is to effect diffusion of hydrogen from the joint and reduce susceptibility to the associated form of cracking. It is usually applied to the higher strength carbon managenese steels and the low alloy steels where the risk of hydrogen cracking is higher. Post heat treatments are not reflected in national standards or codes, but are often specified by the client who has incorporated their equivalent into the weld procedure qualification test. The temperatures and soak times are derived from numerous technical papers published on this topic.

An estimate of weld metal hydrogen levels can be made from a knowledge of the potential hydrogen level in the

PREHEAT REQUIREMENTS FOR BS 2633:1987 - HIGH PRESSURE PIPEWORK

Minimum preheat temperature fortig welding of rooltun Hydrogen controlled weld metal IBS 1719) Matching root run. All diameter and Above 127 mm diameter or 12,5mm thick Up to 30mm 5'C Above 30mm IDO-C 30m mlfflTC Above 30 Up to 30mm 5"C Above Up to 30 5C Material thickness Minimum preheat

Non hydgrDgen controlled weld metal Material thickness I Minimum preheat

Material

Carbon steel root run Up to 127mm diameter and 12.5mm thick

Y**............................H

ve-i
Carbon Steel 10 0,25%C

A......
j:..........."

PC

Up to 20 Above 20 All

5t 100T
200C

kw

4 .;
MarJimti

loot

Carbon steel above 0.25%C Up to 0.40%C Carbon -moly

5fTC

ltt

loot

All

istre

SI"-Weld hydrogen levelOta

St

100T

Uptoi2.5 2rrc

Upto12.5

20C

Up to 38

150C

lCr 1,'j Mo

5"C

!00C

10FC

Upto12.5 Above 12.5

100C 150C 150C 200"C 150C 200"C 200t

Up to 12.5 Above 12.5 Up to 20

150'C 200"C

'tCrVjMD^V

50-C

10C C

lore

Up to 12.5 Above 12.5

Not permissable Low H, rods required Upto12,5 200'C Low H rods required
2

2V CrlMo
t

50C

ra re
Carbon steel root run not allowed

WC

Up to 12.5 Above 12.5

5Cr V3M0 7Cr VjMo 9Cr1Mo

Carbon Steel root run not allowed

ISO'C

All

Low Hj rods required

Special Note re BS.2633 The table is for guidance only. It illustrates the contents of the preheat section of BS. 2633 (Table 5) which should be consulted in its entirety. A number of other important standards give guidance on preheat, these include:
Hydrogen-induced cracks in HAZ of a butt weld

ASME Code

Section III: Nuclear power plant components Section VIII: ASME Boiler and pressure vessel code Water tube steam generating plant Fusion welding of steel castings Part 1 - Production, rectification and repair Part 2Fabrication welding Metal arc welding of carbon and carbon-manganese steels Unfired fusion welded pressure vessels

BS 1113 BS 4570

8S5135 BS 5500

Special Note re ANSI/B31-1 &ANSI/B31-3 The table below is for guidance only. Reference should be made to the appropriate specification

!U

CH[iW /ncrEDSPdrasirfuarfflrflH

rw

im

fiwr

iffCHH Ifien if Tare

Base Metal Number

Weld hydrogen level of preheating on residual stresses

1 Ifoa

Oirtt tff% struts tetitl is oauuwrf by prflrfiwd'ug to usvsl unvmwn

PREHEAT REQUIREM ENTS FOR PETROLEU M REFINERY PIPING (ANSI B.311.1990) & POWER PIPING (ANSI B31.11992)
Material Group

Mi ni mu m Re co m me nd ed Pre he at Te mp 30C High Alloy Ferritic

erature 'F ANSI 8.31.3 Carbon above 0.30% or 1" -175 Others 50 Abore60KSIORV "-175
2

Others 50 Above 60 KSI or V " - 250

3

Others 50 Above 60 KSI or both above <{ & chromium above 6%-400 Others-300 (00 50
v

High Alloy Martensitic

High Alloy Auslenitic

9A9B '.CA

Nickel Alloys Manganese Vanadium 27 Chromium 7t KSI & below V-50 1"& above -175 " 50 V& 71 KSI & below V
2

20C ANSI B31.5

P-9A-250, P9B-300

175

10F
Carbon Steel 11A Chromium V;% ma*

30C

S%.9% \ ckel

Above71KSI-175 above-175
Chromium V>%-2%

M EC

Chromium I'lfiWi
group 1 P21-P52

3. Post Weld Heat Treatment

Post Weld Heat Treatment. This is a process commonly referred to as stress relief, so called because it is carried out at temperatures at which yield strength has fallen to a low value. If the structure is heated uniformly, the yield strength of the material around the weld is unable to support the initial deformation. Creep occurs at the elevated temperatures and strain will occur by a diffusion mechanism, relaxing the residual stresses even further. The extent to which residual stresses are relaxed will depend on temperature for any given material and on material for any given temperature. The stress distributions at the higher temperatures become more uniform and their magnitude reduces to a low level. On cooling, provided it is carried out in a controlled manner, the improved stress distribution is retained. In addition to a reduction and redistribution of residual stresses, postweld treatments at higher temperatures permits some tempering or aging effects to take place. These metallurgical changes are very beneficial in that they reduce the high hardness of the as-welded structures, improving ductility and reducing the risks of brittle fracture. Post weld heat treatment has mandatory significance governed by the national standards and codes, as well as being required to offer acceptable component life in onerous environments. As with preheat, the alloying content of the steel is related to the significance of heat treatment temperature. Features of Post Weld Heat Treatment. There are five aspects to a post weld heat treatment that must be addressed. The hot zone is adequate to raise the weldment to the required temperature and provide a temperature profile therein which is uniform without creating additional undue thermally induced stresses. This aspect has greater significance in the case of localised heat treatments, but nevertheless must also be considered with furnace heat treatments. The heating and cooling rates are at least compliant with the necessary code requirements. These rates will indicate absolute maximum values, and are calculated from simple formulae related to component thickness to offer protection against thermally induced stresses. With thicker and more complex structures an experienced heat treatment engineer may wish to consider lower rates than required by the code to ensure acceptable temperature profiles and gradients with a view to keeping these thermally induced stresses to an absolute minimum. With localised heat treatment, the temperature gradients away from the hot zone must not be unduly severe, again the objective being the minimisation of thermally induced stresses. British Standards BS 5500, BS 2633 offer guidence in this issue, quoting the 2.5 V Rt rule. The soak tempertures are held within the upper and lower limits of the soak range for the appropriate period of time. The heat treatment system {including insulation), zonal division and number of thermocouples is such that the energy input and level of control is capable of enabling these objectives to be met ensuring that the integrity of the overall structure is not jeopardised. For local heat treatments, controls have to be implemented to provide assurance that the engineered system is capable of providing appropriate levels of performance. Benefits of Post Weld Heat Treatment

100% J

II
tuOl
-*

Ejp

80% -

90% 80%

60% -

-.

bi B. cS>

40% 20% Complete relief of residual stresses

2".

T-lTO

niiir
100 200 300 400 500 600

Stress relieving temperature CC) Effect of stress relieving at various temperatures

Reduced Residual Stresses

tOO 200 300 400 500 600

Temperature C
Improved Metallurgical Structure

\
\ W CAUSTIC 1 l SOLUTIONS .L NOT ATTACK j THIS WELD J

v Postheated \ Weld

Weld not

IfYiproved Corrosion Resistance

Remove

<&&& ^ & >

V]

Welders

Without . PWHT

With PWHT

Improved Machinability

POSTW ELD HEAT TREATMENT REQUIREMENTS FOR BS 2633:1987 - HIGH PRESSURE PIPEW ORK Male rial Soaking temperature Time at temperature: Minutes/mm thickness Temperature in furnace (pipework and welds! Carbon up to 0.25%X 580-620 2.5 (minimum 30) 2.5 (minimum 30) 2.5 (minimum 60) 5 (minimum 120) 180 irrespective of thickness but thin wall up to 127mm diameter 6112.5mm thick may be 30 minutes minimum 160 irrespective of thickness but thin wall up to 127mm diameter & 12.5mm thick may he 30 minutes minimum b (minimum 120) Local heat treatment (welds onlyl 2.5 (minimum 30! 2.5 (minimum 301 2.5 (minimum 601 2.5 (minimum 180) 2.5 (minimum 130)

Carbon 0 26 up to 0.4%C 630-670 Carbon-Moly ICr'/jMo VjCrVjMoViV 630-670 630-670 680-720

2V Cr IMo
(

680-720 (optimum creep) 710-750 (softening where optimum creep properties not required)

2.5 (minimum 60) 2.5 (minimum 60)

710-760 5Cr V3M0 7Cr '/?Mrj 9Cr1Mo 12CrMoV(W) 3V;Ni 720-760 690-620 None

5 (minimum 120)

2.5 (minimum 1201

180 irrespective of wall thickness 2.5 (minimum 60i Not required

2.5 (minimum 60) 2.5 (minimum 60) Not required

9Ni

S pecial N ote re B S .2633 The table is for guidance only. It illustrates the contents of the post w eld heat section of BS . 2633 (Table 6) w hich should be consulted in its entirety. A lso see BS . 1113 for post w eld heat treatm ent requirem ents for w ater tube steam generating plant.

For certain service conditions and for pipes of 0.15% C m axim um , post w eld heat treatm ent of w elds in pipes up to and including 12.5m and fillet w elded attachm ents where the throat thickness does not exceed 12m m is not required subject to satisfactory w elding procedure te S pecial N ote A N SI/B 31-1 & A N S I/B 31-3 re The table below is for guidance only. R eference should be m ade to the appropriate specification

POST W ELD HEAT TREATM ENT REQUIREMENTS FOR PETRO LEUM PIPING (ANSI B.31.1.1990) & POW ER PIPING (ANSI B31.1-1992I Base Metal Material Poshveld Heat Treatment Requirement "F Soak ANSI B.31.3 Carbon Steel ChromiumVi% max Above V-11DC/12001 liourmin Above V," or above71 KSI -110071325 1 hourmin. 225 Brinell max
i

ANSIB3.1 Boiler External Piping Above V IIOd'12001 hour /inch Above s/" & Carbon aboveO.25% 110071200
8

1 '1

1 hour/inch AboveV,'. i" 0D, 0.15% carbon 130071375 1 hour/inch

Chromium'/,%-2%

Above Vr above 71 KSI-130071375 2 hours min. 225 Brinell max

Chromium 2>/ %-10%

(

Above V' O.M carbon, 3% chromium 1300/1400 1 hour min. 2)1 Brinell max

Above V2", 4" 00,0.15%carbon 3%chromium 1300714001 hour/inch 1*00/14751 hour/inch

Highalloymartensiric

1350714502hoursmm. 241 Brinell max A240 Grad 429. Temp range 1150/1225

7 8
9A96

High alloy ferritic High alloy austenitic Nickel a Hoy steels

None None Above 3/,"-1100-11751 hour min

1350/14251 hour/inch None

9A above V;", 400,0.15% carbon 1100/1200 1 hour min. 0B - above Vj", 1100 -1175

10A

Manganese vanadium

Above V"or71 KS11100/1300

4

1 hourmin. 225 Brinell max

10E

High Chromium stainless steal

1225/1300! hour min

1250/13001 hour/inch

11A group 1

9% nickel sleel

Above 2" 1025/1085 1 hour min Inole; cooling rate to be above 300/Hr down to 800)

Heat Treatment of Pipewelds with 48kVA Heat Treatment Unit and Pad Elements

I I
415V 3 PHASE 60 AMP SUPPLY

II

^
CIRCUIT 2

CIRCUIT 1

J.

Note: 'Circuits 3, 4, 5 and 6 have not been shown for clarity,

TYPICAL 48kVA 6 CHANNEL HEAT TREATMENT UNIT PACKAGE Item No. 1 2 3 Qty. 1 6 6 Stock No. 10334 35024 32001 Page 4 9 9 Description 48kVA 6 Channel Heat Treatment Unit Triple Cable Sets 2 way Splitter Cables

4 5 6 7 8 9

6 15 6 As Req. 3 1

32002 See Range 42011 43007 See Range 41756/7

9 12-18 22 22 19 11

3 way Splitter Cabies Heating Elements 2m Thermocouple with Plug High Temperature Cement Ceramic Fibre Insulating Mats Thermocouple Attachment Unit

Items 5, 6, 7 and 8 are consumables and quantities required will depend on extent of work and production rate.

Circumferential Stress Relief of Pressure Vessel Welded Seams using Twin Bulkhead Method and Channel Elements
CABLE ENTRY THROUGH VESSEL 'MAN-WAYS' ROLLER SUPPORTS FOR EXPANSION 6 CHANNEL 415V DISTRIBUTION UNIT AND TEMPERATURE RECORDER WEATHER PROTECTION FIXED SUPPORTS

STEEL BULKHEADS TYPICAL RECOMMENDED IRON MESH WIRED TO BULKHEADS HEIGHT FOR MILD STEEL CHANNELS

MILD STEEL CHANNELS TO SUPPORT ELEMENTS THERMOCOUPLES ATTACHED TO WELDED SEAM AND AT GRADIENT POSITIONS

4-12mm RODS

MINERAL WOOL MATS 60mm THICK WITH SINGLE LAYER OVER GRADIENT ZONES AND DOUBLE LAYER OVER THE HEATED ZONE

TYPICAL PACKAGE FOR PWHT OF 3M DIAMETER SEAM Item No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Qty. 1 12 3 9 1 6 6' As Req. 10 Bales 1 Stock No. 14002 30001 32002 27750 40006 34000 42011 43007 506-014 41756/7 Page 9 19 19 18 10 21 22 22 19 11 Description 6 Channel 415V Distribution Unit Feed Cable (4/3 Heating Elements) 3 way Splitter Cable (1/Phase) 4-Bank Channel Elements (3/Phase) 6 Point Temperature Recorder 30m Compensating Cable (2 Pts/Heater) 2m Thermocouple with Plug High Temperature Cement Mineral Wool Insulation Thermocouple Attachment Unit

Temperature Conversion Tables

Example Find the known temperat re to be nverted in the Red column. Then cc read Centigrade uconversion to th e and heit to right

204

therefore 40CTC = 752T 400T = 204C

816 821 827 832 838 843 849 854 860 866 871 877 882 888 893 899 904 910 916 921 927 932 938 943 949 954 960 966 971 977 982 988 993 999 1004 1010 1016 1021 1027 1032 1038 1043 1049 1054 1060 1066 1071 1077 1082 1088 1093 1099 1104 1110 1500 1510 1520 1530 Tj40 1550 1660 1570 1580 1590 1600 1610 1620 1630 1640 1650 1660 1670 1680 1690 1700 1710 1720 1730 1740 1750 1760 1770 1780 1790 1800 1810 1820 1830 1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020 2030
2732 2750 2768 2786 2804 2822 2840 2858 2876 2894 2912 2930 2948 2966 2984 3002 3020 3038 3056 3074 3092 3110 3128 3146 3164 3182 3200 3218 3236 3254 3272 3290 3308 3326 3344 3362 3380 3398 3416 3434 3452 3470 3488 3506 3524 3542 3560 3578 3596 1614 3632 3650 3668 3686

400

752

98.9 99.4 100.0 100.6 101.1 101.7 102.2 102.8 103.3 103.9 104.4 105.0 105.6 106.1 106.7 107.2 107.8 108.3 108.9 109.4 110.0 110.6 111.1 111.7 112.2 112.8 113.3 113.9 114.4 115.0 115.6 116.1 116.7 117.2 117.8 118.3 118.9 119.4 120.0 120.6

210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380

410.0 411.8 413.6 415.4 417.2 419.0 420.8 422.6 424.4 426.2 428.0 429.8 431.6 433.4 435.2 437.1 438.8 440.6 442.4 444.2 446.0 447.8 449.6 451.4 453.2 455.0 456.8 458.6 460.4 462.2 464.0 465.8 467.7 496.4 471.2 473.0 474.8 476.6 478.4 480.2

204 210 216 221 227 232 238 243 249 254 260 266 271 277 282 288 293 299 304 310 316 321 327 332 338 343 349 354 360 366 371 377 382 388 393 399 404 410 416 421 427 432 438 443 449 454 460 466 471 477 482 488 493 499

400 410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480 490 500 510 520 530 540 550 560 570 580 590 600 610 620 630 640 650 660 670 680 690 700 710 720 730 740 750 760 770 780 790 800 810 820 830 840 850 860 870 880 890 900 910 920 930

752 770 788 806 824 842 860 878 896 914 932 950 968 986 1004 1022 1040 1058 1076 1094 1112 1130 1148 1166 1184 1202 1220 1238 1256 1274 1292 1310 1328 1346 1364 1382 1400 1418 1436 1454 1472 1490 1508 1526 1544 1562 1580 1598 1616 1634 1652 1670 1688 1706

510 516 521 527 532 538 543 549 554 560 566 571 577 582 588 593 599 604 610 616 621 627 632 638 643 649 654 660 666 671 677 682 688 693 699 704 710 716 712 727 732 738 743 749 754 760 766 771 777 782 788 793 799 804

950 960
9 70

1742 1760 1778 1795 1814 1832 1850 1868 1886 1904 1922 1940 1958 1976 1994 2012 2030 2048 2066 2084 2102 2120 2138 2156 2174 2192 2210 2228 2246 2264 2282 2300 2318 2336 2354 2372 2390 2408 2426 2444 2462 2480 2498 2516 2534 2552 2570 2588 2606 2624 2642 2660 2678 2696

980 990
1000 1010 1020 1030 1040 1050 1060 1070 1080 1090

1100 1110 1120 1130 1140 1150 1160 1170 1180 1190 1200 1210 1220 1230 1240 1250 1260 1270 1280 1290
1 300 1310 1320 1330 1340 1350 1360 1370 1380 1390 1400 1410 1420 1430 1440 1450 1460 1470 1480

121 127 132 138 143 149 154 160 166 171 177 182 188 193

482 500 518 536 554 572 590 608 626 644 662 680 698 716

199

390

734

504

940

1724

810

1490

2714

1116

2040

3704

Conversion Factors
Length 1 cm 1m 1 km 1 in 1 ft 1 yd 1 mile = 0.394 in = 3.281 ft = 0.621 mile = 25.4 mm = 30.48 cm = 0.9144 m = 1.609 km Density 1 kg m~3 1 kg m-3 1 kg m'3 1 lb ft"3 = 0.0624 lb f t" 3 = 0.1 lb (Imp gal)"1 = 0.835 lb (US gal)"' = 16.02kg nv3
3

Power, heatflow rate 1W 1 kW 1 kW 1 Btu h"' 1 kcal h-' =0.86kcalh-1 =3412 Btu lr' =56.87 Btu min"1 =0.293 W =1.163 W

1 lb (Impgal)" 1 =99.8 kg rrr 1 lb IUS gall- = 119.8 kgnrr3

Specific heat capacity 1 kJkg-^C-' 1 kJm-^C"1 = 0.155 in2 = 10.76 ft2 = 0.386 mile2 = 2.471 acre = 6.452cm2 = 0.093 m2 = 2.590 km + 0.405 ha =0.239 Btu Ib^F"1 =0.0149 Btufr3F-1

1 kg 1kg 1 tonne 1 tonne 1 tonne 1 ounce 1 lb 1 Imp ton 1 Imp ton 1 US ton

Mass = 35.27 ounce = 2.205 lb = 2205 lb = 0.984 Imp ton = 1.102 US ton = 28.35 g = 0.4536 kg = 1016 kg = 1.12 US ton = 907 kg

Area 1 cm2 1 m2 1 km* 1 ha 1 in; 1 ft2 1 mile2 1 acre

1 Btu lb'F-' =4.187 k J k g - , 0 C - ' 1 Btu fr 3 0 F - 1 =67.07 kJm-3C-'

Thermal conductivity 1 Wm-^C"' 1 Wm-^C"1 1 Btu ft"' h-10F-' =

=0.578 Btu ft"1 Ir^F"1 =6.93 Btu in fr2rr'F-'

1.73Wm-,0C-' 1 Btu in ft"2 rr10F-' = Energy 0.144Wrrr1oC-1

Volume 1 m3 1 m3 1 m3 1 m3 1 litre 1 litre 1 ft3 1 ft3 1 1 ft:* 1 barrel 1 barrel

= 35.31 ft3 = 220 Imp gal -264 US gal = 6.29 barrel = 0.22 Imp gal = 0.264 US gal = 0.0283 m3 = 28.32 litre = = 7.48 US gal = 42 US gal = 159 litre

1J 1J 1J 1 kJ 1 MJ 1 MJ 1 kWh 1 cal 1 Btu 1 1 therm 1 therm 1 ft Ibf

= 0.239 cal = 0.738 ft Ibf = 107 ergs = 0.948 Btu = 0.0095 therm = 0.3725 hp hour = 3.60MJ = 4.187 J =1.055 kJ = = 105.5 MJ = 29.31 kWh = 1.356J

Heat transfer coefficient 1 Wm-2C-' =0.176 Btu ft^h"1 QF-1 1 Wm-^C"1 =0.86 kcal m-2h'C-1 1 Btu ft-ioF-' = 5.678 Wm^C"1 1 kcal m-2lr10C-1 = 1.163 Wm-2C-'

Temperature intervals 1 deg C = 1.8 deg F = K 1 deg F =0.556 deg C

Nominal Wall Thickness for Standard Imperial (Non-Metric) Pipe (inches)

Nominal Pipe Size Outside Dia. 0.840 1.050 1.315 1.660 1.900 2.375 2.875 3.500 4.000 "1.500 Sch. 5S 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.065 0.083 0.083 0.083 0.083 Sch. 10S 0.083 0.083 0.109 0.109 0.109 0.109 0.120 0.120 0.120 0.120 Sch. 20 Sch. 30 Std. Wt. 0.109 0.113 0.133 0.140 0.145 0,154 0.203 0.216 0.226 0.250 0.277 0.237 0.258 0.280 0,322 0,365 0.375 0 375 0.375 Sch. 40 0.109 0.113 0.133 0.140 0.145 0.154 0,203 0.216 0.226 0.237 0 258 0.280 0322 0.365 0.406 0.438 0.500 0.406 Sch. 60 Extra Strong 0.147 0 154 0.179 0.191 0.200 0.218 0.276 0.3GO 0.318 0.337 0.3/5 0.432 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 Sch. 80 Sch. 100 Sch. 120 Sch, 140 Sch. 160 0.137 0,218 0.250 0.250 0.231 0.343 0.375 0.438 0.593 0.438 0.500 0.563 0,718 0,843 1.000 1.093 '.218 0.812 0.531 0.625 0,718 0.906 1.12-3 1.312 1.406 1.593 Double Double Strong 0.294 0.308 0.358 0.382 0,400 0.436 0.552 0.600 0.636 0.674 0.750 0.864 0.875 1 V, V/z

%1

0.147 0.154 0.179 0.191 0.200 0.218 0.276 0.300 0.318 0.337 0.375 0.432 0.500 0.593 0.687 0.750 0843

2 2K 3 3K 45 G 8 10 12 14 16

10.750 12,750 14.000 16.000

0.134 11156

0.165 0.180 0.250 0.250

0.250 0,250 0.312 0312

0.307 0.330 0.375 0.375

0.500 0.562 0.593 0.656

0.718 0.843 0.937 1.031

1.000 1,125 1.259 1.438

20
24

18

18.000 20.000 24.000

0.250 0.250 0.250

0.312 0.375 0.375

0.438 0.500 3.562

0.375 0.375 0.375

0.562 0.593 0.68/

0 750 0.812 0.968

0.500 0.500 0.500

0.937 1.031 1.218

1.156 1.281 1 531

1.375 1.500 1.8-2

1.562 0.750 2.062

1.781 1.968 1,343

Engineering Data
Physical Properties Of Typical Pressure Part Steels
Temperature Density Coefficient of Thermal Expansion 20C to Temp K-U0-6 12.7 13.8 14.6 12.7 13.8 14.6 Specific Heat 20C to Temp J.Kg-i.K-1 511 561 611 Thermal Conductivity

C
Carbon Steel 20 200 400 600 20 200 400 600 20 200 400 600 700

Kg ,nr3 7850 7850 7850 7850 7850 7850 7850 7850 7970 7970 7970 7970 7970

Wm-i.K-i 54 49 43 36 45 42 38 33 14 17 20 23 25

Ferritic alloys

503 545 602

Austenitic steels

16.7 18.0 18.7 19.2

520 541 555 562

Tensile Properties Of Typical Pressure Part Steels

Tensile Strength N .mm-2 Plates Carbon Steel ICr V2 Mo 2V4CMM0 18Cr 12Ni 2Mo 430 420 480 510 Yield Strength N .mm-2 230 285 280 215 0.2% Proof Stress 0% for Austenitic Steels) at various temperatures C N.mm-2 200 190 210 205 140 250 180 185 200 130 300 160 160 195 127 350 155 150 190 122 400 150 145 185 120 450 140 175 115 500 135 160 110 550 130 145 105 600 . 100

Pipes & Sections Carbon Steel 1CrV2Mo 2V4Cr 1Mo 18Cr12Ni2Mo

490 440 490 510

340 290 275 245

260 245 245 170

240 235 235 165

220 190 230 160

200 180 225 150

185 175 220 145

170 170 205 140

165 190 135

160 165 130

125

Tubes Carbon Steel 1Cr V2M0 2V4Cr IMo 18Cr 12Ni2Mo Esshete

440 460 490 510 540

245 180 275 245 270

195 150 190

170 145 187

160 190 225 140 184

150 180 220 135 182

140 175 205 130 179

170 190 128 178

165 165 125 175

122 170