THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP 1. Naturalistic theories Naturalistic theories of leadership were the first to develop.

They were built on the idea that leaders were born, not made. The earliest naturalistic theory was not really a theory as such, just a set of beliefs and assumptions. Every so often a society or culture threw up a great person who provided outstanding leadership. Just think of these examples: y y y y Jesus Christ, the Messiah promised to the Jews. King Arthur, a king who will unite Britain, defeat its f oes and return when needed. William Wallace, the liberator of Scotland against the English. Abraham Lincoln, Who ended slavery in the USA.

Ghandi, the peace maker who held together the fragile alliance in India at the time of independence.

At the time that people believed this explanation of leadership, in most societies the great leader was normally a man. One example of an exception was Boudicca, the queen of the Icene in ancient Britain. The belief or assumption was that such greatness could not have b een learned but was inherent, part of their genetic make up. It was probably hereditary (or so it was believed)! This is one reason why ruling or aristocratic families emerged. As the scientific method began to be applied to psychology, the study of human behaviour, a new naturalistic approach to leadership theories emerged trait theory. The trait theory of leadership still assumes that leaders are born, not made. But it sought to identify those personality traits associated with the best leaders, to help understand leadership and to identify people who, ahving the same traits, could (it was assumend) make good leaders. Trait theory still has its adherents. Some psychometric instruments used in the recruitment of leaders were built on the idea of inherent or built in traits. 2. Functional leadership theories Functional leadership theories are based on very different assumptions. They focus on what leaders actually do. That is, their actions or functions. One of the best known and most influential of functional theories of leadership, used in many leadership training programmes, isJohnAdair's"Action-Centred Leadership".

From here it is a short leap to the belief that if one person can do something, then others can learn to do it. We are now in the world of leaders being made, not born. And we open up the possibility of leadership development and planned leadership training. This question of whether leaders are born or made is part of the whole question of whether human behaviour is due to nature or nurture. Functional theories of leadership are developed by studying successful leaders and identifying the actions and behaviours they show. Large studies with lost of data make it possible to correlate the actions with the successful results. 3. Situational leadership theories Functional leadership is all very well but it doesnt help us to deal with changes, different situations and the nature of the people being led. Situational theories of leadership were developed to find good ways of adapting leadership actions to meet the needs of different situations and circumstances. One classic situational model of leadership (Hersey & Blanchard) is concerned with identifying the ability (or competence) and willingness (commitment or motivation) of those being led, and then determining the best style of leadership to follow. Other approaches (eg, Lewin, Tannenbaum& Schmidt) suggest of continuums of leadership style. Leadership style here refers to the broad approach adopted by a leader. A leader's style of leadership is often based on a leaders own beliefs, personality, experiences, working environment and the situation at the time. Some leaders work within one leadership style. Others are more flexible and can adapt their style of leadership to meet the needs of different situations. 4. Autocratic vs Participative leadership theories These theories of leadership developed out of the concept of leadership style. However, they focus very much on the balance of power between the leader and the followers. Autocratic leaders tend to make decisions and impose them on others. They often believe that they are best placed to make the decisions, that others should accept their authority. Some such leaders have certain personality traits, such as a need to be in control of situations. Autocratic leadership is suited to certain situations, such as emergencies or time critical circumstances. But they dont tend to nurture other people or get the best results from followers who are capable and motivated. Participative leaders consult others and involve them in the decision making process. They may make the final decision but in consulting others they are demonstrating consideration, respect for others and the ability to listen. The assumption behind this approach is that it tends to be appreciated by followers who return the favour by being loyal and committed. Participative leadership also develops other people and builds support for the overall direction, leading to a shared vision and common goals. Participative leaders often also adopt a facilitative leadership style. That is, they empower and encourage others to take make decisions, take action and act with authority, normally within defined boundaries. 5. Transactional vs Transformational leadership theories

Another way of looking at leadership approaches is to do with the type of work and the relationship between the leader and the follower. Transactional leadership theory is based on transactions or exchanges between the leader and the follower. It assumes that the working relatio nship is one where the leader issues the work, praises or criticises, rewards or punishes. The follower has little responsibility, other than doing as they are required, correctly. All works well if both leader and follower carry out their part in the tran sactions as expected. This approach is more often seen in low skilled jobs, where procedures are clearly defined or where there is little change. Transformational leadership theory is all about change. Transformational leaders inspire others to follow a vision. They create opportunities for people to show flair and to take responsibility for new ideas. They are often very extravert, charismatic and strategic. They see the big picture rather than the detail. They inspire great loyalty, providing they succeed. If they fail, or are seen to be hypocritical, the followers may well become disillusioned or cynical. Transformational leadership is more appropriate in fast changing situations, where people have high levels of skill and where the leader can afford to get involved in the detail. 6. Moral leadership Moral approaches to leadership emphasise the role of the leader in various moralistic positions, such as: y y y y y making the world a better place treating people well caring for the environment religious beliefs being true to, and acting consistently with, ones vision.

Various leadership writers have included moral elements in their work. They tend to suggest that leaders are more likely to be successful if they have a positive impact on others - rather than lead others just to benefit themselves. Politicians and religious leaders, in particular, are expected to be moral leaders, partly because they address the issues above or adopt a moralistic platform.

Business leaders are perhaps expected to be less moralistic. However, when they do truly act for the good of others in general, and not just themselves and their shareholders, they tend to be highly regarded.

Related to moralistic leadership is the idea of leadership ethics, which are largely to do with the relationship between the leader and their followers.

Leadership Models & Theories

There have literally thousands of books wr itten on this subject, and whilst it is always useful to learn from others, leadership is a factor of much more than theories. Each person has to find a way of leading that is congruent with who they are, so it comes over as authentic. However, I felt it might be helpful to summarise some of the more important ideas about leadership in one place. In the last 60 years there has been a revolution in Leadership from Command & Control to Business Leadership. A great deal of money being invested in this by both government and NGOs. The change in the understanding of leadership is as significant as the fall of communism. Change is at the root of it. John Adair, of University of Surrey &Sandhurst, described three levels of leadership
y y

Team leadership (control of a single team) Operational leadership (control of a number of teams which make up a complete operation) y Strategic Leadership (control of the entire business/ organisation)

Leadership is required at all levels of an organisation, and teamwork is required to bind the teams together. A leader needs to :y y y y y y y y

Define the task Plan Brief / communicate Control Evaluate Motivate Organise Set an example

As a leader moves up this pyramid, they need to also: -

y y y y y

Set a direction Align peoples efforts Bring out the best in people Act as a change agent Handle uncertainty & crises

An interesting question to ponder is Why is it that one person is accepted as a leader in a group (and not someone else)?"

You can be appointed as a manager, but you aren t a leader till people cho se to follow you John Adair
A Leader needs the following qualities: y y y y y y

He/she must personify the key qualities required in your field technically competent) Enthusiasm Integrity (required to generate trust) Toughness, fairness and being demanding Warmth, humanity and tact Humility (arrogance means you dont learn)

These days most people recognise that there are two distinctly different types of leadership:that comes from your position in the organisation, and y Situational : that emerges from what is happening on the ground (think of the person soldiers actually follow under fire) y Knowledge : that derives from being technically knowledgeable & competent (knowledge is power) A leader, to be effective, needs to derive his/her authority from all t hree sources. Xenophon, an Athenian general and student of Socrates, asked Why do sailors, who are undisciplined when ashore, obey the captain on board in a storm? Because he knows In the 1960s, working on behalf of the US military tried to analyse & un derstand Leadership. They observed two types of behaviour: y y y Positional :

Actions to achieve the task Actions to look after the people issues.

Meanwhile in the UK, John Adair, then teaching at the Royal Military Academy, Sandhurst carried out some observation work on young officer cadets handling leadership tasks. He noticed that the effective leaders met three sets of needs: y y

The needs of the task The needs of the team undertaking the task y The needs of each individual within the team

He shifted the attention from describing the behaviour of the leader to understanding the needs of the situation in these three key areas. Each group, team and organisation has it own unique culture, made up as follows: A leader needs to establish a real partnership with the rest of t he organisation to meet its aims and treat people as partners; they will respond accordingly. There are seven qualities of a strategic leader: y y y y y y y

Direction (purpose and aim of the business) Strategic thinking (bridging the gap between now and the future) Making it happen (details) Relating the whole to the parts Establishing allies & partners outside the business Releasing corporate energy Develop leadership in the others

Adair observed that there are Four paths up the mountain

y y y y

What you are What you know What you do What you believe

In the 1990s, Peter Senger at MIT, said that leaders needed to address 5 key areas: y y y y y

Developing everyones view of the bigger picture through systems thinking; Developing personal mastery at all levels Challenging the mental models and beliefs of the organisation Developing teams that captured their learning Promoting a shared vision throughout the organisation

Yet another way of describing leaders is to describe what they do as either: y

Transactional: People do what they do b ecause they are paid to, or

Transformational: Where the leader inspires them, and creates & shares his/her vision.

It used to be rather simplistically thought that leaders where one or the other. In real life most will be able to use both to some degree, h owever the better the leader the more they have access to both. To move from transactional to transformational a leader needs to develop the following five skills:
y Perceptual : y y

y y

being able to see things from many, different perspectives; seeing others point s-of-view, seeing the big picture Communication : being able to persuade, listen and present well Displaying conviction : being passionate and committed to the agreed course of action (in times of change people need certainty even if it is sometimes illusory!) Empathy : to be able to see things from others view -points Resilience : the ability to keep at it, to overcome the inevitable problems along the way, and, once you have arrived to make everyone realise that he journey isnt over!

It has been estimated by some academics that the untapped potential of some organisations is as high as 80%! Clearly the job pf any leader is to marshal his assets and resources as effectively as possible and it really is true that people are your greatest asset! This is why modern leaders are now required to demonstrate high Emotional Intelligence (EI as opposed to IQ). The key attributes that Daniel Goleman identifies are: y y y y y

Self awareness Self management Motivation Social awareness Social skills

In reviewing various management styles he the four most effective ways to build positive emotional capital are: y y y y

Using cross functional teams Creating a shared vision Coaching Using democratic decision making processes

Of course, this brief overview is by no means exhaustive, but I hope that you find it useful. It does capture some of the key threads & themes that leaders need to focus on. My personal summary of leadership would be: y y y y

Create & share a clear compelling vision Focus on the customer Bring in the best people and bring out the best that they have to offer Communicate regularly and clearly. Always making as much time to listen as to speaking y Be honest, people already know three quarters of the truth!

y y y y y y y

Be positive & enthusiastic Plan & measure the things that will make a difference Be sensitive in choosing when you need to be supportive and when you need to be hard on people Recognise that sometimes you need to stop, regroup and even to retreat a little, but you never stop Moving forward People will go much further with a little bit of honest praise and recognition, so never hog the glory! Make Change a permanent feature of your culture

Theories of Motivation There are a number of different views as to what motivates workers. The most commonly held views or theories are discussed below and have been developed over the last 100 years or so. Unfortunately these theories do not all reach the same conclusions! Taylor Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856 1917) put forward the idea that workers are motivated mainly by pay. His Theory of Scientific Management argued the following: Workers do not naturally enjoy work and so need close supervision and control Therefore managers should break down production into a series of small tasks Workers should then be given appropriate training and tools so they can work as efficiently as possible on one set task. Workers are then paid according to the number of items they produce in a set period of time- piecerate pay. As a result workers are encouraged to work hard and maximise their productivity. Taylors methods were widely adopted as businesses saw the benefits of increased productivity levels and lower unit costs. The most notably advocate was Henry Ford who used them to design the first ever production line, making Ford cars. This was the start of the era of mass production. Taylors approach has close links with the concept of an autocratic management style (managers take all the decisions and simply give orders to those below them) and Macgregors Theory X approach to workers (workers are viewed as lazy and wish to avoid responsibility). However workers soon came to dislike Taylors approach as they were only given boring, repetitive tasks to carry out and were being treated little better than human machines. Firms could also afford to lay off workers as productivity levels increased. This led to an increase in strikes and other forms of industrial action by dis-satisfied workers. Mayo Elton Mayo (1880 1949) believed that workers are not just concerned with money but could be better motivated by having their social needs met whilst at work (something that Taylor ignored). He introduced the Human Relation School of thought, which focused on managers taking more of an interest in the workers, treating them as people who have worthwhile opinions and realising that workers enjoy interacting together. Mayo conducted a series of experiments at the Hawthorne factory of the Western Electric Company in Chicago He isolated two groups of women workers and studied the effect on their productivity levels of changing factors such as lighting and working conditions. He expected to see productivity levels decline as lighting or other conditions became progressively worse What he actually discovered surprised him: whatever the change in lighting or working conditions, the productivity levels of the workers improved or remained the same.

From this Mayo concluded that workers are best motivated by: Better communication between managers and workers ( Hawthorne workers were consulted over the experiments and also had the opportunity to give feedback) Greater manager involvement in employees working lives ( Hawthorne workers responded to the increased level of attention they were receiving) Working in groups or teams.( Hawthorne workers did not previously regularly work in teams) In practice therefore businesses should re-organise production to encourage greater use of team working and introduce personnel departments to encourage greater manager involvement in lo oking after employees interests. His theory most closely fits in with a paternalistic style of management. Maslow Abraham Maslow (1908 1970) along with Frederick Herzberg (1923-) introduced the Neo-Human Relations School in the 1950s, which focused on the psychological needs of employees. Maslow put forward a theory that there are five levels of human needs which employees need to have fulfilled at work. All of the needs are structured into a hierarchy (see below) and only once a lower level of need has been fully met, would a worker be motivated by the opportunity of having the next need up in the hierarchy satisfied. For example a person who is dying of hunger will be motivated to achieve a basic wage in order to buy food before worrying about having a secure job contract or the respect of others. A business should therefore offer different incentives to workers in order to help them fulfill each need in turn and progress up the hierarchy (see below). Managers should also recognise that workers are not all motivated in the same way and do not all move up the hierarchy at the same pace. They may therefore have to offer a slightly different set of incentives from worker to worker.

Herzberg

Frederick Herzberg (1923-) had close links with Maslow and believed in a two-factor theory of motivation. He argued that there were certain factors that a business could introduce that would directly motivate employees to work harder (Motivators). However there were also factors that would de-motivate an employee if not present but would not in themselves actually motivate employees to work harder (Hygienefactors) Motivators are more concerned with the actual job itself. For instance how interesting the work is and how much opportunity it gives for extra responsibility, recognition and promotion. Hygiene factors are factors which surround the job rather than the job itself. For example a worker will only turn up to work if a business has provided a reasonable level of pay and safe working conditions but these factors will not make him work harder at his job once he is there. Importantly Herzberg viewed pay as a hygiene factor which is in direct contrast to Taylor who viewed pay, and piece-rate in particular Herzberg believed that businesses should motivate employees by adopting a democratic approach to management and by improving the nature and content of the actual job through certain methods. Some of the methods managers could use to achieve this are: Job enlargement workers being given a greater variety of tasks to perform (not necessarily more challenging) which should make the work more interesting. Job enrichment - involves workers being given a wider range of more complex, interesting and challenging tasks surrounding a complete unit of work. This should give a greater sense of achievement. Empowerment means delegating more power to employees to make their own decisions over areas of their working life.

Motivation Models and Theories

There are many individual theories of motivation, but generally speaking they can be categorized as one of seven schools of thought: 1. 2. 3. 4. Needs Hierarchy Theory Equity Theory Expectancy Theory Reinforcement Theory

5. Goal-Setting Theory 6. Self-Regulation Theory 7. Job Characteristics Theory The Hierarchy of Needs

While the Needs Hierarchy Model has little empirical support, and Muchinsky suggests it has limited applicability in the organizational setting, others disagree. While not as "testable" as some other theories, it does shed some light on human nature and needs which do appear to be universal and can be addressed in ways that can contribute to motivation. For a discussion of the Needs Hierarchy, and the motivationhygiene model, read the following document: Motivation Models

The following information, has been extracted (with some modification) from "Unit 3: Motivation and Individual Productivity" of the FE MA/USFA/NFA/Degrees at a Distance Program, Course Guide, Personnel Management for the Fire Service,January, 2000. Motivation The word motivation comes from the Latin word movere, which means "to move." In common usage, a "motivator" is anything that causes a person to change behavior, or "move," and a "motive" is an incentive to act. Obviously, what motivates one person may not motivate another, and the same motivator may not always have the same impact on the same person. Leaders need to identify legitimate and satisfactory ways to convince officers to improve their behavior and productivity on the job. Getting people to change basic values is difficult. Managers often seek to change the job or the environment surrounding the job. Motivation "models" and theories show how to achieve this most efficiently. 1. The Needs Hierarchy Model The Needs Hierarchy Model developed by psychologist Abraham Maslow (7) shows that people have five levels of need. The lower level needs must be satisfied, or at least partially satisfied, before the higher level needs emerge and can be addressed. The five levels, from lowest to highest, are: physiological (food, clothing, and shelter), safety, social, ego, and self-actualization (developing full potential) Maslow's pyramid of needs Maslow's Pyramid of Needs models the basis of motivation that he developed over years of study. The first and broadest level of needs is termed "physiological needs." This level provides the basics of life, such as food, shelter, and physical comforts. The second level involves safety (physical and job security), a high priority for most people. The top three levels of motivation (belonging, esteem, and self-actualization) present the biggest leadership challenges. It is difficult to develop an environment that allows team players to find opportunities for self-actualization, and to be respected and empowered by fellow team players to continue positive and productive individual efforts.

Maslow's pyramid of needs

Employees move up and down the pyramid during their employment experience. The highest and most influential level of motivation (self-actualization) is short lived. Employees attain a temporary "high" from personal achievement and then fall back to another level on the pyramid. Work experiences offer continued challenges while one is pursuing self-actualization. Good leaders work hard to provide the resources, planning, guidance, and support needed to achieve desir d results (on e time and under budget). A positive work environment that supports employee achievement, recognizes success, and adjusts for failures is necessary when motivating employees. Maslow's five levels can be reduced to three: existence (the lowest level), relatedness (the levels encompassing social needs), and growth (including the ego and self-actualization levels). These make up what is sometimes called the "ERG" model. People often behave on two or more levels simultaneously. For example, an employee may require social acceptance even though his/her self (ego) is fulfilled after a personal accomplishment. Also, people may shift quickly from one need level to another, as when facing physical danger or when employment is lost. In applying the motivational theories to fire departments, there are distinct differences among organizations. For example, in a department that is respected and secure within the community, and whose services are well used, "existence" is not threatened. This is especially true when fire department personnel provide advanced life support emergency medical care, public education and fire prevention, and administrative authority for the management of hazardous materials. A leadership style that promotes a safe work environment, performs ongoing training, establishes safe work standards, and upgrades safety equipment to the "state-of-the-art" upholds the level of security necessary under the "existence" theories. A leadership style that uses the tenets of team play by diffusing authority through the ranks and using communities, quality circles, brainstorming, and other group skills to determine departmental direction builds a solid base for social "relatedness" needs. When team players realize that they have a vested interest in achieving desired results (as validated by team goal setting and buy-in to the mission), they exercise the opportunity to grow within the organization and achieve self-actualization. If the leaders support and recognize personal growth and provide opportunity for the team players to achieve desired results, the morale of the organization is enhanced. Behavior of personnel can be affected by extrinsic and intrinsic rewards. Extrinsic rewards, such as working conditions, promotions, and commendations, can be given by the department. Intrinsic rewards, such as a sense of worth and accomplishment, can be given only by the self. However, department leadership can design and organize the work environment and procedures to enable individuals to "reward" themselves intrinsically. An example occurs when departments hold critiques of fires that focus on what was done well in addition to what could stand improvement. This allows for a positive communication about performance as well as constructive critical review. While sometimes addressed independently and/or in conjunction with a discussion of the job characteristics theories, Herzberg's theory is closely allied to Malsow's needs hierarchy model and is worthy of discussion. Herzberg's The Motivation-Hygiene Model (8), asked a large number of engineers and accountants in Pittsburgh what they liked and disliked about their work. He categorized the findings into two kinds of factors: "hygiene" and "motivation." "Hygiene factors" describe the environment surrounding the work. While not personally motivational, they are critical to the well-being of the organization. Like preventive inoculations, they are not cures, but they can prevent sickness, hence the term "hygiene" factors. Hygiene factors include company policy and administration, the development of promotional procedures, training standards, security, salary, working conditions, and relations with others. "Motivation factors" include the nature of the work itself, and the opportunity for job-enriching experiences such as a personal achievement of a goal or challenge. Motivation factors increase job satisfaction, raise motivation, and help improve productivity. Herzberg decided that motivation stems from a challenging job that encourages personal growth, development, recognition, and enjoyment of the work and its job-enriching experiences. Poor hygiene and leadership practices that fail to recognize the importance of team effort and proper discipline are discouraging.

The motivation-hygiene model provides leadership with a better understanding of motivation and job satisfaction. The salary system is a form of hygiene. The payroll system provides satisfaction if developed appropriately and dissatisfaction if it is "out of sync" with employee expectations. A work project for which overtime is paid, not the money itself, can be a motivational force. If the work assignment provides the employee with the opportunity to achieve a higher level of self-esteem and a feeling of personal accomplishment, motivation will occur. If you look at the Herzberg theory, you'll see that Maslow's physiological, safety and belongingness needs address what Herzberg refers to as "hygiene" factors while the "motivation" factors entail Maslow's esteem and self actualization needs. There has been some discussion among emergency service leaders as to whether or not the "social" needs are hygenic or motivational in nature. With so much emphasis and reliance upon teamwork and with some teams becoming a "family," some would suggest that satisfaction of the belongingness needs may be motivational rather than only hygenic.

ENDNOTES 7. Maslow, Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper and Brothers, 1954. 8. F. Herzberg, B. Mausner, and B. Snyderman, The Motivation to Work. New York: Wiley, 1959.

Reading Assignment: y Visit the Deepermind website by George Norwood (1999), The Truth Vectors (Part I) at Maslow's hierarchy of needs at http://www.deepermind.com/20maslow.htm

2. and 3. Equity and Expectancy Theories

Reading Assignment: y y The reading will address equity and expectancy theories. Please read Chapter 12, pages 247-250, "Motivation ," from the Fire Service Personnel Management textbook by Steven Edwards.

4. Reinforcement Theories

You likely have heard the saying "behavior that is rewarded is repeated." Reinforcement theories are based on this principle and represent a form of behavior modification. The positive reinforcement model suggests that people behave in ways they find rewarding and implementation of proper rewards will lead to an increase in the amount and quality of the desired behavior. To establish a positive reinforcement program, the job or set of tasks (such as the operation of an aerial ladder) must be well defined. Goals and standards must be set (such as, in the operation of an aerial ladder, using a high-capacity-tip nozzle), feedback must be given to the operator (such as neutral statements about the proper sequence of operation, not valuative statements and a reward ), should be tied to the performance of the tasks (such as an operator's certificate).

Under a program of continuous reinforcement, progress may be rapid, but may decline if reinforcement is delayed. Partial reinforcement programs are usually more manageable, perhaps on some calculated schedule. In a career fire department, payday occurs on a fixed interval schedule, promotions occur on a variable schedule, and commendations occur on a partial schedule. According to Hammer (1974), there are six basic rules for using reinforcement: 1. Do not reward everyone the same way. Using a defined objective or standard, give more rewards to the better performers. 2. Recognize that failure to respond also has reinforcing consequences. Supervisors influence employees by what they do not do as well as by what they do. Lack of reward thus can also influence behavior. 3. Clearly describe what must be done to be rewarded. If employees have standards against which to measure the job, they can use their own built-in feedback system to make self-judgments about the work. They can then adjust work patterns accordingly. 4. Tell people what they are doing wrong. Few people like to fail; most want to get positive rewards. A supervisor who withholds rewards from subordinates should give them a clear idea of why the rewards are not forthcoming. The employees can then adjust their behavior accordingly rather than try to guess what behavior will be rewarded. 5. Do not punish anyone in front of others. Constructive criticism is as useful in eliminating unwanted behavior as is punishment. However, criticizing or punishing anyone in front of others lowers the individual's self-respect and self-esteem. Furthermore, other members of the work group may sympathize with the punished employee. 6. Be fair. Make the consequences equal to the behavior. Do not cheat an employee out of just rewards. If someone is a good worker, say so. Some supervisors find it difficult to praise; others find it difficult to counsel or tell an employee what is being done wrong. A person who is over rewarded may feel guilty, and one who is under rewarded may become angry. The best way to determine equity in recognizing and rewarding employee activity is to have an ongoing understanding of progress through close communication and support. Now, immediately some assume the reinforcement must be monetary or status oriented, but that is not the case. As a supervisor, how often do you simply say to a star performer "You did a really good job on that evolution!" ? There are some guidelines for using verbal positive reinforcement as a motivational tool. First, as indicated in the six rules, clearly identify what is the expected performance (or behavior). Secondly, "rewards" must be meaningful to the individual. Recognize that with the growing diversity within your agencies, you may not be able to reward everyone in the same way. Be alert to cultural and individual differences in what is meaningful to each person. As Harvey (n.d.) states, to be effective recognition must be sincere, timely, specific, individual, personal, and proportional. While I think most of us can agree with the importance of sincerity, we may not be a judicious regarding the timeliness of the "reward." Positive rewards should be given as close to the earning of that reward as is feasible; do not wait till the next annual review. Specificity. Try not to say "You did a good job!" Tell specifically what was done well. As appropriate, focus on individual accomplishments and achievements. Make it personal, recognizing that different individuals prefer different strategies in awarding "recognition." And, yes, the recognition should be in proportion to the accomplishment (Harvey, n.d.).

Team Rewards In the emergency services in which teamwork is so vitally important, don't forget to recognize the team for a job well done. Generally speaking, the same guidelines apply.

Optional Reading Assignment: y See if your school library has access to Alfie Kohn's article entitled, How Incentives Undermine Performance in the The Journal for Quality and Participation. Cincinnati: Mar/Apr 1998. Vol. 21, Iss. 2; p. 6

5. and 6. Goal Setting and Self -regulation Theories

We are going to address these two groups of theories together, as they share many assumptions in common. First of all, these theories suggest that people respond to goals that then direct their behavior. Now, people must know what these goals are and what needs to be accomplished to attain the goal, and the person must be willing to work toward the identified goal(s). This then produces the "inclination to act" in a way that directs their behavior. Feedback is important so the person knows if he/ she is moving in the right direction. Self-regulation theories point out that self-monitoring and assessment can be effective in moving toward goal attainment. 7. Job Characteristics Theories

The theories we have examined to this point have emphasized the individual. Job characteristics theories suggest that it is the environment in which the work is performed and the design of the job itself. Certain attributes of jobs are credited with instilling "motivation" in the job holders. While there has been extensive research in this arena, it appears that specific job characteristics may serve as motivators for some and not for others. Two additional issues requiring attention when discussing motivation include the Pygmalion Effect (Self Fulfilling Prophecy) and the role of performance expectations. The Pygmalion Effect Another factor we need to consider in looking at motivation is the concept of the Pygmalion effect: the powerful influence of one person's perceived expectations on another person's performance. You get what you expect. High expectations lead to high performance. Low expectations lead to low performance. Numerous studies supporting this premise have demonstrated its validity. Be alert as to how your personal feelings may impact others' perception of your expectations. Manager tend to like good s performers and dislike poor performers. When you like someone you send more positive messagesreinforcing good behavior (Orally and nonverbally). When you dislike someone you send more negative messages - giving no incentive to improve. In working with your people you need to focus on behavior and not personalities and communicate positive messages to all employees. Your leadership priorities are to help your people succeed by having high expectations of all of them and communicating your confidence in them.

Reading Assignment: y Take a few minutes and read the following article entitled "Management by Perception" athttp://www.accel-team.com/Pygmalion. While you can read the entire site, please make sure that you read the introduction, the principles and the eight corollaries associated with "Management by Perception".

Performance (Job) Expectations, Performance Standards, and Motivation There are many reasons that each position within the agency should have clearly identified performance expectations or standards. One of them is for motivation. If expectations are clearly defined, and different levels of achievement are clearly defined, performance standards can become motivational tools. The individual knows what is expected, can assess where he/she is at, and can work toward improvement. The use of performance standards is consistent with goal setting and self-regulation theories of motivation. Which Key Fits? While there is some merit in each of the theories and when properly administered they do help to set the stage for motivation, they do not provide the total answer. Every individual is unique and numerous factors impact the individual's motivational level at any one time.. There are nearly as many internal motivators as there are individuals when it comes to individual motivation. Is it achievement? Is it recognition? Is it increased responsibility? Is it "teamwork?" Is it "status"? Supervisors must know their employees and determine which key(s) fit. Getting to know your employees can help you be more effective in setting the stage for individual motivation. Performance Incentives