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TRAINING REPORT
OF FOUR WEEKS VOCATIONAL TRAINING, UNDERTAKEN AT
UNDER THE GUIDANCE OF: SUBMITTED BY: NAME: Mr. S. Haldar HEMANT RANA DESIGNATION: DGM IPE DEPARTMENT.
CONTENTS
Chapter
Declaration Certificate Acknowledgement Vision
Page No.
5 6 7 8
1. Introduction 1.1 Business Sectors 1.2 Power Sector 1.3 Industry Sector 1.4 International Operations 1.5 Research and Development 1.6 Human Resource Development 2. Turbine 2.1 Types of Turbine 2.2 Other 3. Steam Turbine 17 10 10 11
13 14 15 16
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3.1 Introduction to the Steam Turbine 3.2 Description 3.3 Nozzles and Blades 3.4 Bearings and Lubrication 3.5 Shaft Seals 3.6 Turning Gear 3.7 Vibration 3.8 Steam Turbine- Definition 3.9 Types 3.9.1 Steam Supply and Exhaust Conditions 3.9.2 Casing or Shaft Arrangements 3.10 Theory of Operation 3.11 Operation and Maintainence 3.12 Speed Regulation 3.13 Turbine Types 3.14 Mode of Operation of the Steam Turbine 3.15 Multi-level Steam Turbines 3.16 Coupling of several Turbines 3.17 Direct Drive 3.18 Speed Reduction 4. Uses of Turbines
20 21 23 24 25 25 25 26 27 27 28 29 34 34 35 37 37 38 39 39 40
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6. Manufacturing Facilities
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7. Description of Heavy Machines 7.1 Lathe Machine 7.1.1 Parts of Lathe 7.1.2 Accessories 7.2 Milling Machine 7.2.1 Milling Machine variants and terminology 7.3 Drilling Machine 7.3.1 Types of Drill Press 7.4 Boring Machine 7.5 Grinding Machine 7.5.1 Types of Grinders 8. Heavy Machines in STM 8.1 Operations Performed 8.2 Products 9. Blades of Steam Turbines 9.1 Types of Blades 9.2 Classification of Blades 9.3 Bar Type Blades 9.4 Brazed Type Blades
47 47 48 49 50 51 53 55 56 57 57 59 66 66 67 67 68 69 70
71 72
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work, which is being presented in this training report, submitted to HRDC, BHEL Haridwar as part of curriculum is an authentic record of my own work, carried within the premises of Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Haridwar.
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the vocational project training report which has been submitted to HRDC, BHEL Haridwar as part of the curriculum by ROBIN TYAGI bearing Roll NO. 07120104044 of Mechanical Engineering Department, TULAS INSTITUTE is a record of authentic work carried out by him under our supervision and guidance to the best of our knowledge.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I am extremely grateful to Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Haridwar for giving me the opportunity to carry out my vocational training at their facility. Special thanks are due Mr. S. Haldar, DGM, STM Division, for his continuous support and guidance in being my mentor. And last but not the least, I would also like to extend my gratefulness to all the supervisors and technicians, right from the highest to the simplest, for their constant and enthusiasing support.
Robin Tyagi
VISION
BHELs vision is to become a world-class engineering enterprise committed to enhancing stakeholder value.
1. INTRODUCTION
Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd. (BHEL) is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise of its kind in India and is one of the leading international companies in the field of power equipment manufacture. The first plant of BHEL, set up at Bhopal in 1956, signalled the dawn of the Heavy Electrical Industry in India. In the sixties, three more major plants were set up at Haridwar, Hyderabad and Tiruchirapalli that form the core of the diversified product range, systems and services that BHEL offers today. BHELs range of services extends from project feasibility studies to after-sales-service, successfully meeting diverse needs through turnkey capability. The company has 14 manufacturing units, 4 power sector regions, 8 service centers and 15 regional offices, besides project sites spread all over India and abroad. BHEL has a well recognised track record of performance, making profits continuously since 1971-72 and paying dividends since 1976-77. BHEL manufactures over 180 products under 30 major product groups and caters to core sectors of the Indian economy viz., Power Generation and Transmission, Industry, Transportation, Renewable Energy etc. The quality and reliability of its products is due to the emphasis on design, engineering and manufacturing to international standards by acquiring and adapting some of the best technologies from leading companies in the world, together with technologies developed in its own R&D centers. The Company has been constantly adapting itself to face the challenges thrownup by the business environment. BHEL has already attained ISO 9000 certification for quality management and all the manufacturing units /divisions have been upgraded to the latest ISO 9001-2000 version. BHEL has also secured ISO 14001 certification for environmental management systems & OHSAS -18001 certification for occupational health and safety management systems for all its units/divisions. BHEL is continuing its journey towards Business Excellence. BHEL has committed to support the Global Compact & the set of core values enshrined in its ten principles in the areas of human rights, labour standards and environment.
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also designed and manufactured by BHEL. To give a thrust to refurbishing and modernisation for plant performance improvement of old fossil fuel power plants and provide repair and service for GE design gas turbines, two joint venture companies have been floated with Siemens and GE respectively, which have completed nine full financial years of commercial operation. With a focus to provide a single window facility to the customers for services & spares of power generation equipments, a Spares & Services Business Group has been created.
INDUSTRIES
BHEL manufactures and supplies major capital equipment and systems like captive power plants, centrifugal compressors, drive turbines, industrial boilers and auxiliaries, waste heat recovery boilers, gas turbines, pumps, heat exchangers, electric machines, valves, heavy castings and forgings, electrostatic precipitators, ID/FD fans, seamless pipes etc. These serve a number of industries like metallurgical, mining, cement, paper, fertilizers, refineries and petro-chemicals, etc. in addition to power utilities. BHEL has also emerged as a major supplier of controls and instrumentation systems, especially distributed digital control systems for various power plants and industries.
BHEL has the capability to supply complete onshore drilling rigs, super deep drilling rigs, desert rigs, mobile rigs, workover rigs and sub sea well heads. It supplies equipment / sub-assemblies for onshore drilling rigs viz. drawworks, rotary-table, travelling block, swivel, mast & sub
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structure, mud systems and rig electrics. BHEL also supplies Xmas tree valves & well heads up to a rating of 10,000 psi for onshore / offshore service and Casing Support System, Mudline Suspension System & Block Valves for offshore applications.
TRANSMISSION
BHEL supplies a wide range of products and systems for transmission & distribution applications. The products manufactured by BHEL include power transformers, instrument transformers, dry type transformers, shunt reactors, capacitors, vacuum and SF6 switchgear, gas insulated switchgear, ceramic insulators, etc. BHEL has developed and commercialized the countrys first indigenous 36 kV Gas Insulated Substation (GIS) and has also bagged first order for its indigenously developed 145 kV GIS. For enhancing the power transfer capability and reducing transmission losses in 400 kV lines, BHEL has indigenously developed and executed fixed series compensation schemes and has developed thyristor controlled series compensation scheme, involving thyristor controlled reactors, popularly known as Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS). BHEL has indigenously developed state of the art controlled shunt reactor for reactive power management of long transmission lines. With a strong engineering base, the company undertakes turnkey execution of substations upto 400 kV and has capability to execute 765 kV substations. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) systems have been supplied for economic transmission of bulk power over long distances. During the year, BHEL successfully bagged
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TRANSPORTATION
Most of the trains in the Indian Railways, whether electric or diesel powered, are equipped with BHELs traction propulsion systems and controls. The systems supplied are both with conventional DC drives and state of the art AC drives. Indias first underground metro at Kolkata runs on drives and controls supplied by BHEL. The company also manufactures complete rolling stock i.e. electric locomotives up to 5000 HP, diesel electric locomotives from 350 HP to 3100 HP for both mainline and shunting duty applications. Further, BHEL undertakes retrofitting and overhauling of rolling stock. In the area of Urban transportation, BHEL is geared up for turnkey execution of electric trolley bus systems, light rail systems and metro systems. BHEL is contributing to the supply of electric systems for EMUs for 1500V DC & 25 kV AC to Indian Railways. Almost all the EMUs in service are with electrics manufactured and supplied by BHEL. The company has also diversified into the area of track maintenance machines. BHEL is well poised to meet the emerging requirements of Indian Railways for higher horsepower locos for freight and passenger applications.
RENEWABLE ENERGY
BHEL has been manufacturing & supplying various Renewable Energy systems and products. It includes Solar Energy systems namely PV modules, PV power plants, solar lanterns, street lighting, solar pumps and solar water heating systems. The Wind power generation business based on higher rating WEGs is being explored.
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BHEL has over the years established its references in 68 countries of the world spanning across all the six-inhabited continents. These references encompass almost the entire range of BHEL products and services covering turnkey Power projects of Thermal, Hydro and Gasbased, Transmission Substation projects, Rehabilitation projects for Boilers, Power Stations etc., besides a wide variety of products, like Transformers, Reactors, Compressors, Valves and Oil field equipment, Electrostatic Precipitators, Photo Voltaic equipments, Insulators, Switchgears, Heat Exchangers, Castings & Forgings . Some of the major successes achieved by BHEL have been in Gas based power projects in Oman, Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Libya, Bangladesh, Malaysia, Sri Lanka, China, Kazakhstan; Thermal power projects in Cyprus, Malta, Egypt, Malaysia, Sudan, Indonesia, Thailand; Hydro power plants in New Zealand, Azerbaijan, Bhutan, Nepal, Taiwan, Malaysia, Afghanistan, Tajikistan and Substation Projects & equipment in various countries of Africa, Europe, South & South East Asia. The company is taking a number of strategic business initiatives to fuel further growth in overseas business. This includes firmly establishing itself in target export markets, positioning of BHEL as a regular EPC Contractor in the global market and, exploring various opportunities for setting up overseas joint ventures etc.
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The Corporate R&D Division at Hyderabad leads BHELs research and development efforts, suitably supported by Engineering and R&D groups at the manufacturing divisions. BHELs technology policy promotes a judicious mix of indigenous efforts and selective collaboration in essential areas. The company continuously upgrades its technology and products to contemporary standards. BHEL is one of the few companies worldwide involved in the development of Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC) technology which will usher it in clean coal technology. BHEL has set up Asias first 6.2 MW IGCC power plant with a indigenously designed pressurised fluidised bed gasifier. Presently, development efforts are underway to set up a 125 MW IGCC power plant. Four Centres of Excellence for Computational Fluid Dynamics, Simulators, Permanent Magnet Machines and Surface Engineering have been established at BHELs Corporate R&D Division, which has led to enhancement of BHELs design and analysis capability and also enabled development of new and improved products. BHELs R&D efforts have produced several new products. Some of the recent successful R&D products are: advanced software package for Performance Analysis, Diagnostics and Optimisation (PADO) of power plants to optimize power plant operations during varying operating conditions; High Velocity Oxy Fuel coating process to increase life of hydro turbine components, and other industrial products prone to erosion; an indigenously designed Bowl Mill of 91 tons per hour capacity for pulverising coal in thermal power stations; the largest size 60 MW Bubbling Fluidised Bed Boiler for power generation; a new ecofriendly, cost effective and less hazardous chemical cleaning system process for boilers using an organic chemical Ethylene Diamine Tetra Acetic Acid; a six jet Pelton hydro turbine with a head of 789 metres for the 4x200 Parbati hydro electric project; the first totally impregnated turbo generator stator for a 250 MW turbo generator; a 260 MW steam turbine designed to suit combined cycle power plant application; Smart
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wall blowing system for cleaning of boiler tubes during operation; Sonic system for detecting tube leaks in boilers; a By-pass Over Fire Air (BOFA) system which reduces NOx emission from coal fired power stations by upto 50%.
The greatest strength of BHEL is its highly skilled and committed manpower. Every employee is given an equal opportunity to develop himself and improve his position. Continuous training & retraining, career planning, a positive work culture and participative style of management have engendered development of a committed and motivated work force ready to take up the challenge of making BHEL a competitive world-class organization. As a process of linking HRM to market forces / stakeholder driven policies, an e-enabled Performance Management System has been established for executives - a new benchmark in promoting performance-led growth. To encourage individuals for capability building and in for continuous sphere improvement of activity, Scheme through an (IMPRESS) creativity has & innovation every Projects e-network based been
Improvement
Rewards
2. TURBINE
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A turbine is a rotary engine that extracts energy from a fluid flow. Claude Burdin (17881873) coined the term from the Latin turbo, or vortex, during an 1828 engineering
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competition. Benoit Fourneyron (1802-1867), a student of Claude Burdin, built the first practical water turbine. The simplest turbines have one moving part, a rotor assembly, which is a shaft with blades attached. Moving fluid acts on the blades, or the blades react to the flow, so that they rotate and impart energy to the rotor. Early turbine examples are windmills and water wheels. Gas, steam, and water turbines usually have a casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid. Credit for invention of the modern steam turbine is given to British Engineer Sir Charles Parsons (1854 - 1931). A device similar to a turbine but operating in reverse is a compressor or pump. The axial compressor in many gas turbine engines is a common example.
Steam turbines are used for the generation of electricity in thermal power plants, such as plants using coal or fuel oil or nuclear power. They were once used to directly drive mechanical devices such as ship's propellors (e.g. the Turbinia), but most such applications now use reduction gears or an intermediate electrical step, where the turbine is used to generate electricity, which then powers an electric motor connected to the mechanical load.
Gas turbines are sometimes referred to as turbine engines. Such engines usually feature an inlet, fan, compressor, combustor and nozzle (possibly other assemblies) in addition to one or more turbines.
Transonic turbine. The gas flow in most turbines employed in gas turbine engines remains subsonic throughout the expansion process. In a transonic turbine the gas
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flow becomes supersonic as it exits the nozzle guide vanes, although the downstream velocities normally become subsonic. Transonic turbines operate at a higher pressure ratio than normal but are usually less efficient and uncommon. This turbine works well in creating power from water.
Contra-rotating turbines. Some efficiency advantage can be obtained if a downstream turbine rotates in the opposite direction to an upstream unit. However, the complication may be counter-productive.
Statorless turbine. Multi-stage turbines have a set of static (meaning stationary) inlet guide vanes that direct the gas flow onto the rotating rotor blades. In a statorless turbine the gas flow exiting an upstream rotor impinges onto a downstream rotor without an intermediate set of stator vanes (that rearrange the pressure/velocity energy levels of the flow) being encountered.
Ceramic turbine. Conventional high-pressure turbine blades (and vanes) are made from nickel-steel alloys and often utilise intricate internal air-cooling passages to prevent the metal from melting. In recent years, experimental ceramic blades have been manufactured and tested in gas turbines, with a view to increasing Rotor Inlet Temperatures and/or, possibly, eliminating air cooling. Ceramic blades are more brittle than their metallic counterparts, and carry a greater risk of catastrophic blade failure.
Shrouded turbine. Many turbine rotor blades have a shroud at the top, which interlocks with that of adjacent blades, to increase damping and thereby reduce blade flutter.
Shroudless turbine. Modern practise is, where possible, to eliminate the rotor shroud, thus reducing the centrifugal load on the blade and the cooling requirements. Bladeless turbine uses the boundary layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the blades as in a conventional turbine. Water turbines Pelton turbine, a type of impulse water turbine. Francis turbine, a type of widely used water turbine. Kaplan turbine, a variation of the Francis Turbine. Voith, water turbine.
o o o o
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Wind turbine. These normally operate as a single stage without nozzle and interstage guide vanes. An exception is the olienne Bolle, which has a stator and a rotor, thus being a true turbine.
2.2 OTHER
Velocity compound "Curtis". Curtis combined the de Laval and Parsons turbine by using a set of fixed nozzles on the first stage or stator and then a rank of fixed and rotating stators as in the Parsons, typically up to ten compared with up to a hundred stages, however the efficiency of the turbine was less than that of the Parsons but it operated at much lower speeds and at lower pressures which made it ideal for ships. Note that the use of a small section of a Curtis, typically one nozzle section and two rotors is termed a "Curtis Wheel"
Pressure Compund Multistage Impulse or Rateau. The Rateau employs simple Impulse rotors separated by a nozzle diaphragm. The diaphragm is essentially a partition wall in the turbine with a series of tunnels cut into it, funnel shaped with the broad end facing the previous stage and the narrow the next they are also angled to direct the steam jets onto the impulse rotor.
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3. STEAM TURBINE
3.1 Introduction to the Steam Turbine
De Laval, Parsons and Curtis developed the concept for the steam turbine in the 1880s. Modern steam turbines use essentially the same concept but many detailed improvements have been made in the intervening years mainly to improve turbine efficiency. Steam turbines are used in all of our major coal fired power stations to drive the generators or alternators, which produce electricity. The turbines themselves are driven by steam generated in 'Boilers' or 'Steam Generators' as they are sometimes called. Energy in the steam after it leaves the boiler is converted into rotational energy as it passes through the turbine. The turbine normally consists of several stages with each stage consisting of a stationary blade (or nozzle) and a rotating blade. Stationary blades convert the potential energy of the steam (temperature and pressure) into kinetic energy (velocity) and direct the flow onto the rotating blades. The rotating blades convert the kinetic energy into forces, caused by pressure drop, which results in the rotation of the turbine shaft. The turbine shaft is connected to a generator, which produces the electrical energy. The rotational speed is 3000 rpm for Australian (50 Hz) systems and 3600 for American (60 Hz) systems.
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3.2 Description
In a typical larger power stations, the steam turbines are split into three separate stages, the first being the High Pressure (HP), the second the Intermediate Pressure (IP) and the third the Low Pressure (LP) stage, where high, intermediate and low describe the pressure of the steam. After the steam has passed through the HP stage, it is returned to the boiler to be reheated to its original temperature although the pressure remains greatly reduced. The reheated steam then passes through the IP stage and finally to the LP stage of the turbine. A distinction is made between "impulse" and "reaction" turbine designs based on the relative pressure drop across the stage. There are two measures for pressure drop, the
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pressure ratio and the percent reaction. Pressure ratio is the pressure at the stage exit divided by the pressure at the stage entrance. Reaction is the percentage isentropic enthalpy drop across the rotating blade or bucket compared to the total stage enthalpy drop. Some manufacturers utilise percent pressure drop across stage to define reaction. Steam turbines can be configured in many different ways. Several IP or LP stages can be incorporated into the one steam turbine. A single shaft or several shafts coupled together may be used. Either way, the principles are the same for all steam turbines. The configuration is decided by the use to which the steam turbine is put, co-generation or pure electricity production. For co-generation, the steam pressure is highest when used as process steam and at a lower pressure when used for the secondary function of electricity production.
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3.7 Vibration
The balancing of the large rotating steam turbines is a critical component in ensuring the reliable operation of the plant. Most large steam turbines have sensors installed to measure the movement of the shafts in their bearings. This condition monitoring can identify many potential problems and allows the repair of the turbine to be planned before the problems become serious.
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Steam turbines are devices which convert the energy stored in steam into rotational mechanical energy. These machines are widely used for the generation of electricity in a number of different cycles, such as:
The steam turbine may consists of several stages. Each stage can be described by analyzing the expansion of steam from a higher pressure to a lower pressure. The steam may be wet, dry saturated or superheated.
Consider the steam turbine shown in the cycle above. The output power of the turbine at steady flow condition is: P = m (h1-h2)
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where m is the mass flow of the steam through the turbine and h1 and h2 are specific enthalpy of the steam at inlet respective outlet of the turbine.
The efficiency of the steam turbines are often described by the isentropic efficiency for expansion process. The presence of water droplets in the steam will reduce the efficiency of the turbine and cause physical erosion of the blades. Therefore the dryness fraction of the steam at the outlet of the turbine should not be less than 0.9.
3.9 Types
Steam turbines are made in a variety of sizes ranging from small 1 hp (0.75 kW) units (rare) used as mechanical drives for pumps, compressors and other shaft driven equipment, to 2,000,000 hp (1,500,000 kW) turbines used to generate electricity. There are several classifications for modern steam turbines.
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These types include condensing, non condensing, reheat, extraction and induction. Non condensing or backpressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are available. Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser. Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high pressure section of the turbine and is returned to the boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of the turbine and continues its expansion. Extracting type turbines are common in all applications. In an extracting type turbine, steam is released from various stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs or sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve overall cycle efficiency. Extraction flows may be controlled with a valve, or left uncontrolled. Induction turbines introduce low pressure steam at an intermediate stage to produce additional power.
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often operate at different speeds. A cross compound turbine is typically used for many large applications.
Turbine Efficiency
To maximize turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded, generating work, in a number of stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are known as impulse or reaction turbines. Most modern steam turbines are a combination of the reaction and impulse design. Typically, higher pressure sections are impulse type and lower pressure stages are reaction type.
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Impulse turbines
These turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid jet. The resulting impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no pressure change of the fluid in the turbine rotor blades. Before reaching the turbine the fluid's pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively. Impulse turbines do not require a pressure casement around the runner since the fluid jet is prepared by a nozzle prior to reaching turbine. Newton's second law describes the transfer of energy for impulse turbines.
Reaction turbines
These turbines develop torque by reacting to the fluid's pressure or weight. The pressure of the fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades. A pressure casement is needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must
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be fully immersed in the fluid flow (wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple turbine stages may be used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines.
Turbine designs will use both these concepts to varying degrees whenever possible. Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate lift from the moving fluid and impart it to the rotor (this is a form of reaction). Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by deflecting it at an angle. Crossflow turbines are designed as an impulse machine, with a nozzle, but in low head applications maintain some efficiency through reaction, like a traditional water wheel. Turbines with multiple stages may utilize either reaction or impulse blading at high pressure. Steam Turbines were traditionally more impulse but continue to move towards reaction designs similar to those used in Gas Turbines. At low pressure the operating fluid medium expands in volume for small reductions in pressure. Under these conditions (termed Low Pressure Turbines) blading becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base of the blade solely impulse. The reason is due to the effect of the rotation speed for each blade. As the volume increases, the blade height increases, and the base of the blade spins at a slower speed relative to the tip. This change in speed forces a designer to change from impulse at the base, to a high reaction style tip. Classical turbine design methods were developed in the mid 19th century. Vector analysis related the fluid flow with turbine shape and rotation. Graphical calculation methods were used at first. Formulae for the basic dimensions of turbine parts are well documented and a highly efficient machine can be reliably designed for any fluid flow condition. Some of the calculations are empirical or 'rule of thumb' formulae, and others are based on classical mechanics. As with most engineering calculations, simplifying assumptions were made. Velocity triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a turbine stage. Gas exits the stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity Va1. The rotor rotates at velocity U. Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor
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entrance is Vr1. The gas is turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity Vr2. However, in absolute terms the rotor exit velocity is Va2. The velocity triangles are constructed using these various velocity vectors. Velocity triangles can be constructed at any section through the blading (for example: hub, tip, midsection and so on) but are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean performance for the stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at this radius, using the Euler equation:
Whence:
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where: specific enthalpy drop across stage turbine entry total (or stagnation) temperature turbine rotor peripheral velocity change in whirl velocity
Modern turbine design carries the calculations further. Computational fluid dynamics dispenses with many of the simplifying assumptions used to derive classical formulas and computer software facilitates optimization. These tools have led to steady improvements in turbine design over the last forty years. The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed. This number describes the speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the power and flow rate. The specific speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the fluid flow conditions and the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can be calculated and an appropriate turbine design selected. The specific speed, along with some fundamental formulas can be used to reliably scale an existing design of known performance to a new size with corresponding performance. Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic.
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Besides the types described above, there are still other types of water turbines, e.g. the Bnki turbine.
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2-step steam turbine after Parsons (1883). This turbine possesses two impellers and an idler in the center.
again by a pump. This has the advantage that for materials, e.g. with freons).
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multi-level
turbines
are
always
conical.
In power stations today, different types of turbines are used in a series, e.g. one high pressure -, two medium- and four low pressure turbines. This coupling leads to an excellent efficiency (over 40%), which is even better than the efficiency of large diesel engines. This characteristic and the relatively favourable production make the steam turbine competitionless in power stations. Coupled with a generator and fired by an atomic reactor, they produce enormously much electric current. The strongest steam turbines achieve today performances of more than 1000 megawatts.
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Another use of steam turbines is in ships; their small size, low maintenance, light weight, and low vibration are compelling advantages. (Steam turbine locomotives were also tested, but with limited success.) A steam turbine is only efficient when operating in the thousands of RPM range, while use in propulsion applications may require only in the hundreds of RPM. Therefore precise (thus expensive) reduction gears are generally used, although several ships, such as Turbinia, had direct drive from the steam turbine to the propeller shafts. The purchase cost is offset by much lower fuel and maintenance requirements and the small size of a turbine when compared to a reciprocating engine
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having an equivalent power. However, diesel engines are capable of higher efficiencies: steam turbine efficiencies have yet to break 50%, yet diesel engines routinely exceed 50%, especially in marine applications.
4. USES OF TURBINES
Almost all electrical power on Earth is produced with a turbine of some type. Very high efficiency turbines harness about 40% of the thermal energy, with the rest exhausted as waste heat.
Most jet engines rely on turbines to supply mechanical work from their working fluid and fuel as do all nuclear ships and power plants. Turbines are often part of a larger machine. A gas turbine, for example, may refer to an internal combustion machine that contains a turbine, ducts, compressor, combustor, heat-exchanger, fan and (in the case of one designed to produce electricity) an alternator. However, it must be noted that the collective machine referred to as the turbine in these cases is designed to transfer energy from a fuel to the fluid passing through such an internal combustion device as a means of propulsion, and not to transfer energy from the fluid passing through the turbine to the turbine as is the case in turbines used for electricity provision etc.
Reciprocating piston engines such as aircraft engines can use a turbine powered by their exhaust to drive an intake-air compressor, a configuration known as a turbocharger (turbine supercharger) or, colloquially, a "turbo".
Turbines can have very high power density (i.e. the ratio of power to weight, or power to volume). This is because of their ability to operate at very high speeds. The Space Shuttle's main engines use turbopumps (machines consisting of a pump driven by a turbine engine) to feed the propellants (liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen) into the engine's combustion chamber. The liquid hydrogen turbopump is slightly larger than an automobile engine (weighing approximately 700 lb) and produces nearly 70,000 hp (52.2 MW).
Turboexpanders are widely used as sources of refrigeration in industrial processes. Turbines could also be used as powering system for a remote controlled plane that creates thrust and lifts the plane of the ground. They come in different sizes and
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could be as small as soda can, still be strong enough to move objects with a weight of 100kg.
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6. MANUFACTURING FACILITIES
For manufacturing of steam turbines, turbine block has the following sections:
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Assembly Section
In this section, assembly and testing of Guide Apparatus, Disc Valve, Spherical Valves, Servo motor shaft and combined boring of coupling holes are done.
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It is equipped with large size machining tools like Turning Lathe, CNC Lathes, Horizontal Boring Machines, special purpose Fir Tree Groove Milling Machine, etc. Some rotor forgings are imported from Russia and Germany and some are indigenously manufactured at CFFP, BHEL Haridwar.
Test Section
Test station for testing of 210 MW USSR Steam Turbine at no load is equipped with Condensers, Ejector, Oil Pumps, Oil Containers, Steam Connections, etc. required for testing. Over speed testing is done for emergency Governor. Assembly Test Stands for different modules of Siemens design are equipped with accessory devices.
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elevates the lathe bed to a working height. Some lathes are small and sit on a workbench or table, and do not have a stand.
2. Bed : Almost all lathes have a "bed", which is (almost always) a horizontal beam
(although some CNC lathes have a vertical beam for a bed to ensure that swarf, or chips, falls free of the bed).
3. Headstock : At one end of the bed (almost always the left, as the operator faces the
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4. Spindle : Rotating within the bearings is a horizontal axle, with an axis parallel to the
bed, called the "spindle". Spindles are often hollow, and have exterior threads and/or an interior Morse taper on the "inboard" (i.e., facing to the right / towards the bed) by which accessories which hold the workpiece may be mounted to the spindle. Spindles may also have exterior threads and/or an interior taper at their "outboard" (i.e., facing away from the bed) end, and/or may have a handwheel or other accessory mechanism on their outboard end. Spindles are powered, and impart motion to the workpiece.The spindle is driven, either by foot power from a treadle and flywheel or by a belt drive to a power source. In some modern lathes this power source is an integral electric motor, often either in the headstock, to the left of the headstock, or beneath the headstock, concealed in the stand.
5. Tailstock : The counterpoint to the headstock is the tailstock, sometimes referred to
as the loose head, as it can be positioned at any convenient point on the bed, by undoing a locking nut, sliding it to the required area, and then relocking it. The tailstock contains a barrel which does not rotate, but can slide in and out parallel to the axis of the bed, and directly in line with the headstock spindle. The barrel is hollow, and usually contains a taper to facilitate the gripping of various type of tooling. Its most common uses are to hold a hardened steel centre, which is used to support long thin shafts while turning, or to hold drill bits for drilling axial holes in the work piece. Many other uses are possible.
6. Cross slide : Metalworking lathes have a "cross slide", which is a flat piece that sits
crosswise on the bed, and can be cranked at right angles to the bed. Sitting atop the cross slide is a toolpost, which holds a cutting tool which removes material from the workpiece. There may or may not be a leadscrew, which moves the cross slide along the bed.
7.1.2 Accessories
Unless a workpiece has a taper machined onto it which perfectly matches the internal taper in the spindle, or has threads which perfectly match the external threads on the
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spindle (two things which almost never happen), an accessory must be used to mount a workpiece to the spindle. A workpiece may be bolted or screwed to a faceplate, a large flat disk that mounts to the spindle. Alternatively faceplate dogs may be used to secure the work to the faceplate. A workpiece may be clamped in a three- or four-jaw chuck, which mounts directly to the spindle or mounted on a mandrel. In precision work (and in some classes of repetition work), cylindrical workpieces are invariably held in a collet inserted into the spindle and secured either by a drawbar, or by a collet closing cap on the spindle. Suitable collets may also be used to mount square or hexagonal workpieces. In precision toolmaking work such collets are usually of the draw in variety, where as collet is tightened the workpiece moves slightly back into the headstock, whereas for most repetition work the dead length variety is preferered as this ensures that the position of the workpiece does not move as the collet is tightened, so the workpiece can be set in the lathe to a fixed position and it will not move on tightening the collet. A soft workpiece (wooden) may be pinched between centers by using a spur drive at the headstock, which bites into the wood and imparts torque to it. A soft dead center is used in the headstock spindle as the work rotates with the centre. Because the centre is soft it can be trued in place before use. The included angle is 60 degrees. Traditionally a hard dead center is used together with suitable lubricant in the tailstock to support the workpiece. In modern practice the dead center is frequently replaced by a live center or (revolving center) as it turns freely with the workpiece usually on ball bearings, reducing the frictional heat, which is especially important at high RPM. A lathe carrier or lathe dog may also be employed when turning between two centers. A circular metal plate with even spaced holes around the periphery, mounted to the spindle, is called an "index plate". It can be used to rotate the spindle a precise number of degrees, then lock it in place, facilitating repeated auxiliary operations done to the workpiece.
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Milling machines may be manually operated, mechanically automated, or digitally automated via CNC (computer numerical control). Milling machines can perform a vast number of operations, some of them with quite complex toolpaths, such as slot cutting, planing, drilling, diesinking, rebating, routing, etc.
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Cutting fluid is often pumped to the cutting site to cool and lubricate the cut, and to sluice away the resulting swarf.
machines that feature a head riding up and down on a column or box way.
2. Turret or vertical ram mills : They are more commonly referred to as
Bridgeport-type milling machines. The spindle can be aligned in many different positions for a very versatile, if somewhat less rigid machine.
3. Knee mill or knee-and-column mill : They refer to any milling machine whose
x-y table rides up and down the column on a vertically adjustable knee. This includes Bridgeports.
4. C-Frame mills : They are larger, industrial production mills. They feature a knee
and fixed spindle head that is only mobile vertically. They are typically much more powerful than a turret mill, featuring a separate hydraulic motor for integral hydraulic power feeds in all directions, and a twenty to fifty horsepower motor. Backlash eliminators are almost always standard equipment. They use large NMTB 40 or 50 tooling. The tables on C-frame mills are usually 18" by 68" or larger, to allow multiple parts to be machined at the same time.
5. Planer-style mills : They are large mills built in the same configuration as planers
except with a milling spindle instead of a planing head. This term is growing dated as planers themselves are largely a thing of the past.
6. Bed mill : They refer to any milling machine where the spindle is on a pendant
that moves up and down to move the cutter into the work. These are generally more rigid than a knee mill.
7. Ram type mill : They refer to a mill that has a swivelling cutting head mounted
on a sliding ram. The spindle can be oriented either vertically or horizontally, or anywhere in between. Van Norman specialized in ram type mills through most of
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the 20th century, but since the advent of CNC machines ram type mills are no longer made.
8. Jig borers : They are vertical mills that are built to bore holes, and very light slot
or face milling. They are typically bed mills with a long spindle throw. The beds are more accurate, and the handwheels are graduated down to .0001" for precise hole placement.
9. Horizontal boring mills : They are large, accurate bed horizontal mills that
incorporate many features from various machine tools. They are predominantly used to create large manufacturing jigs, or to modify large, high precision parts. They have a spindle stroke of several (usually between four and six) feet, and many are equipped with a tailstock to perform very long boring operations without losing accuracy as the bore increases in depth. A typical bed would have X and Y travel, and be between three and four feet square with a rotary table or a larger rectangle without said table. The pendant usually has between four and eight feet in vertical movement. Some mills have a large (30" or more) integral facing head. Right angle rotary tables and vertical milling attachments are available to further increase productivity.
10. Floor mills : They have a row of rotary tables, and a horizontal pendant spindle
mounted on a set of tracks that runs parallel to the table row. These mills have predominantly been converted to CNC, but some can still be found (if one can even find a used machine available) under manual control. The spindle carriage moves to each individual table, performs the machining operations, and moves to the next table while the previous table is being set up for the next operation. Unlike any other kind of mill, floor mills have floor units that are entirely movable. A crane will drop massive rotary tables, X-Y tables, and the like into position for machining, allowing the largest and most complex custom milling operations to take place.
11. Portical mills : It has the spindle mounted in a T structure.
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Less effort is required to apply the drill to the workpiece. The movement of the chuck and spindle is by a lever working on a rack and pinion, which gives the operator considerable mechanical advantage.
The table allows a vice or clamp to position and lock the work in place making the operation much more secure. The angle of the spindle is fixed in relation to the table, allowing holes to be drilled accurately and repetitively.
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Speed change is achieved by manually moving a belt across a stepped pulley arrangement. Some drill presses add a third stepped pulley to increase the speed range. Modern drill presses can, however, use a variable-speed motor in conjunction with the stepped-pulley system; a few older drill presses, on the other hand, have a sort of tractionbased continuously variable transmission for wide ranges of chuck speeds instead, which can be changed while the machine is running. Drill presses are often used for miscellaneous workshop tasks such as sanding, honing or polishing, by mounting sanding drums, honing wheels and various other rotating accessories in the chuck. This can be dangerous on many presses, where the chuck arbor is held in the spindle purely by the friction of a Morse taper instead of being held securely by a drawbar.
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Geared head drill : The geared head drill is identical to the drill press in most respects, however they are generally of sturdier construction and often have power feed installed on the quill mechanism, and safety interlocks to disengage the feed on overtravel. The most important difference is the drive mechanism between motor and quill is through a gear train (there are no vee belts to tension). This makes these drills suitable for use with larger drill bits. Radial arm drill : A radial arm drill is a geared head drill that can be moved away from its column along an arm that is radiates from the column. These drills are used for larger work where a geared head drill would be limited by its reach, the arm can swivel around the column so that any point on the surface of the table can be reached without moving the work piece. The size of work that these drills can handle is considerable as the arm can swivel out of the tables area allowing an overhead crane to place the workpiece on the fixed table. Vises may be used with these machines but the work is typically bolted to the table or a fixture. Mill drill : Mill drills are a lighter alternative to a milling machine. They combine a drill press (belt driven) with the X/Y coordinate abilities of the milling machine's table and a locking collet that ensures that the cutting tool will not fall from the spindle when lateral forces are experienced against the bit. Although they are light in construction, they have the advantages of being space-saving and versatile as well as inexpensive, being suitable for light machining that may otherwise not be affordable.
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accuracy of the diameter of a hole, and can be used to cut a tapered hole.
The boring process can be carried out on a lathe for smaller operations, but for larger production pieces a special boring mill (work piece rotation around a vertical axis) or a horizontal boring machine (rotation around horizontal axis) are used. The dimensions
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between the piece and the tool bit can be changed about two axes to cut both along and into the internal surface. A tapered hole can also be made by swiveling the head. The boring machines (similar to the milling machines such as the classic Van Norman) come in a large variety of sizes and styles. Work piece diameters are commonly 1-4m (312 ft) but can be as large as 20m (60ft). Power requirements can be as much as 200 hp. The control systems can be computer-based, allowing for automation and increased consistency. Because boring is meant to decrease the product tolerances on pre-existing holes, several design considerations must be made. First, large length-to-bore-diameters are not preferred due to cutting tool deflection. Next, through holes are preferred over blind holes (holes that do not traverse the thickness of the work piece). Interrupted internal working surfaceswhere the cutting tool and surface have discontinuous contactshould be avoided. The boring bar is the protruding arm of the machine that holds cutting tool(s), and must be very rigid.
other materials, with the aid of coated abrasives. Sanding is the machining of wood; grinding is the common name for machining metals. Belt grinding is a versatile process suitable for all kind of applications like finishing, deburring, and stock removal
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and finishing operations and is secured to a workbench. It is used for shaping tool bits or various tools that need to be made or repaired. Bench grinders are manually operated.
3. Cylindrical grinder : It includes the centerless grinder. A cylindrical grinder may
have multiple grinding wheels. The workpiece is rotated and fed past the wheel/s to form a cylinder. It is used to make precision rods.
4. Surface grinder : It includes the wash grinder. A surface grinder has a "head"
which is lowered, and the workpiece is moved back and forth past the grinding wheel on a table that has a permanent magnet for use with magnetic stock. Surface grinders can be manually operated or have CNC controls.
5. Tool and Cutter grinder and the D-bit grinder : These usually can perform the
minor function of the drill bit grinder, or other specialist toolroom grinding operations.
6. Jig grinder : It as the name implies, has a variety of uses when finishing jigs,
dies, and fixtures. Its primary function is in the realm of grinding holes and pins. It can also be used for complex surface grinding to finish work started on a mill.
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Control system Column Cross travel Head stock vertical travel Ram travel Spindle travel Table size Longitudinal travel
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Keichan & Bed Cross Rail Drilling, Boring & Tapering Machine (20/A/12)
Speed Feed Table dimension Loading capacity Longitudinal traverse Vertical traverse 2.5 to 500 rpm 0.21 to 2.11 m/rev 3050 * 3050 mm 6 tonne 3050 m 1219 mm
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Speed of vertical traverse of spindle A. Main boring and milling spindle B. High speed spindle Feed Boring spindle traverse Horizontal traverse of column on bed Full bed length 3.5 to 500 rpm 65 to 2200 rpm 0.64 to 1700 mm 3000 mm 27600 mm 40800 mm
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8.2 Products
Steam turbine rotor Steam turbine assembly Butterfly valve Fixed blades Marine Turbine Rotor
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Bar type Brazed type Free standing (Forged type) Gas turbine compressor blades
The bar type and brazed type blades are also known as drum stage blades.
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Compressor Blade Sermental Coated Compressor Blade O Stage Gas Turbine Compressor Blade T-2 Blade T-4 Blade 3DS Blade Brazed Blade Russian Design Blades Z-Shroud Blade Twisted Blade Present Range of Blades
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S. No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
Process/ Operation
Blanking of area material Sizing to rectangular shape Thickness grinding Rhomboid milling Rhomboid grinding Milling perpendicularity on both ends Milling radius on surround Finish milling of convex and concave profile Milling expansion faces of convex and concave sides at root and
10.
shroud Root slot/ root chamfer and radii at root and shroud milling
Taper grinding Grinding and polishing of profile and expansion faces Final rounding, chamfering, etc.
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S. No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Process/ Operation
Cutting of drawn profile & spacer blank Sizing to rectangular shape Thickness grinding Rough and finish milling of internal profile of spacer Cutting-off spacer Brazing of drawn profile and spacer Milling of width Pin rough and root slot External profile rough and finish machining Pin turning Grinding and polishing Deburring and rounding
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S. No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.
Process/ Operation
Grinding of reference belts Milling of inlet and outer edge Center hole drilling Encapsulating with Cerro bend alloy Remelting of Cerro bend alloy Remelting of Cerro bend alloy Machining of fillets Grinding and polishing Cutting-off blade tip Inlet edge hardening Blade tip rounding Tip thinning (if required)
S. No.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Process/ Operation
Cerro bend casting Root machining Remelting of Cerro bend alloy Profile checking Length cutting Tenon Grinding and polishing of fillet