University of Amsoil 180

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Lubrica on Basics Lubricants and Their History .................................................................................................... 5 Understanding Fric on ............................................................................................................ 5 How Lubricants Work ............................................................................................................... 6 The Seven Func ons of Lubrica on ......................................................................................... 6 The Three Types of Fluid Lubrica on ....................................................................................... 7 Three Mechanical Needs for Lubrica on ............................................................................... 11 Gears ......................................................................................................................... ............. 12 Cylinders ..................................................................................................................... ........... 13 De ning The Right Principle ............................................................................................... 13 The Composi on of Lubricants Base Oil Proper es................................................................................................................. 19 Base Oil Categories ............................................................................................................... 20 Base Oil Characteris cs by Group .......................................................................................... 21 Mineral Oil Proper es ............................................................................................................ 21 De ning Synthe cs ................................................................................................................ 22 The Physical Proper es of Lubricants Understanding Viscosity ........................................................................................................ 29 Viscosity Classi ca on ........................................................................................................... 31 Understanding Pour Points .................................................................................................... 34 Understanding Shear Stability ............................................................................................... 36 Understanding Water Resistance ........................................................................................... 39 Understanding Electrical Resistance ...................................................................................... 41 Understanding Vola lity ........................................................................................................ 41 Understanding Flash and Fire Points...................................................................................... 43 The Chemical Proper es of Addi ves The Chemical Proper es of Addi ves .................................................................................... 49 Resis ng Oxida on ................................................................................................................ 49 Resis ng Extreme Pressure .................................................................................................... 52 Resis ng Wear ....................................................................................................................... 53 Resis ng Rust and Corrosion ................................................................................................. 56 Decreasing Foam.................................................................................................................... 58 Managing Water .................................................................................................................... 59 Keeping Lubrica on Systems Clean........................................................................................ 60 Total Base Number ................................................................................................................. 61 Elastomer Compa bility......................................................................................................... 62 Sec on 5: The Storage and Handling of Lubricants Proper Storage and Handling of Lubricants: The Three Cs ................................................ 67 Lubricant Shelf-Life ................................................................................................................ 67 Lubricant Storage ................................................................................................................... 68 Contamina on Control .......................................................................................................... 69 Clarify & Containment ......................................................................................................... .. 70 Safety & Handling .................................................................................................................. 70 AMSOIL Product Shelf-Life Recommenda ons ...................................................................... 71 Proper Storage Guideline Summary....................................................................................... 71 Appendix Base Oil Categories Chart....................................................................................................... 72 NOACK Vola lity Graph (ASTM D-5800) ................................................................................ 73 Thin-Film Oxygen Uptake Test Graph (ASTM D-4742)............................................................ 74 Four-Ball Wear Graph (ASTM D-4172) ................................................................................... 75 Total Base Number Graph (ASTM D-2896) ............................................................................. 76
Table of Contents
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Lubrication Fundamentals: Section 1 Lubrication Basics

Introduction
The following course is an introduc on to lubrica ng uids and the principles of lubrica on. It is ideal for those who service mechanical equipment and those marke ng lubricants. Sec on 1 discusses the di erent func ons of lubricants. Types of lubrica on, lubrica on failure modes and the mechanical needs that lubricants ful ll.
Section Objectives
A er studying Sec on 1, you should understand and be able to explain the following terms and concepts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. The primary purpose of a lubricant The nega ve e ects of fric on in mechanical equipment The seven func ons of a lubricant The four types of uid lubrica on The three mechanical needs for lubricants The four lubrica on failure mechanisms The Right Principle The four methods for recommending AMSOIL products
Section Keywords
The following keywords will be explained in this sec on. Pay par cular a en on to their meanings as these concepts will serve as building blocks for future lessons. Addi ves An -wear Addi ves Boundary Lubrica on Detergents Dispersants Elastohydrodynamic Lubrica on Film Strength Fric on Hydrodynamic Lubrica on Lubricant Lubricity Mixed Film Lubrica on R&O Fluids Solvency The Right Principle Tribology
Lubrication Fundamentals: Lubrication Basics
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How Lubricants Work The Seven Functions of Lubrication
where it must be overcome in order to operate e ciently. Another example of posi ve fric on is in the use of knots, such as in a shoelace or the knots of a marine tether. Fric on keeps knots in place, allowing people to walk without tripping over their laces and preven ng boaters from losing their boats to the moving current. The fric on that occurs in motors is an example of harmful fric on because of the excess heat produced and the physical wearing down of components. The most common substance used to reduce fric on is a uid or semi- uid material. The uid materials maintain a layer of separa on, preven ng components from coming in contact with one another. Separa on is maintained because the uid resists compression; even at only a few millionths of an inch, a uid can eliminate contact in many instances. The inherent ability of oil to maintain component separa on is called lubricity. Lubricity, some mes referred to as lm strength, is the lubricants capacity for reducing fric on. Lubricity is not the same across all uids; it can vary drama cally from one uid to another. In todays lubricants, base stocks are primarily comprised of crude oil. Chemical compounds called addi ves are added to the base stock to provide speci c proper es to the uid. O en, these addi ves are used to further minimize fric on or wear beyond the capabili es of the base oil. These addi ves o er protec on when the lubrica ng uid cannot maintain component separa on. They may also address concerns beyond the capabili es of the uid itself. For example, these compounds might clean, protect or control how contaminants like water and other foreign objects act in a lubricant.
How Lubricants Work

While fric on and wear reduc on are a lubricants primary func ons, it also serves other important func ons. To be er understand speci cally how lubricants work, one needs to understand why they are used, what kinds of lubrica on exist and what speci c applica ons require lubrica on.
The Seven Functions of Lubrication

A lubricant must sa sfy all of the following seven func ons.
Minimize Friction
Lubricants reduce contact between components, minimizing fric on and wear.

Clean
Lubricants maintain internal cleanliness by suspending contaminants within the uid or by preven ng the contaminants from adhering to components. Base oils possess a varying degree of solvency that assists in maintaining internal cleanliness. Solvency is the ability of a uid to dissolve a solid, liquid or gas. While the solvency of the oil is important, detergents and dispersants play a key roll. Detergents are addi ves that prevent contaminants from adhering to components, especially hot components such as pistons or piston rings. Dispersants are addi ves that keep
Figure 1.1 Hydrodynamic lubrication
wedging lm ac on, this principle allows large loads to be supported by the uid. It works much like a car re hydroplaning on a wet road surface: the uid accumulates in front of the surface ( res) faster than it can be pushed or channeled away. During reciproca ng mo on, where the speeds of the rela ve surfaces eventually reach zero as the direc on changes, the wedging of the lubricant is necessary to maintain hydrodynamic lubrica on. Some factors, such as load increases, can prevent hydrodynamic lubrica on by decreasing the oil lm thickness, allowing metal-to-metal contact to occur.
Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication (EHD or EHL)
Elastohydrodynamic lubrica on is a form of full- lm lubrica on and occurs when the lubricant reacts to the pressure or load and resists compression, func oning as if it were harder than the metal surface it supports. This pressure acts upon the metal surface, causing it to deform and crea ng
Figure 1.2 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
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The Four Wear Mechanisms
Boundary Lubrication
No surface is truly smooth, even when polished to a mirror nish. The irregulari es, or asperi es, on every surface may be so small that they are only visible under a microscope. When two highly polished surfaces meet, only some of these asperi es on the surfaces touch, but when force is applied at right angles to the surfaces (called a normal load), the number of contact points increases. Boundary lubrica on is a form of thin- lm lubrica on and occurs when a lubricants lm becomes too thin to prevent contact between surfaces and contact between the surfaces asperi es occurs. Excessive loading, high speeds or a change in the uids characteris cs can result in boundary lubrica on.
Figure 1.5 Boundary lubrication
Boundary lubrica on o en occurs during the start up and shut down of equipment. In these cases, chemical compounds enhance the proper es of the lubrica ng uid to reduce fric on and provide wear protec on.
Mixed-Film Lubrication
Mixed- lm lubrica on is considered a form of thin- lm lubrica on, although it is actually a combina on of hydrodynamic and boundary lubrica on. In mixed- lm lubrica on, only occasional asperity contact occurs.
Solid-Film Lubrication
Solid- lm lubrica on is used in applica ons that are di cult to lubricate with oils and greases. To manage these di cult applica ons, solid- or dry- lm lubrica on is applied where the solid or dry material a aches to the surface to reduce roughness. Solid- lm lubricants ll in the valleys and peaks of a rough surface to prevent metal-to-metal contact. A common form of solid- lm lubrica on is Te on coa ng.
The Four Wear Mechanisms

Abrasive Wear
Abrasive wear starts with par cles that originate as contaminants from outside the engine, such as wearing components or soot. These contaminants grind and scrape metal surfaces of the engine, causing abrasive wear. Most abrasive wear contaminants can be removed by a good oil ltering system.
Corrosive Wear
Corrosive wear, some mes referred to as chemical wear, results from chemical a ack or rubbing ac on on a metal surface. Cylinder-wall wear is a good example of wear from a combina on of metal-surface rubbing and chemical corrosion.
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Gears
Gears
Gears are used to transfer power and/or mo on from the power source to the applica on. They are also used to change the direc on, speed or rota onal force (torque) of that mo on. Gears come in many con gura ons that have di erent lubrica on requirements depending on their intended applica on. Gears are most o en lubricated with oils; however, thin greases (a mixture of oil and a thickener) may also be used.
Spur, Helical and Herringbone Gears
Spur, Helical and Herringbone gears are typically lubricated using what are commonly referred to as rust and oxida on (R&O) oils. R&O uids are base oils with rust and oxida on inhibitors. Depending on the applica on, a mild EP addi ve may be called for.
Figure 1.6 Spur gear, helical gear, and herringbone gear
Hypoid Gear
Hypoid gear sets are typically used in automo ve components such as the di eren al. Sliding pressures and shock loading require the use of high levels of extreme-pressure (EP) addi ves (API GL-4 or GL-5 performance level). Generally, a uids API number roughly es mates its concentra on of EP addi ves.
Figure 1.7 Hypoid gear
Bevel Gear
Bevel gear sets also require the use of EP addi ves; however, the level is less than the level required for hypoid gears.
Figure 1.8 Bevel gear
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It is acceptable to recommend the same type of lubricant they are currently using, provided that the correct lubricant is being used. For example, if 10W-30 motor oil is the appropriate grade and viscosity oil, AMSOIL Synthe c 10W-30 is an acceptable recommenda on. However, this is the least reliable method for making recommenda ons and should be a last op on. AMSOIL strongly recommends using the AMSOIL Online Product Applica on Guide to determine the best lubricant for the applica on.
Check the Owners Manual
AMSOIL synthe c equivalents may be used in the case where an owners manual iden es such a product. For example, if the owners manual recommends 80W-90 gear lube for the rear di eren al, AMSOIL Synthe c 80W-90 is acceptable.
Check with the Equipment Supplier
Equipment suppliers may be referenced if an owners manual is not available to iden fy the proper uid.
Use an AMSOIL Reference
This method requires a li le me and research, but it is also the most accurate and tailored approach to recommending a product. The AMSOIL Product Selec on Guide (G50), or an appropriate product data sheet may be used to determine the proper lubricant. To do this, the make, model and engine type for the equipment is needed. These documents are available at www.amsoil.com. Help is also available from the knowledgeable technical service representa ves at the AMSOIL Technical Service Line, (715) 399-TECH.
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Section Review
1. What is fric on? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 2. List two reasons why addi ves are added to oils. ____________________ ____________________ 3. The most bene cial type of lubrica on is _______________ lubrica on. 4. Explain why the type of lubrica on in ques on 3 is the most bene cial type. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 5. When a lubricant becomes too thin to prevent contact between surface asperi es, it is called _______________ lubrica on. 6. List the four methods for recommending an AMSOIL lubricant. ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________
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Lubrication Fundamentals: Section 2 The Composition of Lubricants

Introduction
Sec on 2 details the composi on of lubricants, beginning with a brief discussion of crude petroleum and brie y touching on the re ning process. The basic components and the nature of mineral- and synthe c-based lubricants are discussed, with an emphasis on the base stocks AMSOIL uses in its products, followed by a discussion of why those stocks are chosen.
Section Objectives
A er studying Sec on 2, you should understand and be able to explain the following terms and concepts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. How crude petroleum was created The re ning process and the methods used The base oil groups developed by the API What cons tutes a synthe c versus a petroleum-based product The bene cial performance characteris cs of a synthe c lubricant over a conven onal mineral oil lubricant 6. The di erence between how mineral oil lubricants are developed and how synthe c lubricants are developed 7. The molecular advantage of synthe c hydrocarbons 8. The two primary func ons of addi ves
Section Keywords
The following keywords are de ned in this sec on. Pay par cular a en on to their explana ons as these concepts will serve as building blocks for future lessons. Addi ves Diesters Frac ons Hydrocarbons Naphthenic Oil Para nic Oil Polyalphaole ns (PAOs) Polyglycols (PAGs) Polyol Esters Re ning Saturate Level Silicone Fluids Synthe c Blends Synthe c Hydrocarbons Synthe c Oil
Lubrication Fundamentals: The Composition of Lubricants
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Base Oil Categories
oil, fuel oil, petroleum coke, asphalt and of course, gasoline. The re ning of crude oils can produce a variety of lubricant types of varying quality and viscosity grades. These lubricants can be re ned to some degree in order to maximize their bene cial characteris cs and minimize those that are not desirable; however, the cost of such re ning is usually too great to achieve acceptable pro ts.
Figure 2.1 Crude oil re ning process
Base Oil Categories

The American Petroleum Ins tute (API) developed a classi ca on system for base oils that focuses on the para n and sulfur content and degree of satura on of the oil. The saturate level indicates the level of molecules completely saturated with hydrogen bonds, leaving them inherently unreac ve. There are ve groups in the classi ca on system, ranging from Group I Group V. Figure 2.2 details the ve groups by their manufacturing
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Dening Synthetics
Paraffinic Stock
Para nic oils are characterized by straight chains of hydrocarbons where the hydrogen and carbon atoms are connected in a long linear composi on, similar to a chain. The wax ma er within the para nic stock results in these elements turning to solids at low temperatures; therefore, untreated para nic stocks do not have good cold-temperature performance and consequently, the pour point of para nic stocks is higher. In order for a para nic stock to ow at low temperatures, the heaviest waxes must be removed and usually pour-point depressants are necessary. Para nic stocks display good high-temperature performance with high oxida on stability and high ash/ re points. Para nic stocks also have a high viscosity index (VI), meaning that they exhibit high viscosity stability over a range of temperatures.
Naphthenic Stock
Naphthenic oil stocks are much like para nic stocks in that they contain only hydrocarbons. However, naphthenic stocks di er, and are characterized by a high amount of ring hydrocarbons, where the hydrogen and carbon atoms are linked in a circular pa ern. Conven onally, when the para nic carbon content of oil is less than 55 - 60 percent, the oil is labeled as naphthenic. Naphthenic crudes contain very li le to no wax and therefore will remain liquid at low temperatures; however, they will thin considerably when heated. Naphthenic stocks generally have a low VI. These stocks have higher densi es than para nic stocks, and they have greater solvency abili es than their para nic counterparts. Because naphthenic stocks contain li le wax, they display lower pour points than para nic stocks. These stocks are also vola le and have a lower ash point. Because naphthenic crudes contain degrada on products that are soluble in oils, they present fewer problems with the forma on of sludge and deposits. Due to the performance characteris cs of naphthenic oils, they are generally used in applica ons where low pour points are required and the applica on temperature range is narrow.
Defining Synthetics
A true de ni on for the term synthe c oil has been di cult to reach, although it has generally been accepted that the term represents those lubricants that have been speci cally manufactured for a high level of performance. In 1999, the Na onal Adver sing Division (NAD) ruled that Group III base oils with very high viscosity indices can be called synthe c oils. The construc on of a synthe c base stock will vary depending on the par cular stock. While mineral stocks are derived through a dis lla on process, synthesized stocks are derived from a chemical reac on process. Synthe c lubricants are engineered for a speci c molecular composi on; they undergo a speci c reac on process to create a base uid with a tailored and uniform molecular structure. This allows chemists to develop lubricants with speci c and predictable proper es.
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Dening Additives
Esters
Esters are synthesized base stocks that date back to World War II. Esters were used to harness low-temperature performance to enhance mineraloil blends. Esters are the product of combining organic acids with alcohols. Two common classes of organic esters are dibasic acid esters (diesters) and polyol esters. Another common class is phosphate esters; which have limited use due to their toxicity levels.
Dibasic Acid Esters (Diesters)
Dibasic acid esters are part of the ester family of synthe c base stocks. More commonly referred to as diesters, they are typically manufactured by reac ng a grain alcohol with a fa y acid catalyst. Their key advantages include the ability to func on over broad temperature ranges, thermal and oxida ve stability and excep onal inherent lubricity.
Polyol Esters
Polyol Esters are also members of the ester family of synthe c base stocks. Commonly manufactured by reac ng a fa y acid with polyhydric acids, polyol esters share the same broad opera ng temperature range as other synthe c base stocks and exhibit good thermal and oxida ve stability.
Phosphate Esters
Phosphate esters are commonly manufactured by synthesizing phosphorus oxychloride and alcohol or phenols. While they o er re resistance, their poor low-temperature performance and high toxicity limit their use.
Silicone Fluids
Silicone uids are another type of synthe c stock used in specialty greases where performance over a wide temperature range is needed.
Polyglycols (PAGs)
Polyglycols, also referred to as polyalkylene glycols or PAGs, are a family of synthe c lubricants with varying product applica ons and proper es. A major bene t of these uids is their ability to completely decompose under high-temperature condi ons, producing very li le sludge. They have a tendency to increase in viscosity at low temperatures, but overall, they represent good viscosity-temperature proper es.
Defining Additives
Addi ves are chemical compounds added to base stocks for the purpose of providing speci c performance proper es to the nished product. Speci c proper es are chosen based on the opera ng condi ons and equipment type the oil will be used in. Todays addi ve systems can be quite sophis cated, yet they can be chemically sensi ve and nega vely a ected by the addi on of other chemicals. Therefore, AMSOIL motor oils should never be inten onally mixed with a ermarket lubricant addi ves. The role of addi ves is to perform two func ons: enhance the oils bene cial proper es and lessen the destruc ve processes in the oil. Common addi ves include: pour point depressants, viscosity index improvers, defoamants, oxida on inhibitors, rust and corrosion inhibitors, detergents and dispersants and an -wear and extreme-pressure addi ves. Sec on 4 of Lubrica on Fundamentals discusses addi ves in detail.
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Section Review
1. Hydrocarbons are ____________ compounds that consist en rely of ____________ and ____________ atoms. 2. The process of removing materials and separa ng like molecules from petroleum crude oil is called ____________. 3. When a molecule has double carbon bonds, it is said to be ____________. 4. Groups _______ and _______ are not considered synthe c oils. 5. The di erence between naphthenic and para nic stocks is one of ____ __________________________________. 6. Para nic oils contain ____________, which in uences their pour point. 7. Synthe c oils are lubricants that have been ____________ ____________ for a high level of performance. 8. Synthe c oils have a mostly ____________ molecular composi on. 9. ____________ are the closest synthe c oil to conven onal mineral oil. 10. What two primary func ons are provided by addi ves? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Lubrication Fundamentals: Section 3 The Physical Properties of Lubricants

Introduction
Sec on 3 discusses the physical proper es of lubricants and how these proper es a ect the oils ability to func on properly. The physical proper es of lubricants include: viscosity, temperature performance, shear stability, water resistance and vola lity. These proper es are inherent to lubricants but can be managed for op mal lubricant performance with appropriate base-stock formula ons and addi ve packages.
Section Objective
A er studying Sec on 3, you should understand and be able to explain the following terms and concepts: 1. Viscosity and how it relates to lubricant performance 2. How low and high viscosity can in uence a machines e ciency 3. How an oils viscosity impacts its ability to withstand varied temperature, pressure and speed 4. The di erence between Kinema c Viscosity and Absolute Viscosity 5. The e ect of repeated hea ng and cooling cycles on an oils viscosity 6. The bene ts of a lower-viscosity oil on energy requirements 7. What causes shear force and how it a ects oils viscosity 8. The e ect water can have on lubricants and component surfaces 9. How water contamina on can lead to sludge forma on 10. How the composi on of AMSOIL lubricants provides greater stability over conven onal lubricants 11. How ash and re points provide clues to how a lubricant will perform in high-temperature applica ons
Section Keywords
The following keywords are de ned in this sec on. Pay par cular a en on to their explana ons as these concepts will serve as building blocks for future lessons. Absolute Viscosity Auto-Igni on Point Dielectric Strength Flash Point Fire Point Hydrolysis Hydroly c Stability Kinema c viscosity Permanent Shear Pour Point Shear Point Shear Stability Stable Pour Point Temporary Shear Viscometer Viscosity Viscosity Index Vola lity Water Resistance
Lubrication Fundamentals: The Physical Properties of Lubricants
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Lubricants with too much viscosity for the applica on could produce equally nega ve results, including: Increased uid fric on Increased opera ng temperatures Poor cold-temperature star ng Reduced energy e ciency
The key is to select a uid that is not too light and not too heavy. The viscosity of an e ec ve lubricant must be adequate to keep moving parts separate under normal opera ng temperatures, pressure and speed.
Temperature
Lubricant stocks thicken as they cool. As their temperature con nues to drop, they will eventually reach a point at which they begin to solidify. This thickening increases the lubricants load-carrying abili es, but its ability to be circulated becomes signi cantly impaired. On the other hand, uids thin when heated, decreasing their ability to carry a load and prevent metal-to-metal contact.
Pressure
As an oil is subjected to extreme pressure, it will usually experience an increase in viscosity. This increase in viscosity is directly related to its load-carrying capabili es; the greater a uids viscosity, the greater pressure or load it can withstand and separa on can be maintained between moving parts. But there are limits to this rela onship. An oils pumpability can be nega vely a ected by extreme pressure and the viscosity increase it imparts. In a situa on where oil cannot be pumped or circulated within a lubrica ng system, the oil is rendered useless.
Speed
Whether the applica on is a greaselled bearing, a piston or an oillled gearbox, one must consider a lubricants op mal viscosity based on the applica ons running speeds. As speed increases, components may require lower-viscosity oil to operate e ciently. Furthermore, Figure 3.1 Speed, temperature and load affect oil viscosity high viscosity or speed may also requirements. increase the lubricants lm thickness, which increases uid fric on. If the viscosity is too high, uid fric on generates excessive heat that reduces the life of the lubricant.
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Understanding Pour Points
Viscosity Index Test (ASTM D-2270) The Viscosity Index Test (ASTM D-2270) is based on the kinema c viscosity of the uid at 104F (40C) and 212F (100C). Fluids whose viscosity does not change much between these two temperatures will have a higher VI than those whose viscosity change is greater. Viscosity index numbers above 95 are considered high.
AMSOIL Advantage Thermal Stability
AMSOIL synthe c base oils have be er thermal stability than mineral oils. Thermal stability permits the oils to be used longer, even as speeds and temperatures increase. It also allows oils to retain their viscosi es at low temperatures. Lower-viscosity oil provides be er cold-weather opera on, allowing the oil to be quickly circulated at cold-temperature start-ups and providing engine components with the proper lubrica on to keep them protected.
High Viscosity Index
AMSOIL lubricants are formulated to have naturally high viscosity indices, so the need for viscosity index improvers is reduced. The VI improvers used in AMSOIL lubricants are temperature speci c, meaning they are ac vated only when certain temperature requirements are met. In most cases, VI improvers help maintain thickness at higher temperatures while having minimal e ect at low temperatures. By using viscosity improvers with a high shear-stability index, AMSOIL is able to achieve op mal cold-weather performance with virtually no loss to shear-stability performance. AMSOIL lubricants resist thinning at high temperatures (high VI) and can suppress the genera on of addi onal fric on and heat generated by components in contact due to a thinning lubricant. AMSOIL Heavy Duty Diesel Oil (ACD) and Small Engine Oil (ASE) meet mul -grade viscosity requirements without the use of viscosity modi ers because their synthe c base oils have naturally high viscosity indices and are wax-free. These oils meet both the low-temperature requirements of SAE 10W and the high-temperature requirements of SAE 30, allowing the oil to perform adequately at both hot and cold temperature extremes.
Understanding Pour Points

E ec ve lubricants must be able to func on at all of the varied temperatures that the equipment may be used in. One key measure of lubricant quality is its ability to ow at low temperatures. Pour point is the physical measurement of oils uidity at cold temperatures and refers to the lowest temperature in which oil maintains its ability to ow. Oils thicken as they cool and will solidify in extreme cold. While this reac on to cold is characteris c of most uids, those that contain para nic material (wax) common in petroleum stocks are more signi cantly a ected by low temperatures. These waxes can cluster, or agglomerate, as oil is cooled, warmed and cooled again, raising the pour point over repeated cycles. For example, para nic oil that had an original pour point of -5F (-20.5C) may increase to +10F when exposed to repeated cycles of warming and cooling. The pour point of para nic base
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Understanding Shear Stability
Figure 3.6 AMSOIL 10W-30 Synthetic Motor Oil exhibits an exceptionally low pour point (-54F/-47.7C) compared to most competitors.
AMSOIL Advantage Superior Pour Point
AMSOIL synthe c lubricants have inherently low pour points. Such coldtemperature performance allows the oil to be circulated in a lubrica on system easily at frigid temperatures. Being able to circulate at such temperatures means that engine components are protected at cold-starts; typical mineral oils would exhibit a delay in their ability to be circulated and expose components to metal-on-metal contact, increasing wear and reducing the life of the engine. A lubricant that is able to be poured at low temperatures also provides fuel e ciency bene ts to automobiles. The low viscosity of these lubricants reduces the drag on engine components, allowing them to move more e ciently.
Understanding Shear Stability

For any lubricant to be useful it must remain stable while in use. For example, if equipment requires a speci c viscosity for e ec ve opera on, the ability of a lubricant to retain its designed viscosity is one measure of stability. One of the elements that can break this stability is the natural stress or shear that occurs within a uid during use. Lubricants must retain shear stability to remain e ec ve at lubrica ng and protec ng equipment. Shear stability refers to a lubricants ability to resist shear. Generally, shear occurs when one layer of a uid begins to move in a direc on di erent
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experience high shear rates. Viscosity Index improvers used in mul -viscosity oils can shear back when subjected to the combina on of high opera ng temperatures and shearing ac ons found in modern engines. Permanent shearing of VI improvers can result in piston ring s cking (due to deposit forma on), increased oil consump on and accelerated equipment wear. Some VI improvers are signi cantly more shear stable than others. Although the type of base stock used and the intended applica on determines the need for VI improvers, many synthe c stocks may not require them at all. Because VI improvers can be subject to shear condi ons, formula ng an oil using li le or no VI improvers can be advantageous. In addi on to the problems caused by shear stability, VI improvers quality varies drama cally and cannot always be easily determined. When comparing oils, small di erences in shear stability indicate a signi cant drop in performance. AMSOIL Synthe c Motorcycle Oils placed at the top of their respec ve test groups in the Viscosity Shear Stability Test, indica ng that they are the best choice for superior protec on of motorcycle engines. High Temperature/High Shear Test (ASTM D-5481) The High Temperature/High Shear Test (ASTM D-5481) simulates shearing condi ons at elevated temperatures. The viscosity of the oil is measured at 302F (150C) under shearing forces, and results are reported in cen poise (cP). The higher the test result, the greater the level of protec on o ered by the oil. A temperature of 302F (150C) is necessary because bearings and other components require the greatest protec on during hightemperature opera on. The Viscosity Shear Stability Test (ASTM D-6278) The Viscosity Shear Stability Test (ASTM D-6278) determines a lubricants shear stability. A er measuring its ini al viscosity, the oil is subjected to shearing forces in 30-cycle intervals. Viscosity is measured and compared to the oils ini al viscosity following 30, 90 and 120 cycles. The lower the degree of change, the be er protec on the lubricant provides against shearing forces.
AMSOIL Advantage Stable Viscosity
AMSOIL synthe c lubricants maintain viscosity under extreme temperature uctua ons and shearing forces; they meet requirements set forth for mul -viscosity oils requiring a minimum oil viscosity. Whereas some conven onal mineral oils degrade when exposed to high temperatures and high forces, AMSOIL lubricants o er superior wear protec on in extreme temperatures. AMSOIL synthe c lubricants are inherently be er at maintaining viscosity over a wide range of temperature (high VI), and, coupled with shearstable VI improvers, they maintain viscosity characteris cs be er at high temperatures and for longer dura ons than conven onal oils.
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can thicken oil and enhance sludge forma on in addi on to reducing lubricity. As a result, water intrusion from an freeze can cause signi cant engine damage.
AMSOIL Advantage High Hydrolytic Stability
AMSOIL lubrica ng uids display high hydroly c stability. Under the most demanding condi ons, they form very li le acid and insoluble contaminants. This helps to reduce acid forma on, foaming and contaminant forma on, ensuring the lubricant is acceptable for long-term use. If demulsifying oils lose their ability to easily separate from water, oxida on is encouraged (this concept is discussed more in the Managing Water discussion in Sec on 4). Although a li le oxida on will not necessarily limit the oils life, it will begin to reduce the oils ability to separate from any water that may be present. As a result, persistent undesirable emulsions may be formed. Persistent emulsions are prone to join with insoluble oxida on products like dirt to form sludge. Accumula ons of sludge in oil pipes, passages and coolers may impair the circula on of oil and cause high oil and bearing temperatures. Sludge also may have detrimental e ects on governor pilot valves and oil relays, causing sluggish opera on, valve s cking or failure.
Water Content Tests
Four common tests can determine water content in engine oils: Calcium Hydride Test, FTIR Spectrum Match Test, Crackle Test and the Coulometric Titra on Test (ASTM D-6304). The Coulometric Titra on Test produces the most accurate informa on and is commonly run a er a posi ve nding by either the FTIR Spectrum Match Test or Crackle Test. Calcium Hydride Test The Calcium Hydride test is commonly used in the eld. Solid calcium hydride is used as a reagent for water content of the oil. When water reacts with the calcium hydride, hydrogen gas is produced. The amount of hygrogen gas produced is directly propor onal to the water content in the oil. FTIR Spectrum Match Test The FTIR Spectrum Match test is performed through computer analysis of an oil sample and requires a trained operator to interpret results. Visual Crackle Test A Visual Crackle Test provides a simple eld method to detect and roughly measure the presence of water in engine lubricants. The test is a simple way to iden fy the presence of free and emulsi ed water in oil. In this test, a hot plate is heated to 300F (149C). Once a constant temperature is reached, an oil sample is shaken vigorously to achieve a homogenous suspension of water in oil. Then, using a clean dropper, one drop of oil is placed on the hot plate. If the oil sample contains water, the response will occur immediately. The degree of the bubbling is directly propor onal to the amount of water in the oil sample.
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to protect equipment and the faster a user must replace the lost oil. The small, light molecules in conven onal lubricants evaporate at rela vely low temperatures. These light molecules require less energy, in the form of heat, to li out of the solu on and into the air than heavier molecules do. The tendency of a liquid to evaporate is referred to as vola lity.
Why is Volatility Important?
Vola lity is a common phenomenon and many drivers have experienced its e ects by owning an automobile that uses motor oil in irregular intervals. Some vehicles seem to use oil rapidly soon a er an oil change, but will stabilize a er a short me when make-up oil is added. This is caused by the lighter elements evapora ng out of the solu on, causing the oil level to drop a er the ini al oil change. Adding oil to replace this loss leads to stabiliza on as the majority of light elements are now gone. Vola lity a ects more than the rate of oil consump on. When light elements in oil evaporate from heat, the oils viscosity increases. This thicker oil forces the engine to work harder, resul ng in several problems including: Performance loss Fuel economy loss Poor cold-temperature star ng Increased engine deposits
Because vola lity causes oils to grow thick with use, oil becomes harder to pump. Pumps that must move thicker oil wear quickly and consume more energy. Parts require more energy to move through thicker oil than they do in thinner oil. As a result, extra energy is spent on pumping and moving through thick oil, reducing performance and fuel economy. NOACK Volatility Test (ASTM D-5800) The most common method used in measuring oil vola lity is the NOACK Vola lity Test. In this test, an oil sample is weighed and then heated to a temperature of 482F (250C) for one hour. During this me, dry air is passed over the sample which carries o the oil vapors that have boiled o and deposits them in a beaker a ached to the apparatus. Finally, the original sample is removed and re-weighed. Any reduc on in weight is reported as a percentage lost of the original weight. The en re procedure is very similar to the opera on of a petroleum frac oning tower or s ll. Currently, API SM and ILSAC GF-4 performance classi ca ons require weight lost due to vola lity to be no greater than 15 percent for all viscosity grades of motor oil. New classi ca ons, API SN and ILSAC GF5, are scheduled to go into e ect October 01, 2010. At the me that this manual was printed, it was known that the ILSAC GF-5 vola lity maximum remained at 15 percent; however, no de ni ve details regarding API SN are available. Europe has more stringent requirments; the ACEA 2004 Oil Sequences limits vola lity loss to no greater than 13 percent for both light-duty and heavy-duty diesel engine oils. Vola lity tes ng clearly shows that AMSOIL diesel and gasoline motor oil could easily sa sfy vola lity standards at half these rates.
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Flash and re points can be signi cantly di erent between lubricants. Some lubricants have a rela vely small temperature range between ash, re and auto-igni on points, while others have a signi cantly larger range. Oils that are more stable tend to have ash and re points that are higher and closer together than oils that are more vola le. Conven onal lubricants o en contain chemicals that break down at normal opera ng temperatures. The presence of oxygen increases the likelihood of breakdown of these chemicals, and oxygen can be found in almost all vehicle and equipment systems. Igni on limits help aid in understanding what happens when a lubricant begins to break down from excessive heat. When contaminants in conven onal oils break down, they deposit sludge and varnish on component surfaces, which leaves the oil thick and hard to pump. Oil that is broken down also has li le heat-transfer capability. High ash and re points tend to suggest improved high-temperature stability, which reduces oil consump on and increases the oils service life. The Cleveland Open Cup Test (ASTM D-92) The Cleveland Open Cup Test (ASTM D-92) measures ash and re points of an oil. This test is intended for uids having a ash point of 175F (79.4C) and above. A xed volume of uid is heated at a uniform rate while open to the atmosphere at its surface. A small ame is passed over the surface at uniform temperature increments to determine the point at which vapors ignite. This temperature is recorded as the oils ash point. At a somewhat higher temperature, self-sustained burning for at least ve seconds determines the re point.
AMSOIL Advantage High Flash and Fire Points
AMSOIL synthe c lubricants display high ash and re points, meaning they are highly resistant to breakdown at normal opera ng temperatures. They o er more protec on than conven onal oils because they resist oxida on and thermal breakdown, retaining their pumpability and heattransfer abili es.
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Section Review
1. Viscosity is a measure of a liquids ____________ ____________. 2. What can happen to equipment using a lubricant with a viscosity that is too low? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 3. What can happen to equipment using a lubricant with a viscosity that is too high? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 4. What happens to a uids load-carrying ability as it cools? What about its ability to be circulated? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 5. What happens to a lubricants viscosity as it undergoes extreme pressure? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 6. ____________ viscosity describes a uids visible tendency to ow. 7. For the Kinema c Viscosity Test (ASTM D-445), the cen stoke (cSt) number must be reported with a corresponding ____________ to be relevant. 8. The cSt and SUS units can be compared accurately. True or False 9. ____________ viscosity is a uids resistance to ow. 10. 10. The Cold Crank Simulator Test is used to test and qualify what type of oils? __________________________________________________________ 11. Oils with lower cP values indicate ____________ viscosity. 12. Name two advantages of using a lubricant with a low pour point. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 13. Explain shear. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Lubrication Fundamentals: Section 4 The Chemical Properties of Additives

Sec on 4 discusses the chemical proper es of addi ves and how these proper es a ect an oils ability to func on as a lubricant, such as its ability to reduce fric on, clean and reduce oil degrada on. A discussion of how AMSOIL formulates base oils and addi ve packages to address these chemical reac ons is included.
Section Objectives
A er studying Sec on 4, you should understand and be able to explain the following terms and concepts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Oxida on reac ons The importance of oxida on resistance AMSOIL lubricants resistance to oxida on Extreme-pressure applica ons The importance of resis ng wear Foams a ects on lubricant performance Waters a ects on lubricant performance The four ways in which lubrica on systems can become contaminated How TBN a ects its ability to handle contaminants
Section Keywords
The following keywords are de ned in this sec on. Pay par cular a en on to their explana ons as these concepts will serve as building blocks for future lessons. Addi ves An -wear Addi ves Condemning Limit Demulsify Demulsibility Detergents Dispersants Emulsify Emulsion Entrainment Extreme-Pressure Agents Film Strength Foam Hydroly c Stability Metal Passivators Oxida on Sacri cial Thermal Runaway Total Acid Number (TAN)
Lubrication Fundamentals: The Chemical Properties of Additives
50 The Importance of Oxidation Resistance
Oxida on can increase viscosity, acid content, sludge and other deposits while simultaneously deple ng addi ves. In combina on, these processes lessen a lubricants useful opera ng life. Deposits such as varnish and lacquer form on hot metal surfaces that can further oxidize to form sludge and carbon deposits. Since oxida on produces acids, measuring the acid components in a lubricant is an indirect way of determining the occurrence of oxida on. This measure is known as the Total Acid Number (TAN). In non-engine lubricants, TAN can help measure the extent of oxida on, which in turn can help determine if the oil is suitable for con nued use. TAN values can be determined through conven onal oil analysis. When a lubricant reaches the end of its service life, it reaches its condemning limit and must be replaced. Depending on the applica on, a TAN between 2 and 5 typically indicates the lubricant has reached its condemning limit; however, TAN and condemning limits vary between applica on and product types. Although oxida on resistance varies between di erent base stocks, most require the assistance of oxida on inhibitors to combat the nega ve results of oxida on and improve the life expectancy of a lubricant. A typical oxida on inhibitor is zinc dithiophosphate, more commonly referred to as ZDDP.
Oxidation Testing
AMSOIL uses several tests to evaluate the oxida on characteris cs of its lubricants: Turbine Oil Oxida on Stability Test (TOST) (ASTM D943) 1000 Hour Sludge Test (ASTM D4310) Panel Coker Test Rotary Bomb/Pressure Vessel Oxida on Test (RBOT/RPVOT) (ASTM D2272) Thin-Film Oxygen Uptake Test/TFOUT (ASTM D4742) Each of these tests has its own procedures, but all evaluate oxida on. The Thin-Film Oxygen Uptake Test (TFOUT) evaluates a lubricants ability to resist heat and oxygen breakdown when contaminated with oxidized or nitrated fuel, or water and soluble metals such as lead, copper, iron, manganese and silicon. Designed to mimic the opera ng condi ons of a gasoline engine, this test demonstrates the consistently superior oxida on stability of AMSOIL lubricants. Thin-Film Oxygen Uptake Test (ASTM D-4742) During the test, the test oil is mixed with other typical chemistries that are found in gasoline engines. The test is conducted under high pressure at a high temperature of 360F (160C). The mixture is pressurized along with oxygen and other metal catalysts, fuel and water to simulate the opera ng condi ons of the gasoline engine. The breakdown of the oils an oxidants is detected by a decrease in oxygen pressure, which is referred to as the induc on me (break point) of the oil, which is recorded.
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Resisting Extreme Pressure
Resisting Extreme Pressure

Certain applica ons, like gear lubricants and transmission uids, require lubricants to func on e ec vely in extreme-pressure environments. In these environments extreme pressure can cause the lubricant lm to thin so signi cantly it can no longer separate components. This boundary lubrica on condi on can be mi gated by addi ves that protect components from damage and wear.
Extreme-Pressure Agents
Extreme-pressure agents are chemical addi ves that prevent sliding metal surfaces from seizing under extreme pressure. They work by providing a sacri cial wear surface or by changing the surface metallurgy of shockloaded components (components exposed to heavy loads and signi cant shock, or impact). These addi ves usually contain sulfur, phosphorus or boron compounds and are ac vated at higher temperatures. Sulfur-containing addi ves possess excellent EP characteris cs because sulfur forms a hard, sacri cial lm on components. As contact takes place, it actually occurs between the lms of sulfur rather than the component surfaces. Figure 4.2
The ring-and-pinion gear in automotive differentials operates under extreme sliding and loading conditions that require EP agents for added protection.
Certain chlorinated compounds, such as chlorinated waxes, may also serve as EP addi ves, although currently, environmental and corrosion concerns limit their use for this applica on. EP agents provide wear protec on when the oil lm fails to prevent contact between components, which is typically the case in boundary lubrica on. The correct formula on of EP lubricants is very important; if the formula on is not precisely balanced, the EP addi ves can promote corrosion of copper, bronze or brass-containing components at high temperatures. EP addi ves can also sacri ce the thermal stability of the base oil. Proper formula on requires recognizing the trade-o between yellow-metal corrosion, thermal stability and EP protec on. American Society for Tes ng and Materials (ASTM) test procedures show AMSOIL products provide superior protec on in extreme-load or pressure applica ons. Four-Ball EP Test (ASTM D-2596) One of the most common tests of a lubricants performance under extreme pressure is the Four-Ball EP Test (ASTM D-2596, 2783, 267. The Four-Ball EP Test evaluates the extreme-pressure, an -wear and an weld proper es of lubricants. The Four-Ball EP test measures lubricant protec on under high pressures and moderate sliding veloci es. Pressure as high as one million pounds per square inch can be a ained on the fourball EP test machine. During the test, three standardized steel balls are locked together and
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Figure 4.4 AMSOIL 10W-30 Synthetic Motor Oil demonstrates exceptional wear protection in the Four-Ball Wear Test.
One of the most important func ons of any oil is wear protec on, which is cri cal for consumer value. Wear increases fric on and causes energy loss in the form of equipment-damaging heat. An -wear agents reduce metalon-metal contact, reducing fric on and lowering opera ng temperatures, all of which can extend lubricant and equipment life.
Anti-Wear Agents
Like EP addi ves, an -wear addi ves react chemically with metal surfaces to help form thin, tenacious lms on loaded parts to prevent metal-onmetal contact. These addi ves assist in the reduc on of fric on, wear, scu ng and scoring under mild boundary lubrica on condi ons. Typical an -wear addi ves include ZDDP and polar molecules such as fa y oils, acids and esters. Rubbing contact ac vates these addi ves at low temperatures. A common belief is that the higher the level of zinc addi ve found in a lubricant, the greater the oils ability to minimize wear. This statement is partly true; zinc content does not always dictate wear performance. The mere presence of zinc does not mean its in a form for e ec ve an -wear proper es, such as ZDDP. Also, nding the right mix of the best addi ves is a subtle art. Unlike zinc, which readily shows up in an oil analysis report, some AMSOIL an -wear agents are less obvious and cant be detected with a common oil analysis. Four-Ball Wear Test (ASTM D-4172) The Four-Ball Wear Test evaluates wear protec on by resistance to the sliding ac on of a rota ng ball in the uid. The wear scar diameter in
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Resisting Rust and Corrosion
Soot Control
AMSOIL lubricants e ec vely handle soot and other contaminants. The saturated composi on of AMSOIL synthe c lubricants help keep soot in suspension, which signi cantly minimizes large clusters that deposit on components and increase wear rates. The dispersant package in AMSOIL motor oils coupled with their overall composi on provides enhanced soot control over conven onal lubricants.
Resisting Rust and Corrosion

The internal combus on process in an engine generates a variety of by-products during opera on. Some of these by-products enter into the lubrica on system via blow-by past the piston rings. Acidic material is one such by-product that can lead to component corrosion when allowed to enter the lubrica on system. Other combus on by-products can mix with contaminants already present in the oil, such as water, to form addi onal acids that can increase the severity of the problem. To counteract acid forma on, base (alkaline) addi ves are formulated in the oil. These addi ves neutralize acidic material, minimizing the poten al for component corrosion and signi cantly extending the useful life of the lubricant.
Corrosion and Rust
Oxida on of metal may be referred to as either corrosion or rust. Rust deals with the oxida on of iron, while corrosion is concerned with the deteriora on of other metals such as aluminum, magnesium, copper and/ or copper-containing metals (yellow metals). Rust protec on is important in all applica ons, but especially in equipment that might see seasonal or sporadic use as its stored during the o -season. During storage, condensa on can promote rust forma on. In addi on, short, intermi ent use common with some engines creates condensa on and acids that further advance the development of corrosion and rust. Most two- and four-stroke motor oils are formulated to have an a nity to engine component surfaces, ac ng as a barrier that keeps condensate from contac ng the components and forming corrosion. However, their e ec veness diminishes with me. Rust is as abrasive as dirt, causing problems such as scratching and pi ng on cylinders, pistons and bearing surfaces. This can lead to blow-by, low compression and reduced power and performance. When rust forms on needle bearings, failure occurs. Rust also causes excessive wear on bearings, camsha s, li ers and gear surfaces. Most lubricants have li le or no natural ability to prevent rust. They must be formulated with special rust inhibitors. However, because these inhibitors typically sacri ce wear protec on by compe ng with an -wear addi ves for the metal surface, many oils sacri ce this balance.
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Decreasing Foam
Foam in an oil system can lead to poor component protec on and mechanical damage. Oil viscosity, contaminants, changes in surface tension and addi ves can all act as catalysts to the forma on of foam. An -foam agents can stop foaming but require e ec ve formula on to avoid entrainmentthe entrapment of ny bubbles within a uid. When a uid is agitated, trapped air forms bubbles on the uid surface. This is commonly referred to as foam. Under compression, the foam heats up to extreme temperatures and generates steam within the uid. Foam creates an insula ng layer and prevents heat from being released; the heat and water greatly limit the lubricants e ec veness. Although di cult to prevent, measures can be taken to minimize this process. One way is through the use of an -foaming agents. For example, silicone compounds, the most widely used defoamants, can be used to reduce the surface tension of air bubbles. When the surface tension is reduced, the bubbles break easily and rapidly. Silicone compounds in formula ons of only a few parts per million can be extremely e ec ve in preven ng foam; however, excess amounts of these agents can promote foaming. Organic compounds can also decrease the number of small, entrained bubbles, but require much higher concentra ons than silicone. Detergents and dispersants promote foaming and minimize the e ec veness of an foaming addi ves. Foam also promotes wear. Because air is trapped within the uid, the uid barrier is no longer impenetrable and metal-to-metal contact can occur. The trapped air also promotes oxida on and will shorten the service life of the uid even further. Hydraulic and other industrial applica ons commonly require special formula ons to control foaming, as they rely on the incompressibility of oil for proper performance. When hydraulic uids foam, they become compressible and can make machinery inoperable or extremely ine cient. Foaming Characteristics Test (ASTM D-892) Oil in rotary screw compressors experience severe air and oil churning, increasing the likelihood of foaming and shortening oil and component service life. The Foaming Characteris cs Test (ASTM D-892) measures the amount of ini al foaming (in millimeters) contained within an agitated uid and compares that value to the amount remaining a er 10 minutes of se ling me. The least amount of foam remaining a er a short me period is considered most desirable.
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Keeping Lubrication Systems Clean
Figure 4.7 AMSOIL Synthetic Compressor Oil (shown far right), separates from water rapidly to inhibit rust formation and preserve wear protection.
For example, 35/35/10 describes oil that did not separate in the allo ed me (30 minutes) and that had a 10 ml cu . Because complete separa on did not occur, no me in parentheses is given. The designa on 40/40/0 (10) describes an oil that separated completely in 10 minutes. These tests show AMSOIL products perform at the top of their class and well above industry standards.
AMSOIL Advantage Focused Water Management
AMSOIL lubricants contain special addi ves to keep water in suspension for applica ons, such as motor oil, that require emulsions to properly protect equipment. These addi ves help prevent water and oil from separa ng to prevent corrosion and sludge produc on. For applica ons that require demulsibility, such as compressor oils, AMSOIL expertly formulates oils for rapid water and oil separa on.
Keeping Lubrication Systems Clean

Contaminants will inevitably corrupt any lubrica ng system, but quality lubricants considerably reduce contamina on and extend oil service. Contamina on of lubrica on systems occurs in four ways. First, the system itself can generate contamina on through poor system or component design, temperature-related chemical reac ons or just normal use. Second, contamina on can be caused by careless packaging or handling of components before or during installa on. Third, contamina on can be introduced though improper or careless maintenance. Finally, contamina on can be caused by another system leaking into the rst system. Base oils possess a varying degree of solvency (the ability to dissolve a solid, liquid or gas), which assists in maintaining internal cleanliness. However, commonly paired detergents and dispersants play a key role. These pairings maintain internal cleanliness by suspending contaminants, minimizing contaminant clumping (agglomera on) and preven ng
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Elastomer Compatibility
Figure 4.4 The high TBN of AMSOIL 10W-30 Synthetic Motor Oil effectively controls wear-causing contaminants and acids.
AMSOIL Advantage High TBN
Because AMSOIL lubricants contain consistently high TBNs, they neutralize acidic contaminants formed during the combus on process and keep these contaminants in suspension to prevent corrosion. AMSOIL lubricants use detergent and dispersant addi ves to signi cantly reduce sludge and carbon deposit forma on be er than conven onal oils.
Elastomer Compatibility
Elastomer/seal compa bility of a lubrica ng uid is extremely important in ensuring proper equipment opera on. Common problems that can result from seal/oil incompa bly is the degrada on, shrinking or swelling of the seals.
AMSOIL Advantage Seal Compatibility
Seal compa bility and seal condi oning is an important characteris c of a lubricants formula on. AMSOIL lubricants condi on seals, maintaining their ability to func on correctly by inhibi ng contaminant penetra on at the seal. Because seal materials are sensi ve to thermal condi ons, the inherent thermal control of AMSOIL synthe c lubricants promotes seal life and integrity.
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Section Review
1. Explain how heat a ects oxida on. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 2. Explain the nega ve e ects oxida on can have on a lubricant? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 3. What measure indicates the occurrence of oxida on? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 4. What are extreme-pressure agents? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 5. How do an -wear addi ves protect metal surfaces? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 6. How is lm strength related to wear protec on? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 7. Describe one of the dangers of rust on equipment components. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 8. What e ect does foam have on temperature? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 9. What is a common addi ve to prevent foam, and how does it work? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 10. What is the di erence between detergent and dispersant addi ves? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________
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Lubrication Fundamentals Section 5: The Storage and Handling of Lubricants

Sec on 5 discusses the shelf-life of AMSOIL products and their proper storage and handling procedures. These procedures and recommenda ons are made to maximize product life, and proper storage is essen al to ensure that environmental contamina on does not occur.
Section Objectives
A er studying Sec on 5, you should understand and be able to explain the following terms and concepts: 1. The three Cs in lubricant storage 2. The six factors contribu ng to lubricant shelf-life 3. The ideal temperature for lubricant storage and why 4. The nega ve consequences of contamina on 5. How water can be introduced to the lubricant and ways to prevent it 6. How agita on can degrade the lubricant 7. AMSOIL lubricant overall shelf-life 8. Ideal inventory supply 9. Improper lubricant storage and handling 10. The physical characteris cs of an unusable lubricant 11. Proper lubricant storage techniques 12. Storage techniques for di erent container types
Section Keywords
The following keywords are de ned in this sec on. Pay par cular a en on to their explana ons as these concepts will serve as building blocks for future lessons. Bleeding Breathers Thermal siphoning
Lubrication Fundamentals: The Storage and Handling of Lubricants
68
Lubricant Storage
example, elements such as iron and copper act as oxida on catalysts. The type of storage container can also a ect the amount of contamina on to a lubricant. Metal barrels are not the ideal means of storing liquids because metal is suscep ble to rust forma on from atmospheric moisture; rust par cles will shed from the container and contaminate the lubricant.
Agitation
Frequent agita on of a lubricant can result in air being trapped in the oil that will nega vely a ect the viscosity and consistency of the product. Agita on will also emulsify any water that may be present, further degrading the oil and producing harmful chemical by-products.
Light
In some cases, light may impact the color and appearance of lubricants: the UV rays can accelerate breakdown of chemical bonds, resul ng in reduced performance.
Lubricant Storage
Drum Storage
Drum storage is a troublesome and poten ally hazardous type of storage for oil. Drums should be stored on their sides with the bungs below the liquid level to prevent water condensa on from collec ng in the drum rims. To prevent against drum leakage, bung seals should be moistened with the product in the container. For drums with taps, drip trays should be used to collect excess leakage. Oil drums should never be stored directly on the ground, and stacked drums should never exceed two barrels high. If more storage capacity is needed, consider a special-purpose racking system, which is discussed on the next page.
Figure 5.1 Proper oil drum storage positioning
70
Clarify & Containment Safety & Handling
and other elements. Lay drums on their sides with the bungs at a 3 or 9 oclock posi on to retain seal integrity and avoid excessive breathing. Drums stored upright should be covered so that moisture does not collect around the bungs.
Clarify & Containment

Lubricant management can reduce cross-contamina on and mishandling. To avoid costly, and in some cases disastrous mistakes, all containers should be clearly marked with durable labels. When lubricant storage and blending equipment is clearly marked, contamina on from other oils and addi ves can be minimized or eliminated. Extra precau ons should be taken for any containers stored outdoors to avoid weather-related damage. To increase the e ec veness of labeling, consider using color- or shapecoded systems to simplify the iden ca on process. If a color-coded system is used, another coding system should also be used to account for color-blind individuals. A coded system should also be applied to all dispensing equipment, as this is one of the most common contamina on sources. Pumps, hoses and other dispensing tools should be properly labeled for their corresponding lubricant. If transport carriers and lter carts must be shared between lubricants, implement a thorough cleanup and ushing procedure.
Re-suspending of Additives
Lubricants that have been stored for an excessive me should be agitated on a drum tumbler or swirled manually to mix in addi ves that may have fallen out of solu on during storage. A rota on system should be used to ensure adequate turnaround and usage rates.
Safety & Handling

Ensure absorp ve materials are available for accidental oil spills. AMSOIL recommends that good personal hygiene prac ces be enforced a er the handling of all lubricants, including washing skin contact areas with soap and water and cleaning oil-soaked clothing. Health and safety informa on is provided for every lubricant AMSOIL distributes. Consult product Material Safety and Data Sheets (MSDS) for ques ons regarding speci c health and safety concerns and handling guidelines. These are available from AMSOIL INC. and can be obtained on the AMSOIL corporate website (www.amsoil.com), or by calling (715) 392-7101.
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Appendix
Base Oil Categories Chart
Lubrication Fundamentals
74
Thin-Film Oxygen Uptake Test Graph (ASTM D-4742)
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Total Base Number Graph (ASTM D-2896)
Notes
Notes
Introduc on to Filtra on Filters & Why They are Important............................................................................................ 5 Filtra on Performance ............................................................................................................. 5 Common Contaminants and Their E ects ............................................................................... 6 Contaminant Size ..................................................................................................................... 7 Flow vs. E ciency Compromise ............................................................................................... 8 Filter Media Types.................................................................................................................... 8 Air Filtra on The Importance of Air Filters ................................................................................................. 15 Stoichiometric Ra o............................................................................................................... 15 Air Filter Media ...................................................................................................................... 15 Air Filtra on Mechanisms ...................................................................................................... 15 Air Flow and Filter Performance ............................................................................................ 18 AMSOIL Ea Air Filters ............................................................................................................. 20 Signs of Air Filtra on Problems .............................................................................................. 22 Industry-Accepted Standards for the Evalua on of Air Filters ............................................... 22 Oil Filtra on The Importance of Oil Filters ................................................................................................. 27 Superior Filtra on: Worth the Price? ..................................................................................... 27 Oil Circula on System Basics ................................................................................................. 28 Types of Oil Filtra on Systems ............................................................................................... 32 AMSOIL Ea Full-Flow Oil Filters .............................................................................................. 33 AMSOIL Ea Spin-on Oil Filter Construc on ............................................................................ 34 By-Pass Filtra on .................................................................................................................... 35 AMSOIL Ea By-Pass Filters ...................................................................................................... 38 Oil Filtra on E ciency Terms ................................................................................................. 40 Beta Ra os & Filter E ciencies.............................................................................................. 41 What does Ea Mean? ............................................................................................................. 41 Industry-Accepted Standards for the Evalua on of Oil Filters ............................................... 42 Filter Lookup Resources ......................................................................................................... 43 Oil Filtra on Tips .................................................................................................................... 44 Appendix Major Causes of Premature Bearing Failure Chart................................................................. 48 E ects of Wear Due to Par cle Size Graph ............................................................................ 49 Frac onal E ciency of Nano ber Layers Compared to Cellulose Engine Air Media ............. 50 Beta Ra o - Capture E ciency Chart ..................................................................................... 51 Sub-Micron Time-Weighted Average E ciency Graph .......................................................... 52 AMSOIL Ea Oil Filters E ciency Graph ................................................................................... 53
Table of Contents
Filtration Fundamentals: Section 1 Introduction to Filtration

Introduction
This course has been designed as a technical introduc on to the basic principles of air and uid ltra on and the various methods used to control contaminants within ltra on systems. It is ideal for those who service or maintain mechanical equipment, and those who market AMSOIL products. The material for this course is divided into three sec ons: the de ni on of a lter, common contaminants and their e ects and types of media used in both air and uid ltra on. The second and third sec ons discuss air and uid ltra on respec vely, and go into greater detail on each topic.
Section Objectives
A er studying Sec on 1, you should understand and be able to explain the following terms and concepts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The func on of a lter E ects of unchecked contaminants in air and uid systems Three main lter characteris cs Three main contaminants and how they a ect lubrica on systems Range of contaminant sizes and the contaminant size of greatest concern 6. Flow vs. E ciency Compromise and methods to minimize it 7. Seven lter medias and their applica ons (air, oil or both)
Section Keywords
The following keywords are de ned in this sec on. Pay par cular a en on to their explana ons as these concepts will serve as building blocks for future lessons. Absolute E ciency Beta Ra o Capacity Cellulose Media E ciency Filter Flow Foam Filtra on Media Full-Synthe c Media Flow vs. E ciency Compromise Large Par cles Medium Par cles Micron Nano ber Small Par cles Synthe c Nano ber Media Typical Full-Flow Filter E ciency We ed-Gauze Media Wire-Screen Filter Media
Filtration Fundamentals: Introduction to Filtration
6
Common Contaminants and Their Effects
Common Contaminants and Their Effects

Solid Matter (air & oil)
According to a study published by the Society of Automo ve Engineers (SAE), approximately 400 tons of solid material is suspended in every cubic mile of air over a city. Even more solid ma er is suspended over agricultural areas during certain mes of the year. Of this solid ma er, a signi cant por on is airborne dirt and dust. The dirt and dust found naturally within the environment is of greatest concern due to its abrasive nature. Uncontrolled inges on and circula on of air-bound abrasive material can reduce the life expectancy of an internal combus on engine by as much as 60 to 80 percent, which is why ltra on is so crucial to Figure 1.1 Solid matter from the environment can reduce the life engine and component life. expectancy of an internal combustion engine by 60 to 80 The minute par cles found percent. naturally in the environment can signi cantly increase wear to engine components, ul mately limi ng the engines opera ng life. In four-cycle engines, dirt and dust contamina on can result in valve-guide wear. Dirt and dust that reaches the combus on chamber can increase piston and ring wear and damage the cylinder liner. These par cles are eventually carried by the oil to other engine components such as bearings, cranksha s and camsha s.
Figure 1.2 Almost half of all bearing failures can be attributed to dirt.
Water (air & oil)
Water accounts for up to 4 percent of the air. When condi ons are right, that water condenses into liquid form and enters lubrica on systems. The e ects can be catastrophic. Water reduces oils ability to lubricate and can combine with other molecules to cause chemical reac ons that form corrosive compounds and acids. Most recognizably, water promotes the forma on of rust, increasing the poten al for harmful rust contamina on to develop within the system.
8
Flow vs. Efciency Compromise Filter Media Types
clearances within an engine. Their size prevents them from entering the contact areas between many components and limits their ability to cause accelerated wear. , those in the 5 - 25 range, are the cause for greatest concern because their size allows them penetrate the clearances between wear-sensi ve components. Once these small par cles become lodged in the gaps between components, contact occurs and results in increased fric on and wear. The size of these par cles makes them par cularly di cult to remove from the lubrica ng system. Par cles smaller than 5 , in general, can be suspended safely within the oil lm and pose li le threat.
Figure 1.4 Particle size effects on wear. (Courtesy of MANN+HUMMEL)
Flow vs. Efficiency Compromise

The refers to the converse rela onship of ow and e ciency and how it e ects lter media density. As the density of lter media increases to improve e ciency, the ability of air or uid to ow through the media is diminished. The ow vs. e ciency compromise presents a challenge for lter engineers. Filter e ciency can be improved by increasing media density; however, media that is too dense restricts ow and does not provide adequate amounts of air or liquid for op mum performance. One common method of mi ga ng the e ects of the ow vs. e ciency compromise is increasing the ltra on surface area by folding or plea ng the media.
Filter Media Types

This sec on covers the various types of lter media; some of which are used in both air and oil applica ons, while others are best-suited to one applica on or the other. Common types of air ltra on media include cellulose, we ed-gauze,
10 Foam Filter Media (air)
Foam lter media has been available for many years, mainly for use in smaller engines; however, it has also been successfully used in automobile, powersports and large-truck applica ons. is generally re culated (open cell) foam made of polyester or polyether/polyurethane material. Pore size is controlled and ranges from 10 pores per inch (PPI) to 80 PPI depending on intended applica on.
Figure 1.7 Open-celled foam media
Foam media is heat resistant to 455F (235C), and with void space making up 97 percent of the media, air ow is increased. As with we ed-gauze lters, tack oil applied to the foam helps capture and retain contaminant par cles. Foam lters are advantageous in high-dust condi ons because they can be cleaned and reused.
Full-Synthetic Media (air & fluid)
is synthesized from polymeric nano ber materials such as non-woven polyester bers and melt-blown glass bers. It has high lo , or u , which improves media thickness and increases contaminant-holding capacity. Synthe c bers of di ering sizes, density and layers can be engineered with speci c air ow rates and e ciencies. Many foreign automobile manufacturers specify full-synthe c air lters, and the vast majority of cabin air lters are constructed with this media Figure 1.8 type. Full-synthetic media In uid applica ons, synthe c bers of various sizes and densi es can be engineered to control e ciency and oil ow rates. Synthe c media works well in oil applica ons because it is more resistant to hot oil over a longer period of me as compared to cellulose and cellulose-blend lters.
Wire-Screen Media (fluid)
technology has been used for many years in uid applica ons. It is composed of wire strands that are woven together to form a resilient, heat-resistant lter that can withstand rou ne cleaning. Wire screen media can be constructed of aluminum, stainless steel, carbon steel, brass or copper. Wire lters that depend on the sieving ltra on mechanism provide capaci es less than those of cellulose, cellulose-blend and synthe c lter media, and are mainly found in industrial or racing applica ons.
12
Section 1 Review Questions

1. The major cause of premature bearing failure in automo ve engines today is _________. 2. Without air ltra on, an engines life can be reduced by as much as ____-____ percent. 3. 3. List two reasons why ltra on is important. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 4. What is the inherent challenge of designing a lter? Name one way this e ect can be minimized. __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 5. Contaminants in the _____ to _____ micron range cause the greatest amount of wear on an engine. 6. __________ is a common lter media, derived from plant material. 7. Which lter media o ers high e ciency and can be cleaned using compressed air or vacuum? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 8. What lter media type can be engineered to target speci c ow rates? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 9. The purpose of the pleats in lters is to increase surface area. True or False
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Filtration Fundamentals: Section 2 Air Filtration

Introduction
This sec on of Filtra on Fundamentals covers the basic principles of air ltra on. A thorough understanding of basic principles of air ltra on is essen al for providing excep onal customer service.
Section Objectives
A er studying Sec on 2, you should understand and be able to explain the following terms and concepts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. The air lters role in an engine The Stoichiometric ra o and variances in its real-world applica on The four air ltra on mechanisms Bene ts of Depth Screening vs. Surface Screening Bene ts of using nano bers in air lters Bene ts of AMSOIL Ea Filters
Section Keywords
The following keywords are de ned in this sec on. Pay par cular a en on to their explana ons as these concepts will serve as building blocks for future lessons. Adsorp on Filtra on Cubic Feet of Air Flow per Minute (CFM) Depth Screening Di usion Filter Minder Manometer Nano bers Oil-We ed Foam Stoichiometric Ra o Surface Screening
Filtration Fundamentals: Air Filtration
16
Surface screening lters are generally constructed of metal or plas c. They tend to be inexpensive and can be easily serviced and reused. Their limited surface area results in low contaminant-holding capacity. Because they must contend with the ow vs. e ciency compromise, their small-par cle removal e ciencies are generally lower than those of other ltra on methods.
Figure 2.1 Surface screening. The smaller the opening, the smaller the particle that will be retained.
Depth Screening
Instead of the two-dimensional matrix used in surface screening, adds a third dimension of thickness. By arranging media bers on top of each other, a variety of opening sizes are created throughout the media. Conven onal surface screening occurs on the outside of the media with addi onal contaminant removal occurring as air passes through the media depth. This added layer results in greater contaminant capacity than what is possible with surface screening alone.
Figure 2.2 Depth screening. Depth screening adds a third dimension of thickness that creates various size openings and improves contaminant capacity.
The third dimension also improves small-par cle removal e ciency and reduces the ow vs. e ciency compromise, providing more air ow
18
Airow and Filter Performance
direc on. Once the contaminants have been separated, they are retained on a surface covered in tack oil.
Airflow and Filter Performance

Adequate air ow is essen al for an engines performance. A lters ability to ow air is usually reported in . Resistance is a measure of a lters ability to pass a volume of air through the lter media. The degree of resistance is determined by measuring the di erence in pressure (pressure di eren al) between the outside of the lter and the pressure inside the lter at a given ow rate. The greater the resistance to air ow for a given volume of air, the greater the pressure di eren al across the lter media. A is a device used to indicate a pressure di eren al within a system. The greater the resistance to ow, the higher the uid will rise in the manometer. The degree of resistance is reported in inches of water or mercury, depending on the construc on of the manometer. (See gure 2.11 on page 23) One lters ow performance can only be compared to anothers when the rate of ow has been determined at iden cal levels of restric on and the same units of restric on (water or mercury) are used. The indicates when the pressure di eren al between the outside and inside of the lter element becomes too high and the lter is too clogged for air to pass through to the engine. Original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) determine the proper pressure di eren al for each applica on.
Nanofiber Technology
Nano ber air lter technology, patented by Donaldson Company, is employed on the US Army Abrams M1A1 tanks in desert condi ons. These lters, equipped with reverse pulse technology, are designed to minimize soldier maintenance and possible exposure to the enemy. At less than one micron in diameter, are considerably smaller than tradi onal cellulose and synthe c lter media. Nano bers trap submicron contaminants on the medias surface layer. The polymeric nano bers used in lter media are made using an electrospinning process where an electrical eld is used to draw a polymer solu on from the p of a capillary to a collector device. The ne jets dry to form polymeric bers that can be collected on a web (some mes called a nanoweb).
Nanofibers on Cellulose Media
The average diameter of a strand of cellulose ber is approximately 15 , melt-blown material is about 2 and nano bers are less than 1 . Recall that a human hair ranges from 50 to 100 , so the scale of nano bers is in nitely small and cannot be seen with the naked eye. The following illustra on demonstrates how the combina on of nano bers and cellulose media works to maximize e ciency. Imagine two ltra on media, a chain-link fence (cellulose ber media) and a mosquito net (meltFiltration Fundamentals: Air Filtration
20
AMSOIL Filters
e ciency. By trapping submicron contaminants on the surface, rather than dispersing them throughout the depth of the lter, nano bers are able to stop par cle contaminants while maintaining an air ow path. These quali es are crucial in on-highway applica ons because the contaminants in highway environments are primarily sub-micron size.
AMSOIL Ea Air Filters

AMSOIL Ea Air Filters
AMSOIL Ea Air Filters (EAA) are made with a nano ber coa ng on the surface of a specially formulated cellulose media.
Figure 2.7 AMSOIL Ea Air Filters
This custom media is designed to ow more air and provide superior e ciency over lters made using cellulose, synthe c or foam media. In addi on, Ea Air Filters can be cleaned with vacuum or shop air, providing increased lter life compared with tradi onal air lters.
Ea Air Filter Life
AMSOIL guarantees Ea Air Filters for four years or 100,000 miles, whichever comes rst, as long as the lter has been cleaned according to AMSOIL cleaning instruc ons. The warranty does not include opera on in o -road, compe on or extremely dusty environments. In these condi ons the lter should be cleaned more o en or per restric on gauge, if so equipped.
AMSOIL Advantage
AMSOIL Ea Air Filters use a proprietary combina on of special-grade cellulose media and nano ber media for enhanced e ciency and ow. AMSOIL Ea Air Filters have higher e ciency, greater capacity for ne dusts and longer lter life compared to tradi onal cellulose, foam and gauze lter media. Dust remains on the surface of Ea Air lters and can be cleaned to provide a longer-than-average service life. AMSOIL Ea Air Filters o er be er engine protec on with increased ow and capacity for longer service life and reduced maintenance costs.
AMSOIL Ea Universal Air Induction Filters
A ermarket air-intake systems, typically referred to as air induc on

22
Signs of Air Filtration Problems Industry-Accepted Standards for the Evaluation of Air Filters
AMSOIL Advantage
Employing advanced media types and excep onal construc on, AMSOIL Ea Air Filters o er many advantages to motorists. AMSOIL Ea Air Filters provide superior e ciency, greater contaminant-holding capacity, enhanced ow and are cleanable for reuse. These bene ts translate to superior performance and protec on while remaining cost e ec ve. Nano bers on cellulose media for enhanced ow Higher e ciency, ensuring be er engine protec on and longer equipment life Greater air ow for maximized equipment performance and energy conserva on Greater contaminant capacity, extending service intervals Cleanable, extending service life beyond the average lter
Signs of Air Filtration Problems

There are many signals that can suggest an air ltra on problem. An oil analysis report indica ng elevated component wear or an unusual increase in oil consump on could be traced to inges on of abrasive material. Signi cant changes in equipment performance or fuel consump on are also indicators of air starva on problems and could suggest the existence of a ltra on de ciency. Be alert and take note of any signs of dirt on the clean side of the air intake. If dirt is no ceable, there is certainly dirt inside the equipment.
Industry-Accepted Standards for the Evaluation of Air Filters

Air lters are tested in accordance with the Society of Automo ve Engineers (SAE-J726) or Interna onal Organiza on for Standardiza on (ISO-5011). Both methods use A2 ne or coarse test dust as the contaminant. The test dust is injected into the air current passing through the system, collected on the test lter and nally onto the absolute lter. Filter masses are determined before and a er contaminant injec on. The e ciency of the lter can be calculated by comparing the amount of dust injected and the amount captured by the test lter and absolute lter. The test dust has a par cular par cle-size distribu on and all lters should be tested according to this standard. An absolute micron ra ng of an air lter is misleading. Filter e ciencies need to be compared using the same test method and test dust. Special tes ng is required if a manufacturer claims a certain e ciency at a speci c micron level. Capacity is determined by adding contaminants to the lter with a speci c volume of air passing through the system un l the restric on reaches an OEM-speci ed level. Filter openings become restricted as contaminants are held by the lter media. As shown in Figure 2.11, a manometer device a ached to the inlet and outlet sides of the lter indicates the amount of lter restric on based on the amount of displaced water or mercury in the manometer. For auto and light-truck applica ons, this restric on is normally 10 of water.
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1. The air lter is an engines best defense against dirt. True or False 2. What percentage of contaminants within an engine comes from the air? 3. Theore cally, the ra o at which fuel and oxygen are mixed to result in the greatest release in energy is known as the ____________________ _________________________________________________________. 4. List the 5 types of air lter media _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ 5. List the four lter mechanisms _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ _______________________ 6. The simplest air ltra on mechanism is __________________________ _________________________________________________________. 7. How does Depth Screening di er from Surface Screening, and what are the bene ts? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 8. __________________ are o en added in Depth Screening to increase structural strength and pore-size uniformity. 9. The __________________ air ltra on mechanism relies on the weights of the airborne par cles to separate them from a diverted air stream. 10. The _______________________________is a device that will alert when the pressure between the outside and inside of the lter becomes too high, indica ng the lter is too clogged for air to pass through.
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Filtration Fundamentals: Section 3 Oil Filtration

Introduction
This sec on of Filtra on Fundamentals examines oil ltra on. Oil ltra on is a broad term covering a variety of applica ons and uids, including hydraulic oils, engine oils and gear oils. There are many similari es and di erences in how ltra on is addressed in these di erent applica ons and uids.
Section Objectives
A er studying Sec on 3, you should understand and be able to explain the following terms and concepts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. The oil lters role in the engine The two main sources of engine oil contaminants The three basic components of an oil circula on system The four par cle-capture mechanisms Di erences between fullow ltra on systems and by-pass ltra on systems 6. Advantages of combining fullow and by-pass ltra on systems 7. The seven components of the spin-on lter cartridge 8. How AMSOIL Ea By-Pass Filters di er from typical by-pass lters
Section Keywords
An -Drainback Valve Base Plate Base Plate Gasket Brownian Movement By-Pass Valve Di usion Mechanism Filter Housing Follower Plate Hold-Down Spring Hold-Down Strap Iner al Impac on Mechanism Intercep on Mechanism Oil Reservoir Plumbing Pressure Di eren al Pump Relief Valve Sieving Mechanism System Pressure Tension Spring
Filtration Fundamentals: Oil Filtration
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The Dangers of Soot Oil Circulation System Basics
The Dangers of Soot
Figure 3.1 Soot particles, the result of incomplete combustion, are highly abrasive to internal engine components.
Soot is a natural by-product of the combus on process. A er fuel is injected into the combus on chamber, it combines with oxygen and heat and ignites. As the piston reciprocates in its chamber, the rings spread soot par cles into the oil. This process con nues with normal engine opera on and, le unchecked, the accumulated soot par cles can grind away at internal engine surfaces, causing premature wear and component failure. Components suscep ble to soot damage include cam lobes, valve li ers, valve stems and guides, piston rings, cylinder liners and bearings. Oil formulated with quality dispersant addi ves can generally keep soot in the range of 0.002 to 0.5 suspended in the oil while the oils detergent addi ves prevent the build-up of sludge and act as an acid neutralizer, keeping soot in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 in suspension. These an -wear addi ves work by providing a sacri cial chemical-to-chemical barrier, but as the amount of soot suspended in the oil increases, their performance decreases. In other words, soot contamina on leads to a direct drop in the an -wear e ec veness of an oils addi ves, increasing the risk of accelerated wear to cri cal engine components.
Soot Causes Wear
High levels of soot in the oil can lead to excessive and abnormal engine wear. Many current oil formula ons extend oil life by holding higher concentra ons of contaminants, including soot, in suspension in the oil. This creates an increased risk of wear caused by soot and minimizes the e ec veness of an -wear addi ves. By-pass ltra on signi cantly reduces the amount of wear-causing soot par cles suspended in the oil to increase overall equipment opera ng life.
Oil Circulation System Basics

Automo ve engines use oil circula on systems to lubricate engine components. Oil circula on systems are more e ec ve at supplying oil to all the necessary parts than oil immersion systems, where components are immersed in an oil reservoir. Circula on systems also pressurize the oil, which increases the oils load-carrying ability and allows it to act as an
30
The Four Particle-Capture Mechanisms
The Four Particle-Capture Mechanisms

There are four basic ways oil lter media captures par cles. Each capture mechanism is adept at capturing contaminant par cles based on di erent par cle characteris cs, such as size or tendencies for movement.
Sieving
The captures any contaminant that is larger than the spaces between the openings of the lter bers, much like a window screen keeps out any insects or debris too big to t through the small openings between the screen wires.
Figure 3.2 The sieving ltration mechanism
Inertial Impaction
The works on larger par cles. Due to the size and mass of these par cles, they con nue on their original path rather than following the liquid stream. As the liquid ows through the abrupt direc onal changes of the lter media, contaminant par cles follow their original path and become trapped by the lter media.
Figure 3.3 The inertial impaction ltration mechanism
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Types of Oil Filtration Systems AMSOIL Ea FullFlow Oil Filters
Types of Oil Filtration Systems

Full-Flow Filtration System
The most common ltra on system used today is the fullow system. Within this system, the lter is placed in line between the pump and the engine. In fullow systems, all oil undergoes ltra on prior to being delivered to engine components.
Figure 3.6 Full- ow ltration system
Filters in fullow systems must feature media that is open and freeowing enough to accommodate a high rate of ow and ensure engine components receive proper lubrica on. Because of the ow vs. e ciency compromise, fullow ltra on systems are designed to remove par cles large enough to cause immediate damage (>40 ). If the system were too restric ve, the fullow lter could starve the engine of oil. Full- ow oil lters can be divided into two design groups: cartridge and spin-on. The major di erence is in their construc on. In cartridge lters, the ltering element is replaced by disassembling an external housing. In spin-on lters, the ltering element is changed by replacing the cartridge and housing assembly by simply spinning the lter o of its mount. Both types of lters are available in a variety of sizes. The largest are cartridge models. The ltra on performance of either type depends solely on the media used.
34
AMSOIL Ea Spin-on Oil Filter Construction
nano ber technology trap more par cles of microscopic size while also providing more space for oil ow. Synthe c nano bers also provide less restric on during cold-temperature opera on by allowing oil to easily ow through the synthe c media, decreasing engine wear during warm-up periods.
More Capacity
A lters capacity refers to the amount of contaminants it can hold and s ll remain e ec ve. AMSOIL Ea Oil Filters have a greater capacity for small, wear-causing contaminants than compe ng lters do. In most applica ons, when used in conjunc on with AMSOIL synthe c motor oils in normal service, Ea Oil Filters are guaranteed to remain e ec ve for up to 25,000 miles or one year, whichever comes rst.
AMSOIL Ea Spin-on Oil Filter Construction
Figure 3.8 Detailed view and construction of spin-on oil lter
Filter Housing
Drawn metal vessel used to contain the oil. Also protects internal components from external impact.
Steel Coil Spring
Applies constant force on internal lter components, minimizing by-passing of un ltered oil. It can be a helical spring or a stamped metal leaf spring.
By-Pass Valve
Safety valve that opens when the media is too restric ve to allow an adequate ow of oil (i.e. the media becomes saturated or at start-up with a cold, viscous uid). Typically opens when an 8 to 12 psi pressure drop occurs across the media; however, 20 to 30 psid valves are not uncommon.
Filter Media
Generally a cellulose material, but may contain co on, glass or synthe c bers. Usually pleated to increase surface area, assis ng in ow and capacity.
Anti-Drainback Valve
Prevents contaminated oil from draining back when the lter is mounted
36
Figure 3.9 Typical by-pass ltration system
to 20 percent of oil pump output. The AMSOIL Single Remote, DUAL-GARD and Heavy-Duty By-Pass Systems (BMK21, BMK22, BMK30) are examples of typical parasi c by-pass systems. Flow in these systems is regulated by a xed restric on ori ce retained in the mount. The Single Remote system has been developed for use on light- to medium-duty equipment, automobiles and light- to medium-duty trucks. The DUAL-GARD and Heavy-Duty systems were developed for larger equipment and heavy-duty trucks and buses.
Dual-Remote By-Pass System (Parallel System)
In a parallel system, the fullow and by-pass lters are contained on a shared mount and fed by parallel ports. The oil has the op on to ow through either lter but generally ows through the fullow lter as it is less restric ve. Eighty to 90 percent of the oil ows through the fullow lter and 10 to 20 percent through the by-pass lter. In a parallel system, all oil subjected to either fullow or by-pass ltra on is directed to engine components. Because of this, there is no need to restrict the volume of oil owing to the by-pass lter, so ow through the by-pass lter in a parallel system is generally 5 to 10 percent greater than in a parasi c system. The AMSOIL Marine System (BMK18) is an example of a typical parallel by-pass ltra on system. The original fullow lter is removed from the engine and replaced with a spin-on xture diver ng the oil to a remote mount. At the mount, the oil is exposed to either fullow or by-pass ltra on and directed back to internal engine components. Remotely moun ng the oil lters increases
40
Some by-pass units use angled spray jets or blades to spin the oil, crea ng centrifugal force which draws soot and contaminants from the oil and impacts them onto a special holding cup or surface. Other by-pass lters use a form of highly compressed media, usually cellulose. By forcing oil to ow over, around and through the bers, par cles are trapped within the depth of the lter. Another popular material used to make by-pass media is co on bers. Several by-pass makers use un-dyed, virgin co on mill ends that are ghtly compressed. Others use co on twine and wind it in a criss-cross pa ern to build up a depth of several inches. One manufacturer pioneered the use of stacked discs of cardboard. Paper is an e ec ve by-pass lter media, but it is most o en used in fullow oil and fuel lters.
By-Pass Filter Media
Ea By-Pass Filter media uses high-e ciency synthe c/cellulose-blended media for the inner layer of the element; highly e cient advanced fullsynthe c media is used for the outer-layer element. It is very dense and provides excep onal small-par cle removal e ciency.
Superior Construction
The superior construc on of AMSOIL Ea By-Pass Filters provides be er sealing and increased longevity along with superior corrosion resistance. Ea By-Pass Filters have a marine powder-coated exterior; and their zinc-dichromate base plates increase rust protec on. Ea By-Pass Filters have a nitrile HNBR gasket and an orange silicone an -drain valve. The two-stage pleated and layered cellulose/full-synthe c media has an e ciency ra ng of 98.7 percent at two microns.
Oil Filtration Efficiency Terms

Figure 3.14 Dense Ea By-Pass Filter media
The following terms are commonly used to describe the e ciency of a lter, or how well it removes contaminants.
Nominal: Removes 50 percent of contaminants of the size or type indicated, or Beta 2. Absolute: Removes at least 98.7 percent of contaminants of the size or type indicated, or Beta 75. Micron Ra ng: No universally accepted de ni on. If a lters micron ra ng is not correlated to its e ciency percentage, the micron ra ng o ers no value in understanding the performance of the lter.
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What Does Ea Mean? Industry-Accepted Standards for the Evaluation of Oil Filters
In the test, uid containing par cles of a known size is ltered through the test media. At speci c intervals, par cles are captured and counted on both sides of the lter media. The upstream and downstream concentra ons of par cles are used to calculate the beta ra o (numbers of par cles upstream are divided by the numbers of par cles downstream
Figure 3.16 Beta ratio accurately compares the size and quantity of particles upstream and downstream of the lter.
For instance, if 1000 2 par cles are captured upstream of the lter media, and 13 2 par cles are captured downstream of the lter media, the beta ra o would be expressed as, x=1000/13= 76.9 where x represents the size of the par cles measured. A Beta ra o of 76.9 indicates the lter removed over 98.7 percent of the contaminants 2 or larger, which meets AMSOIL Ea standards.
Industry-Accepted Standards for the Evaluation of Oil Filters

There are many terms and test methods used to indicate the performance of a lter. Today, the most widely used test method for oil lters is the Interna onal Organiza on for Standardiza on (ISO) test method ISO4548-12 (Methods for Tes ng Full-Flow Lubrica ng Oil Filters for Internal Combus on Engines). ISO 4548-12 is derived from the ISO standard for mul -pass lter tes ng (ISO 16889), which is based on tes ng of hydraulic lters. This test requires lter manufacturers to determine the average par cle sizes that yield beta ra os equal to 2, 10, 75, 100, 200 and 1000 using the mul -pass test approach. The mul -pass test must contain on-line, liquid, automa c op cal par cle counters and be calibrated using cer ed calibra on uid with a known par cle size distribu on. Par cle counts are taken upstream and downstream every minute of the test. Because the new standard gives a be er interpreta on of a lters overall performance, AMSOIL has chosen this method (ISO 4548-12) to review the performance of its fullow and by-pass lters.
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Oil Filtration Tips
The Master Filter Cross-Reference is a useful tool to determine the correct AMSOIL, Donaldson or WIX lter required for speci c applica ons. Choose the applica ons of the vehicle or equipment and enter the cross-reference part number with no dashes, slashes, spaces or other punctua on. If no AMSOIL, WIX or Donaldson lters appear, contact the AMSOIL Technical Service Department at (715) 399-TECH for addi onal assistance. Heavy-duty applica ons such as class 6, 7 and 8 trucks; construc on equipment; generators; buses and other o -road equipment have a separate lookup. The lookup is designed to determine the lter by inpu ng the type of engine or engine number, or type of equipment. The lookup page also includes a lter cross-reference. Due to the almost
Figure 3.17 Filter Application Cross-Reference Guide (left) and the AMSOIL website (right) contain information pertaining to lter cross-reference and applications
limitless number of heavy-duty applica ons, it might be more convenient to obtain the lter number the equipment presently uses and crossreference it to the equivalent Donaldson lter.
Oil Filtration Tips

Filter Installation
When installing a new oil lter, note that the sealing gasket can be distorted by the rota on of the lter against the sta onary engine block. This results in stress on the gasket and reduces its poten al life. It can also be the cause of oil leakage. To minimize this stress, follow the installa on instruc ons below. 1. Prior to installing the new oil lter, use a lint-free cloth to clean the lter sealing surface on the engine block.
Make sure the old lter gasket has been removed from the area.
2. Follow the oil lter installa on instruc ons located on the oil lter. These instruc ons can also be found on the lter box. 3. Once the oil lter has been correctly installed, start the engine and check for leaks.
Over-Pressurization
It is not unusual to encounter a lter that has been ballooned out. Many people will conclude that the lter is defec ve; however, the problem usually has nothing to do with the lter. Instead, it is an indica on that there is a malfunc on in the oil pump pressure relief valve.
46

1. List the four main func ons of oil in an engine ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ 2. What are the two main sources of engine oil contamina on? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 3. Conven onal oil ltra on is good for solid contaminants, how are contaminants like fuel or acids usually handled? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 4. Soot is abrasive. True or False 5. Pressurizing oil increases its _____________ _____________ability. 6. What are the three basic components of an oil circula on system? ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ 7. What is one way todays oil manufacturers extend oil life? __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ 8. To prevent damage resul ng from over-pressuriza on, most oil circula on systems incorporate a ______________________________. 9. ______________________is the force applied to any surface in the system by the uid. 10. ______________________ is the di erence in system pressure measured at two di erent loca ons within the system. 11. The __________________ capture mechanism works on the smallest par cles in the oil stream. 12. Full- ow ltra on systems are be er at capturing __________ par cles
48
Appendix
Major Causes of Premature Bearing Failure Chart
Filtration Fundamentals
50
Fractional Efficiency of Nanofiber Layers Compared to Cellulose Engine Air Media
52
Sub-Micron Time-Weighted Average Efficiency Graph
Notes
Notes
Oil Analysis What is Oil Analysis? ................................................................................................................ 5 Advantages of Oil Analysis ....................................................................................................... 5 Oil Analysis as a Sales Tool ....................................................................................................... 6 Determining if Oil Analysis is Warranted ................................................................................. 7 Oil Analysis Intervals ................................................................................................................ 8 AMSOIL Suc on Gun ................................................................................................................ 9 Required Informa on for Proper Analysis ............................................................................. 10 Choosing a Test Laboratory .................................................................................................... 11 Methods for Evalua ng Oil Integrity ...................................................................................... 13 Parts Per Million (PPM) per Mile/Hour .................................................................................. 15 Trending ................................................................................................................................. 16 Types of Elements .................................................................................................................. 17 OIL ANALYZERS INC. Test Methods......................................................................................... 18 Addi onal Tests ...................................................................................................................... 20 New Tes ng Services Oered by OAI ..................................................................................... 20 Basic Diesel Fuel Tes ng ........................................................................................................ 21 Diesel Fuel Contamina on ..................................................................................................... 21 Cold-Weather Diesel Fuel Tes ng .......................................................................................... 21 Premium Cold-Weather Diesel Fuel Tes ng ........................................................................... 21 Par cle Count Repor ng and ISO Regula ons ....................................................................... 22 Comple ng the OIL ANALYZERS INC. Registra on Form ........................................................ 24 Understanding the OIL ANALYZERS INC. Oil Analysis Report ................................................. 26 Appendix OIL ANALYZERS INC. Suggested Intervals for Industrial Applica ons ..................................... 30 ISO Cleanliness Code.............................................................................................................. 31 Severity Levels ....................................................................................................................... 32 Generic Physical Proper es Chart .......................................................................................... 32 Generic Contaminant Levels Chart ........................................................................................ 32 Generic Condemning Limits for Gasoline Crankcase Chart .................................................... 33 Generic Condemning Limits for Diesel Crankcase Chart ........................................................ 33 Generic Condemning Limits for Automa c Transmissions Chart ........................................... 34 Generic Condemning Limits for Manual Transmissions Charts .............................................. 34 Generic Condemning Limits for Dieren als Chart .............................................................. 35 SAE J-300 Engine Oil Viscosity Classica on Chart ................................................................ 36 Addi ve Metals Sources Chart ............................................................................................... 37 Wear Metals Sources Chart ................................................................................................... 38 Contamina on Metals Sources Chart .................................................................................... 40 Mul -Source Metals Sources Chart ....................................................................................... 41 ISO 3348 Viscosity Table ........................................................................................................ 42
Table of Contents
Introduction to Oil Analysis: Section 1 Oil Analysis

Introduction
This course is an introduc on to the analysis of used lubrica ng uids. It provides insight into the basic principles and test methodologies used within this eld. It is ideal for those who service or maintain mechanical equipment and those who market AMSOIL products.
Section Objectives
A er studying Sec on 1, you should understand and be able to explain the following terms and concepts: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. How oil analysis is conducted Three main categories of oil analysis Oil analysis as preventa ve maintenance Benets of a rou ne oil analysis schedule How oil analysis can be applied as a sales tool Nega ve aspects of too frequent oil changes Typical oil analysis intervals as well as the interval schedule for more cri cal applica ons 8. Signicance of equipment age when determining an oils integrity 9. Four element types that are measured by oil analysis 10. Two methods for evalua ng an oils integrity 11. The signicance of trending
Section Keywords
The following keywords will be explained in this sec on. Pay par cular a en on to their meanings as these concepts will serve as building blocks for future lessons. Addi ve Elements Element Level versus Time on Oil Contaminants Contaminant Elements Mul -Source Elements Oil Analysis Parts Per Million per Mile/Hr Repeatability Reproducibility Trending Wear Debris
Oil Analysis Fundamentals
6
Oil Analysis as a Sales Tool
convenience for the operator. Unexpected failures that occur on the road or during normal opera on are likely to be costlier than scheduled maintenance procedures. The eec veness of equipment maintenance procedures and service intervals can also be veried through oil analysis. Maintenance performed too frequently oers li le to no benet and increases opera onal costs unnecessarily, while maintenance intervals that are too infrequent can result in expensive equipment failures. Oil analysis allows users to be proac ve instead of reac ve, providing the opportunity to reduce opera onal expenses and down me. An overlooked but invaluable benet from rou ne oil analysis is the peace of mind from knowing that the equipment and lubricant are in sound opera ng condi on. When an equipment owner/operator is concerned about the integrity of the equipment, oil analysis is an economical, accessible and scien cally accurate method to address those concerns. Although there is a cost to oil analysis, it is important to consider the value it can provide. For example, the cost to outright replace the engine in a class 8 truck at todays prices could be tens of thousands of dollars, while the cost for an oil analysis program is signicantly less.
Oil Analysis as a Sales Tool

Oil analysis can be an eec ve sales tool to build credibility in the eyes of the consumer looking for hard data to back up product claims. It can also be used to demonstrate advantages oered by one product over another. Oil analysis is a resource for diagnos c inves ga ons and provides a sound basis for correc ve ac on. Oil analysis can be used to verify the extended drain interval performance of AMSOIL synthe c oils. Most consumers are accustomed to oil drain intervals of 3,000 - 6,000 miles a no on that persists in consumers minds. Because of this, convincing them to try extended drain intervals can be challenging. Oil analysis can be the tool that provides proof of safe opera ng condi ons and improved performance.
1. Prove the safety of extended drain intervals while using AMSOIL synthe c motor oils 2. Validate the improved performance of AMSOIL synthe c motor oils over the compe on 3. Provide the hard data to back up product claims
Figure 1.2 Oil analysis can be used as a sales tool
Prove Extended Drain Intervals are Safe
Many vehicle owners are resistant to extending the intervals between oil changes. The resistance is understandable considering that vehicle manufacturers and many oil companies have been prescribing rela vely frequent oil drain intervals for a long me. Oil analysis can be used to validate that AMSOIL synthe c motor oil is
8
Oil Analysis Intervals Obtaining an Oil Sample
Oil Analysis Intervals

When should oil analysis be performed? The answer depends on the equipment, the frequency at which it is used and service severity. Typically, oil analysis is performed at prescribed intervals. This interval schedule allows a baseline to be established to assist analyzers in isola ng equipment failures. Oil analysis baselines establish typical values for wear metals and uid characteris cs for a par cular piece of equipment. As more data points are collected, a more accurate baseline is established, and devia ons from the norm are more easily dis nguished. The suggested intervals shown in Figure 1.3 are for conven onal (nonsynthe c) oils only. When using AMSOIL synthe c motor oils, the AMSOIL recommended interval should be followed. For instance, if the recommended oil drain interval for an AMSOIL product is 3x the Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM) drain interval (e.g. 7000 miles), the AMSOIL product may be used for 21,000 miles. To extend the oils service beyond the 3x OEM recommenda on, oil analysis should be conducted. If oil analysis determines the oil is suitable for con nued use, the oil should be tested at the intervals recommended in Figure 1.3.
Figure 1.3 Lubrication interval and method chart
Oil analysis is also appropriate when problems occur or there are ques ons or concerns regarding the opera on of the equipment. For example, it can reveal excessive fuel dilu on from fuel injector problems or excessive coolant in the oil from a water pump leak.
Obtaining an Oil Sample

Proper procedures need to be followed to ensure accurate results and proper delivery of the sample to the tes ng laboratory. OIL ANALYZERS INC. recommends the following safeguards be taken when collec ng an oil sample.
10
Required Information for Proper Analysis
oil to be drained from the plug for a few moments so contaminants that have se led around the drain are ushed out. Place the sample bo le in the oil stream and collect the sample. Using the reservoir drain plug is the least desirable method for obtaining an oil sample because the bo om of the reservoir contains elevated amounts of contaminants. It should be used only when the other op ons are unavailable.
Figure 1.5 Drain plug and sampling port
Mobile Sampling Locations
Appropriate sampling loca ons for automobiles, light- and heavy-duty trucks and over-the-road trucks include the oil dips ck tube, the reservoir drain plug or petcock valve if one has been installed. While oil samples can be taken from the oil lter, this method is the least preferred due to the high amounts of contaminants retained in the lter.
Industrial Sampling Locations
Common sampling loca ons include the oil reservoir, oil lter, sampling port and ltra on mount. If excess wear is detected in industrial applica ons, samples can be taken immediately before or a er par cular components, such as pumps or valves, to help isolate which component is producing excess wear elements.
Figure 1.6 Sampling locations diagram
Required Information for Proper Analysis

A great deal of analy cal data is generated when oil analysis is performed. Proper interpreta on of that data requires complete and accurate informa on be provided by the customer to ensure proper recommenda ons are made. If accurate or complete informa on is not provided to the laboratory, vital clues will be missed, and subsequently,
12
contact customers immediately if a serious situa on has been noted.

Understandable Interpretation
The raw analy cal data generated through oil analysis can oer li le to those not trained in the eld. OIL ANALYZERS INC. reviews the test results and provides understandable recommenda ons and direc on to the customer.
Understanding of Synthetic Oil
Not all oil analysis laboratories are equipped to test synthe c oils, which contain base oils that can produce misleading test results when tested by laboratories unfamiliar with these products. Make sure the tes ng laboratory is capable of accurately tes ng synthe cs.
Analysis Results and Interpretation
Element analysis is important to determine acceptable concentra on levels. Contaminant levels should always be zero in new uids, but may show up as a few parts per million based on cleanliness of the sump/ reservoir or test equipment being used. Addi ves should generally correspond to those levels found in the new or unused sample of oil being tested. Acceptable wear levels for wear elements can vary for the following reasons: 1. Iden cal equipment can create dierent wear rates 2. How equipment is used aects wear rates A car subjected to con nuous stop-and-go driving experiences greater wear than a car operated con nually at highway speeds. 3. Age of the equipment Internal wear is signicantly higher during equipment break-in 4. Length of me the oil has been in service 5. Lubricant quality It is important to know the equipments age when determining whether or not wear metal levels have become excessive. The Equipment Age/Rate of Wear graph, Figure 1.7, shows the typical rate of wear that occurs over the life-span of a piece of equipment. The rate of wear is high while new components are breaking in or sea ng themselves. Once this has occurred the rate of wear stabilizes and remains stable over the majority of the equipments life. As equipment nears the end of its life, or in the event of a failure, the rate of wear increases signicantly. In order to properly interpret oil analysis data, it is important to know where a piece of equipment falls on this curve at the me the oil sample was taken. Knowing the length of me a uid has been in service is also cri cal to properly interpre ng the level of a wear element. The Compara ve Wear examples in Figure 1.8 show wear levels and concentra ons of common wear elements. Note that the levels of wear elements are signicantly
14
Methods for Evaluating Oil Integrity
Methods for Evaluating Oil Integrity

When assessing the condi on of the test oil, laboratories use similar equipment for compara ve purposes. Discussed below are the two common methods for determining wear rates. The rst, Element Level vs. Time on Oil, is a compara ve method using propor onal values. The second method is the Parts per Million per Mile/Hour, which determines the amount of wear generated in a single mile or hour of opera on.
Element Levels vs. Time on Oil
The Element Level vs. Time on Oil method for evalua ng the oils integrity requires an evalua on of wear rate over me on the oil. Using the example of the vehicle with a recommended 6,000-mile oil drain and typical iron wear-metal concentra on of 25 ppm, calcula ng the an cipated iron concentra ons for the life of the vehicle is rela vely simple. The projected iron wear-metal concentra ons for this vehicle are graphed in Figure 1.9, shown in blue and labeled Projected. Actual wear concentra ons are shown in red and labeled Actual. As shown, ini ally the iron wear-metal concentra ons for the actual vehicle were only marginally higher than typical values. But, at 6,000 miles the iron levels rose signicantly higher than projected.
Figure 1.9 Iron wear levels; projected vs. actual wear-metal levels *This chart does not include a break-in period
16
Trending
further inves ga on is warranted. Using the ppm/mile method and the original example, we now need only to compare one gure from each scenario. A higher number than the baseline indicates accelerated wear. A number lower than the baseline suggests a reduced rate of wear. This is a more analy cal way to compare and interpret wear rates. Note: The same can be done for equipment that is serviced according to me or fuel consump on. Use the same formula but replace miles with either hours or gallons. Application
Calculating with Parts per Million per Mile/Hour Vehicle A has a recommended drain interval of 5,000 miles. Typical iron concentra ons for the recommended drain interval are 20 ppm. Vehicle B has a recommended drain interval of 6,000 miles. Typical iron concentra ons for the recommended drain interval are 30 ppm. Q1. Determine the baseline values for vehicle A and vehicle B using the ppm/ mile method.
Q2. Vehicle A was tested at 12,000 miles, iron concentra ons were 42 ppm. Vehicle B was tested at 18,000 miles, iron concentra ons were 63 ppm. Which vehicle is wearing faster?
Q3. Vehicle A was tested at 20,000 miles, iron concentra ons were 81 ppm. What is the ppm/mile value? Is this level of wear acceptable?
Trending
Trending or trend analysis is the most accurate way to assess the condi on of an oil or machine and involves a data set of three or more variables. Variables represent the instances the oil sample was taken and in order to have a trend of oil analysis established, oil would have to be sampled at least three mes. While manufacturers publish general guidelines for wear rates and condemna on limits, they can o en be ambiguous or le to interpreta on. Trending provides the most accurate method for determining normal values for interpre ng oil analysis results and making recommenda ons.
18
OIL ANALYZERS INC. Test Methods
Contaminant Elements
Contaminant elements are those found in the environment naturally, such as dirt, dust and water. But, they can also come from other systems within the machine, like leaks from the coolant system. The presence of contaminants in the lubricant suggests the integrity of that system has been compromised and warrants further examina on or repair.
Figure 1.11 Environmental elements such as dirt, dust and water can be detected by oil analysis.
Additive Elements
Addi ve elements are those that have been added to the oil to impart par cular characteris cs needed for a specic applica on. A measure of addi ve elements can provide the necessary informa on to determine if the oil is s ll chemically able to perform its job. For example, the addi ve calcium (Ca) is used as a detergent; if oil analysis showed calcium levels to be too low, it would be correct to surmise that the oil will not be able to adequately prevent sludge and deposits.
Multi-Source Elements
Mul -source elements can be wear debris, an addi ve or contaminant, or any combina on of the three. Molybdenum (Mo) is a common extremepressure (EP) addi ve, but is also incorporated in some piston ring designs. So, while some elements originate directly from wear, others have mul ple sources. This is why it is important that a thorough report of component data is provided to oil analysis laboratories, as they oer important clues to the source of elements.
OIL ANALYZERS INC. Test Methods

A number of test methods are required to determine oil proper es and contaminant levels, as no single test can generate all the needed informa on. Each method has its own variables and level of accuracy. Procedures and equipment also vary depending upon which laboratory is used and can also result in varia on. Slight discrepancies can be seen even in single oil samples tested mul ple mes at the same laboratory using the same test methodology. Because of the inherent varia on between laboratories, it is strongly recommended that a customer have all of their tests conducted with the same laboratory to establish an accurate trend analysis. Comparing the test results from two laboratories would not be the best comparison because of the inherent dierences. The margin of accuracy is much wider across dierent laboratories and is signicantly reduced by using one laboratory, meaning greater precision for diagnos cs and recommenda ons. The test methods used by OIL ANALYZERS INC. are listed below, along with their repeatability and reproducibility variables. Repeatability is the ability of a test to be reproduced within the same laboratory. Reproducibility is
20
Additional Tests New Testing Services Offered by OAI
TBN
The TBN test measures the oils ability to neutralize harmful acids.
TAN
TAN represents the amount of acid present in the oil. High test values indicate a deple on of the TBN addi ve system, which can result in acid buildup.
Oxidation
The oxida on test measures the breakdown of a lubricant due to age and opera ng condi ons.
Nitration
This test indicates the presence of nitric acid which can be caused by excessive blow-by from cylinder walls and/or compression rings wearing and can speed up oxida on.
Soot by FTIR or Wilks Soot Meter
This test measures the concentra on of soot and is reported in percent of volume. Soot is a sign of reduced combus on eciency. When soot agglomerates, it reaches a cri cal par cle size and becomes abrasive, thereby increasing the rate of wear.
Fuel Dilution Parker Elmer Gas Chromatography (GC)
This test measures the amount of raw, unburned fuel that ends up in the crankcase.
Water Water by Crackle
This test es mates the percent of water volume in oil. It only reports and es mates up to 0.5 percent. Beyond 0.5 percent, the test is very subjec ve, so the Karl Fischer method is used above this level.
Water Water by Karl Fischer
This test relies on chemical reac ons and electric current to measure the amount of water in the oil sample.
Additional Tests
SAE Grade (Viscosity)
The SAE Grade test converts kinema c viscosity to SAE viscosity grade.
Filtration Patch Test
This test quan es par cles of contaminants that exceed a pre-determined size.
Particle Count
This test determines ISO cleanliness levels.

ISO Cleanliness Code
This test indicates the level of cleanliness using a universal scale of a new or used sample of oil.
New Testing Services Offered by OAI

Coolant Testing
This test is conducted by elemental analysis by ICP. It detects up to

22
Cold-Weather Diesel Fuel Testing Premium ColdWeather Fuel Testing Particle Count Reporting and ISO Regulations
Aerobic Bacteria
The Aerobic Bacteria Test measures the amount of bacteria present, which can develop from improper storage and water contamina on.
Cold-Weather Diesel Fuel Testing

Cloud Point
The Cloud Point Test determines the temperature at which wax crystals rst appear in the fuel.
Pour Point
The Pour Point Test determines the lowest temperature at which the fuel will pour.
Premium Cold-Weather Diesel Fuel Testing

Cold Filter Plug Point
This test measures the temperature at which wax crystals form in the fuel and the extent that they plug fuel lters.
Particle Count Reporting and ISO Regulations

The ISO developed a universal system for represen ng par cle concentra ons within a sample. The classica on is used to determine oil cleanliness by iden fying the amount and size of par cles found in a system. This informa on can be important when making recommenda ons for equipment that exhibits sensi vity to small par cles like hydraulic and certain gear and turbine applica ons. Par cle count is the measurement of all par cles that have accumulated within a system, including those metallic and non-metallic, bers, dirt, water, bacteria and any other kind of debris. It is most useful in determining uid system cleanliness in ltered systems including hydraulics, turbines, compressors, auto/power-shi transmissions, recircula on systems and ltered gear systems with a uid viscosity of less than ISO 320. The current ISO par cle counts are determined at three size scales: > 4 microns, > 6 microns, and > 14 microns per one milliliter of uid.
Figure 1.13 Suggested cleanliness levels
24
Completing the OIL ANALYZERS INC. Registration Form
Completing the OIL ANALYZERS INC. Registration Form

A great deal of analy cal data is generated when oil analysis is performed. In order for that data to be properly interpreted, certain informa on must also be provided by the customer. Complete and accurate registra on forms will ensure proper interpreta on of test results. Informa on required by OIL ANALYZERS INC. includes:
Component on ng a sample for the rst A Complete the submi ng a Registra to a Form when submi already registered with me or when change component that is OIL ANALYZERS INC. Provide complete and accurate informa on to ensure you will receive accurate recommenda ons from OAI. Only steps B - D are necessary when sending in subsequent samples for components already registered with OAI. Complete the OIL ANALYZERS sample label and ax it to the sample jar. Do not a ach it to the black mailing canister. For Lube Time, enter the number of miles on the oil. For Unit Time, enter the number of miles on the vehicle. Leave the ACCT# eld blank; OAI will assign an account number. Mailing labels are provided for the convenience of customers with non-postagepaid kids. Choose the mailing label for the laboratory nearest you and ax it to the mailing package. Postage pre-paid kits are pre-labeled for mailing.
D Retain the Tracking Number Stub for your records.

1 2
Carefully complete the Customer Informa on sec on. Complete the Unit ID informa on. Indicate the vehicles year, make and model in the Secondary ID eld. (e.g. VIN number, Serial number or Johns Truck)
This is your opportunity to give your vehicle a unique ID. This is especially helpful for those who test mul ple vehicles or those who manage a eet of vehicles.
Complete the Unit Type sec on to the best of your ability. (e.g. Engines, Mobile Gear/Bearing System, Transmission, etc.) Provide complete Unit Manufacturer and Unit Model informa on. (e.g. CAT, Cummins, GM; CI5, 5.9L, Duramax, or Allison 1000, Ford Torqueshi transmission)
Proper iden ca on of equipment will ensure accurate tes ng for specic metallurgies. NOTE: OAI needs component manufacturer and model informa on, not vehicle manufacturer informa on.
5
Choose the best descrip on of the opera ng environment of the equipment.

An accurate descrip on of the environment will help to determine possible exposure to certain contaminants.
Provide informa on regarding the lubricant currently installed, including the brand, product name or code and viscosity. Complete this sec on to the best of your ability. (e.g. AMSOIL Synthe c Motor Oil (ASL), SAE 5W30) Include informa on in the Special Comments or Problems sec on that you feel is important, but is not listed in the Component Registra on Form. Write in the Unit ID (designated in step 2) on the Tracking Number Slip and retain for your records. Before shipping: Ensure the OIL ANALYZERS label is axed to the sample bo le. Remove the Tracking Number Stub and retain for your records. Verify you have included the Component Registra on Form.
7 8
28
Oil Analysis Review Questions

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. What is the basic func on of oil analysis? What informa on can be gleaned from oil analysis trending values? How can oil analysis benet customers in the area of preventa ve maintenance? Name three considera ons that should be evaluated when determining if oil analysis is warranted. Give an example of when it would be appropriate to conduct oil analysis at half the recommended drain interval. Oil samples should be collected __________ or __________ opera ng temperatures. Collect oil samples from the top of the oil reservoir. True or False How can a troublesome component be discerned in industrial equipment? Why is complete informa on necessary for accurate interpreta ons of data to be performed? Oil analysis should nd addi ve levels that __________ with a new or unused sample. What are the two methods for evalua ng oils integrity? What method is the most eec ve for making comparisons when assessing the condi on of oil? Equipment wear-debris/wear-metal values relate directly to the condi on of the oil. True or False What do equipment wear-debris/wear-metal concentra on values indicate? What are mul -source elements? Why is it recommended to conduct oil analysis with one laboratory? What quality of oil is an indicator of motor oils ability to neutralize acids? Name two eects fuel dilu on has on a lubricant. List three important details about oil that laboratories need to know to create an accurate analysis report.
14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
30
Appendix
OIL ANALYZERS INC. Suggested Intervals for Industrial Applications
32
Severity Levels **
Normal use. Oil is suitable for con nued use. Observe for trends in future tests. Elevated use. Oil is suitable for con nued use. Re-sample at half the normal interval Abnormal use. Replace oil lter and top o system with fresh make-up oil and re-sample at half the normal interval or change oil. Cri cal use. Change oil and lters if not done when oil sample was taken.
Generic Physical Properties Chart **
Generic Contaminant Levels Chart **
** The informa on contained in these charts is for reference purposes only. It is based on carefully analyzed market averages collected by an oil analysis laboratory. This informa on should not be used to evaluate specic equipment and/or oil analysis results. Oil Analysis Fundamentals
34
Generic Condemning Limits for Automatic Transmissions Chart **
Generic Condemning Limits for Manual Transmissions Charts **
** The informa on contained in these charts is for reference purposes only. It is based on carefully analyzed market averages collected by an oil analysis laboratory. This informa on should not be used to evaluate specic equipment and/or oil analysis results. Oil Analysis Fundamentals
36
SAE J-300 Engine Oil Viscosity Classification Chart
38
Wear Metals Sources Chart
40
Multi-Source Metals Sources Chart
Notes
Notes

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Lubrication Fundamentals: Section 1 Lubrication Basics

Lubrication Fundamentals: Lubrication Basics

How Lubricants Work

The Seven Functions of Lubrication

Lubricants reduce contact between components, minimizing fric on and wear.

Figure 1.1 Hydrodynamic lubrication

Figure 1.2 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication

Lubrication Fundamentals: Lubrication Basics

Figure 1.5 Boundary lubrication

The Four Wear Mechanisms

Lubrication Fundamentals: Lubrication Basics

Figure 1.6 Spur gear, helical gear, and herringbone gear

Figure 1.8 Bevel gear

Lubrication Fundamentals: Lubrication Basics

Lubrication Fundamentals: Lubrication Basics

Lubrication Fundamentals: Lubrication Basics

Lubrication Fundamentals: Section 2 The Composition of Lubricants

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Composition of Lubricants

Figure 2.1 Crude oil re ning process

Base Oil Categories

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Composition of Lubricants

Lubrication Fundamentals: Section 3 The Physical Properties of Lubricants

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Physical Properties of Lubricants

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Physical Properties of Lubricants

Understanding Pour Points

AMSOIL Advantage Superior Pour Point

Understanding Shear Stability

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Physical Properties of Lubricants

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Physical Properties of Lubricants

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Physical Properties of Lubricants

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Physical Properties of Lubricants

Lubrication Fundamentals: Section 4 The Chemical Properties of Additives

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Chemical Properties of Additives

50 The Importance of Oxidation Resistance

Resisting Extreme Pressure

Resisting Rust and Corrosion

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Chemical Properties of Additives

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Chemical Properties of Additives

Keeping Lubrication Systems Clean

AMSOIL Advantage High TBN

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Chemical Properties of Additives

Lubrication Fundamentals Section 5: The Storage and Handling of Lubricants

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Storage and Handling of Lubricants

Figure 5.1 Proper oil drum storage positioning

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Storage and Handling of Lubricants

Clarify & Containment

Safety & Handling

Lubrication Fundamentals: The Storage and Handling of Lubricants

Thin-Film Oxygen Uptake Test Graph (ASTM D-4742)

Total Base Number Graph (ASTM D-2896)

Filtration Fundamentals: Section 1 Introduction to Filtration

Common Contaminants and Their Effects

Water (air & oil)

Filtration Fundamentals: Introduction to Filtration

Figure 1.4 Particle size effects on wear. (Courtesy of MANN+HUMMEL)

Flow vs. Efficiency Compromise

Filter Media Types

10 Foam Filter Media (air)

Full-Synthetic Media (air & fluid)

Filtration Fundamentals: Introduction to Filtration

Section 1 Review Questions