Theory Manual Volume 2

Theory Manual Volume 2
LUSAS Version 14 : Issue 2
LUSAS Forge House, 66 High Street, Kingston upon Thames, Surrey, KT1 1HN, United Kingdom Tel: +44 (0)20 8541 1999 Fax +44 (0)20 8549 9399 Email: info@lusas.com http://www.lusas.com Distributors Worldwide
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
7 Element Formulations .................................................................................1 7.1 Bar Elements (BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3) ........................................... 1 7.1.1 Formulation.......................................................................................1 7.1.2 Evaluation and Output of Stresses/Forces....................................... 1 7.1.3 Nonlinear Formulation ......................................................................2 7.2 Beam Elements.......................................................................................7 7.2.1 2-D Straight Beam (BEAM) ............................................................10 7.2.2 2-D Straight Grillage (GRIL) ...........................................................12 7.2.3 2-D Ribbed Plate Beam (BRP2).....................................................14 7.2.4 3-D Straight Beam (BMS3).............................................................17 7.2.5 2-D Curved Thin Beam (BM3, BMX3) ............................................21 7.2.6 3-D Curved Thin Beam (BS3, BS4, BSX4) ....................................29 7.2.7 Semiloof Thin Beam (BSL3, BSL4, BXL4) .....................................37 7.2.8 3-D Straight Beam (BTS3)..............................................................45 7.3 Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements................................................55 7.3.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements ..................................................55 7.3.2 Enhanced Strain Elements (QPM4M, QPN4M, QAX4M)...............66 7.3.3 Incompatible Plane Membrane Element (PMI4).............................73 7.3.4 2D Explicit Dynamics Elements......................................................76 7.3.5 Two Phase Plane Strain Continuum Elements (TPN6P and QPN8P) ...................................................................................................87 7.3.6 Large-strain Mixed-type Elements (QPN4L, QAX4L).....................90 7.4 Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements .............................................95 7.4.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements (HX8, HX16, HX20, PN6, PN12, PN15, TH4, TH10)...................................................................................95 7.4.2 Enhanced Strain Element (HX8M) ...............................................102 7.4.3 3D Explicit Dynamics Elements (HX8E, PN6E, TH4E) ................ 105 7.4.4 Composite Solid Elements (HX8L,HX16L,PN6L PN12L).............113 7.4.5 Two Phase 3D Continuum Elements (TH10P, PN12P, PN15P, HX16P and HX20P)...............................................................................118 7.5 Space Membrane Elements................................................................122 7.5.1 Axisymmetric Membrane (BXM2, BXM3).....................................122 7.5.2 3-D Space Membrane (SMI4, TSM3)...........................................126 7.6 Plate Elements ....................................................................................128 7.6.1 Isoflex Thin Plate (QF4, QF8, TF3, TF6)......................................128 7.6.2 Isoflex Thick Plate (QSC4) ...........................................................135 7.6.3 Isoparametric Thick Mindlin Plate (QTF8, TTF6) .........................139 7.6.4 Ribbed Plate (RPI4, TRP3) ..........................................................144 7.7 Shell Elements ....................................................................................148 7.7.1 Axisymmetric Thin Shell (BXS3) ..................................................148 7.7.2 Flat Thin Shell (QSI4, TS3) ..........................................................155 7.7.3 Flat Thin Shell Box (SHI4) ............................................................159
Table of Contents 7.7.4 Semiloof Thin Shell (QSL8, TSL6) ...............................................163 7.7.5 Thick Shells (TTS3, TTS6, QTS4, QTS8) ....................................176 7.8 Field Elements.....................................................................................189 7.8.1 Thermal Bar (BFD2, BFD3) ..........................................................189 7.8.2 Thermal Axisymmetric Bar (BFX2, BFX3) ....................................191 7.8.3 Thermal Link (LFD2, LFS2, LFX2) ...............................................192 7.8.4 Plane Field (QFD4, QFD8, TFD3, TFD6) .....................................194 7.8.5 Axisymmetric Field (QXF4, QXF8, TXF3, TXF6) .........................198 7.8.6 Solid Field (HF8, HF16, HF20, PF6, PF12, PF15, TF4, TF10) ....200 7.8.7 Solid Composite Field (HF8C, HF16C, PF6C, PF12C)................204 7.9 Joint Elements.....................................................................................208 7.9.1 Joints (JNT3, JPH3, JF3, JRP3, JNT4, JL43, JSH4, JL46, JSL4, JAX3, JXS3) ..........................................................................................208 7.9.2 Evaluation of Stresses/Forces......................................................209 7.9.3 Nonlinear Formulation ..................................................................209 7.9.4 Use of Joints With Higher Order Elements...................................212 7.10 Fourier Element Formulation (TAX3F, QAX4F, TAX6F, QAX8F) .....215 7.10.1 Global and Local Coordinate Systems .......................................215 7.10.2 Standard Isoparametric Elements ..............................................215 7.10.3 Strain-Displacement Relationships.............................................217 7.10.4 Constitutive Relationships ..........................................................218 7.10.5 Element Loading.........................................................................219 7.10.6 Inertial Loading ...........................................................................221 7.10.7 Evaluation of Stresses ................................................................225 7.11 Interface Elements (INT6, INT16) .....................................................225 7.11.1 Definition and interpolation .........................................................225 7.11.2 Internal force vector and stiffness matrix....................................226 Appendix A ..................................................................................................229 Quadrature Rules ......................................................................................229 Appendix B ..................................................................................................239 Restrictions On Element Topology............................................................239 Mid-Length and Mid-Side Nodes ...........................................................239 Warping of Flat Elements ......................................................................239 References...................................................................................................241
ii
Notation
Notation
Standard matrix notation is used whenever possible throughout this manual and the expressions are defined as follows: Basic Expressions Vector Matrix or second order tensor Fourth order tensor
:
Matrix scalar product Determinant of a matrix Norm of a vector Trace of a matrix Transpose of a vector of matrix Inverse of a matrix Variation Virtual variation Rate Increment Summation
| |
|| ||
bg bg bg db g b g ej b g b g
tr
T 1
diag , Diagonal matrix with terms given

<,>
Orthogonality condition Variables defined in local axes
ej
iii
Theory Manual 2 Subscripts cr g i max n o t x x,y,z X,Y,Z Z ,x Superscripts i l t

t + t
Critical value Ground displacements, velocities and accelerations Component i Maximum value Normal component in slideline analyses Initial components (initial strains) Thermal components (thermal strains) Tangential component in slideline analyses Components in the local x,y,z Cartesian system Components in the global X,Y,Z Cartesian system Zienkiewicz constants Differentiation with respect to x (or other variable) Iteration I Local quantities (co-rotational for continuum elements) Values at time t Values at time t+t Rayleigh damping coefficient (multiplies mass matrix M) Bulk modulus Rayleigh damping coefficient (multiplies stiffness matrix K) neo-Hookean constant
Scalars
aR
B
bR C0
C1 , C2 Mooney-Rivlin constants c c
Da
Cohesion in friction based material models Wave speed Maximum distance between two adjacent contact nodes
iv
Notation E
fi
Youngs Modulus Slideline interface force on contact node i Yield surface Initial gap for nonlinear joint models Shear Modulus Fracture energy in concrete model Transfer coefficient in field analysis First stress invariant Strain invariants Modified strain invariants Volume ratio (det F ) Second deviatoric stress invariant Third deviatoric stress invariant Interface stiffness coefficient Bulk modulus Thermal conductivity Spring stiffness when in contact for nonlinear joint models Spring stiffness after liftoff for nonlinear joint models Length of local contact segment Initial chord length of beam element Current chord length of beam element Moment Stress resultant Number of required eigenvalues Participation factor in spectral response analysis Axial force
F g G
Gf
h I1 I1,I2,I3
I1, I 2
J J2 J3 k k K
Kc K1
l
lo ln
M N p P P
Theory Manual 2 q q Q
Q hg
Field variable flux in field analysis Number of starting iteration vectors for subspace iteration Rate of internal heat generation in field analysis Hourglass constant Constants for shock wave smoothing Contact zone radius Spectral displacement in special response analysis Spectral velocity in spectral response analysis Spectral acceleration in spectral response analysis Thickness of local contact segment Period of oscillation for transient and dynamic analysis Temperature in structural applications Torque Axial stretch Element volume Crack width in concrete model Work Normal penetration distance Radial overlap constant Coefficient of thermal expansion Softening Parameter in concrete model Constant used in dynamic recurrence algorithms Constant used in dynamic recurrence algorithms Shear retention factor in concrete model Constant used in dynamic recurrence algorithms Displacement norm used for convergence
Q1,Q2
rz
Sd Sv Sa t T T T
u
V w W X

vi
Notation
w 1 2 i
Residual norm used for convergence Work norm used for convergence Root mean square of residuals convergence criterion Maximum absolute residual convergence criterion Error estimate in subspace iteration Step length multiplier for line search Lodes Angle Angle between old and new displacement vector in arch-length method Angle of orthotropy Angle defining crack directions in concrete model Local slope at a node Strain hardening parameter Load factor Plastic strain rate multiplier Eigenvalue (ith) Principal stretches Eigenvalue shift in subspace iteraction Friction coefficient Ogden constants Poissons ratio Modal Damping ratio Model coefficient for CQC combination in spectral response analysis Mass density Effective stress
e e e e
e
i i p,p

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Theory Manual 2

Interface stiffness scale factor Friction angle in friction based models Structural damping in harmonic response analysis Field variable in field analysis Potential energy Circular frequency in transient and dynamic analysis Circular frequency of load in harmonic response analysis Local spin at the centroid Nodal displacement vector Unit vectors forming the co-rotated base axes Green-Lagrange strain vector Vector of master slideline surface forces Vector of nodal body forces

Vectors
a ei E f f
g , g , g Covariant base vectors Mm n P

P
Vector of master slideline surface mass Vector of unit segment normal Global internal force vector Local internal force vector Euler parameters External force vector Unit vectors defining the beam cross section at a gauss point Deviatoric Cauchy stress Second Piola-Kirchhoff stress vector Vector of surface tractions
~ q R ri s S t
viii
Notation
ti , q x Y
Unit vectors defining the beam cross section at a node Vector of unit segment tangent Generalised displacement vector in spectral response analysis Logarithmic strain vector Displacement gradient vector (geometric nonlinearity) Unscaled pseudovector (co-rotational formulation - section 3.5.1) Pseudovector of rotation Lagrangian multiplier vector Incompatible modes for enhanced elements Cauchy stress vector Jaumann variation of Cauchy stress Eigenvector Residual force vector Local spin at the centroid
i d J i , i
1
Matrices/Tensors A Matrix of slopes

B
Strain-displacement matrix Linear strain-displacement matrix Displacement dependent strain-displacement matrix Damping matrix in dynamic analysis Matrix of constrain constants Green deformation tensor Compliance matrix of material moduli
B B
C C C C
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Theory Manual 2
D D F G K
Rate of deformation tensor Material modulus matrix Deformation gradient matrix Matrix of shape functions Stiffness matrix
T
K K
Tangent stiffness matrix Stress stiffness matrix Mass matrix Shape function array
M N
N Q
R
Principal directions of the Lagragian triad Vector of constraint constants Rotation tensor Skew symmetric matrix of the vector Matrix containing Second Piola-Kirchoff stresses Transformation matrix for co-rotational formulation Right stretch tensor Angular acceleration tensor Matrix of eigenvalues Local engineering strain tensor Density matrix Matrix containing Cauchy stresses Matrix containing Cauchy stresses
S
$ S T U

af
$ $ $
Notation

Biot stress tensor Matrix of eigenvectors Kirchhoff stress tensor Angular velocity tensor
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Theory Manual 2
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Bar Elements (BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3)
7 Element Formulations
This section of the Theory Manual covers the basic theoretical assumptions made for each element formulation. Appropriate references are included when full details of the element derivation are not provided.
7.1 Bar Elements (BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3)

7.1.1 Formulation
The bar elements are 2-node and 3-node isoparametric elements that can only transmit longitudinal force (fig.7.1-1). The nodal variables are:BAR2 and BAR3 U and V BRS2 and BRS3 U, V and W The element strain-displacement relationship and thermal strain vector are defined in the local Cartesian system as
x = u x
and
b g = T
o t
The elastic constitutive relationship is defined as

x = E x
A complete description of the element stiffness formulation is given in [B1]. The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7).
7.1.2 Evaluation and Output of Stresses/Forces

The element output can be obtained at both the element nodes and Gauss points and consists of
Fx - the axial force, (tension +ve)
x - the axial strain. (tension +ve)
Element Formulations The forces and strains are output in the local element coordinate system defined by BAR2 and BAR3 elements The element local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified (fig.7.1-3). The local y and z axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis such that the y-axis lies in the global XY-plane and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page). BRS2 and BRS3 elements The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified (for a curved element it is tangent to the curve at the point concerned). For a curved element the local xy-plane is defined by the element nodes (fig.7.1-4). Local y is perpendicular to local x and +ve on the convex side of the element. For a straight element parallel to the global x-axis, the local z-axis is defined by the unit vector z = j x x where j is a unit vector defining the Global Y-axis and x is a unit vector defining the local x-axis (fig.7.1-4). For a straight element not parallel to the global x-axis, the local z-axis is defined by the unit vector z = i x x where i is a unit vector defining the global X-axis (fig.7.1-4). The local y-axis forms a right-hand set with the local x and z-axes for all three cases.
7.1.3 Nonlinear Formulation

The bar elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear eigen-buckling analysis. Note. The geometric nonlinearity is a Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by BAR2 and BAR3
x = u 1 u + x 2 x
LM OP N Q
1 v 2 x
LM OP N Q
BRS2 and BRS3 2

x = u 1 u + x 2 x
LM OP N Q
1 v 2 x
LM OP N Q
1 w 2 x
LM OP N Q
with reference to the local x-axis. The forces and strains output with the geometrically nonlinear analysis will be the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff forces and Green-Lagrange strains respectively, referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
Y BAR2 2 V V 1 U V 1 U 2 U 3 U BAR3 X V V U
(a) 2-D Bar Elements
Y BRS2 W V U 1 W V W U V
V U 2 V 3 W 2 U BRS3 X U
1 W Z
(b) 3-D Bar Elements
Element Formulations Fig.7.1-1 Nodal Freedoms For BAR Elements

Struts represented with BAR2 elements
Pressure
Continuum elements 2-D Roof Truss Excavation Supports
Fig.7.1-2 Examples Illustrating Use Of BAR Elements

2 Y y 1 x 1 2 x y y x 3
Fig 7.1-3 Local Cartesian System For BAR2 And BAR3 Elements

Y x-y plane y y x y z 1 X x 3 z 2 z x
Z (a) Curved Element
Y z x 1 y 2 y X
z x
Z (b) Straight Element Parrallel With Global X-axis y 2 z y x 1 z X
Z (c) Arbitrarily Orientated Straight Element
Fig. 7.1-4 Local Cartesian System For BRS2 And BRS3 Elements
Element Formulations
Beam Elements
7.2 Beam Elements

The family of explicit straight beams are derived by restraining various degrees-offreedom of the full 3D beam. The stiffness and mass matrices of these reduced elements may be obtained by deleting the appropriate rows and columns of the full stiffness and mass matrices. The nodal forces/moments and degrees of freedom (in local coordinates) for the 3D beam are
F T = Px1, Py1, Pz1, M x1, M y1, M z1, Px 2 , Py 2 , Pz 2 , M x 2 , M y 2 , M z 2 a T = u1, v1, w1, x1, y1, z1, u 2 , v2 , w 2 , x 2 , y 2 , z 2
The corresponding stiffness and mass matrices are Element stiffness matrix
K=
LMK MNK
11
12
K 21 K
22
OP PQ
OP PP PP PP PP PP b4 + gEI PP Lb1 + g d4 + iEI PP 0 Ld1 + i P Q
Symmetric
z y z y z y
where submatrices are defined:
11
LM EA MM L MM 0 MM 0 =M MM 0 MM 0 MM MM 0 N
L3 1 + y 0 0 0
12 EI z
12 EI y L 1 + z 0 6 EI y L 1 + z
2 3
g g
GJ L 0 0
L2 1 + y
6 EI z
22
L 1 + y 0 0 0 6 EI z
12 EI z
12 EI y L3 1 + z 0 L2 1 + z 6 EI y
g g
GJ L 0 0
L 1 + y
i
0
OP PP PP PP PP PP b4 + gEI PP Lb1 + g d4 + iEI PP 0 Ld1 + i P Q

Symmetric
z y z y z y
12
KT 21
0 0
L 1 + y 0 0 0
12 EI z
0 12 EI y L3 1 + z 0 6 EI y L2 1 + z
g g
0 GJ L 0 0
L2 1 + y
6 EI z
i
12 EI y
OP PP 6 EI 0 L d1 + i P PP 6 EI 0 PP L b1 + g PP 0 0 PP b2 gEI 0 Lb1 + g P d2 iEI PP 0 Ld1 + i P Q

0 0
2 z y y 2 z z y z y z y
and where
y =
12 EI z GAs y L2
and
z =
GAs z L2
As y and As z are the cross-sectional areas effective in shear about the respective
bending axis. Element mass matrix

M = AL
LMM NMM
11
12
M 21 M
22
OP QP
where submatrices are defined
Beam Elements
11
LM 1 3 MM 0 MM M0 =M MM 0 MM 0 MM MN 0 LM 1 3 MM 0 MM MM 0 = MM 0 MM 0 MM MN 0
13 6I z + 35 5AL2 0 0 0 11L I + z 210 10 AL
6I y 13 + 35 5AL2 0 Iy 11L 210 10 AL 0
Jx 3A 0 0
2I y L2 + 105 15A 0
OP PP PP PP PP PP P 2I P L + 105 15A P Q
Symmetric
2 z
13 6I z + 35 5AL2 0 0 0 11L I z 210 10 AL
22
6I y 13 + 35 5AL2 0 Iy 11L + 210 10 AL 0
Jx 3A 0 0
2I y L2 + 105 15A 0
OP PP PP PP PP PP P 2I P L + 105 15A P Q
Symmetric
2 z
21
= MT
12
LM 1 MM 6 MM 0 MM 0 MM 0 MM 0 MM MN 0
0 9 6I z 70 5AL2 0 0 0 13L I + z 420 10 AL
0 0 6I y 9 70 5AL2 0 Iy 13L 420 10 AL 0
0 0 0 Jx 6A 0 0
0 0 Iy 13L + 420 10 AL 0 Iy L 140 30 A 0

2
OP I P 13L P 420 10 AL P PP 0 PP 0 PP 0 PP L I P 140 30 A P Q

0
z 2 z
The lumped mass matrix contains terms only the following terms,
M 11 = ,
a f
AL 2
M 2,2 =
a f
AL 2
M 3,3 =
a f
AL 2
M 4,4 =
a f
J x L 2
M 5,5 =
a f
I y L 2
M 6,6 =
a f
I z L 2
7.2.1 2-D Straight Beam (BEAM)

Formulation This element is a 2-D, 2-noded straight beam formulated by superimposing the bending, shear and axial behaviour derived directly from the differential equations for beam displacements, used in engineering beam theory. The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.2.1-1) U, V and z at each node The displacement variations along the length of the beam are linear axial, linear rotation and cubic transverse displacements. The stress resultant variations are constant axial force, linear moments and linear shear forces. The nodal forces due to the thermal strains are assumed to be constant within each element, and are evaluated explicitly using
R U R F U = | EAaLTfO | SM V SEI M T P V T W | N dy Q | T W
e x e z zz
where ( T )e and ( T dz)e are average element values. See [P1] for further element details. Evaluation of stresses/forces The element output obtained at the nodes consists of
Fx , Fy and M z - +ve forces and moments are in the directions of the positive local Cartesian system.
The forces are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined as having its local x-axis along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page) (fig.7.2.1-3). The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using
F = Ka
in the local Cartesian system.
10
Beam Elements The local Cartesian forces may also be output at eleven equally spaced points along the beam. These values are evaluated by combining the nodal values with the local element forces and moments calculated explicitly. Nonlinear formulation The element does not possess any nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The element cannot be employed for linear buckling analyses.
Y
V z U U 2
V z 1
Fig.7.2.1-1 Nodal Freedoms For BEAM Element

Load Load
Cantilever Beam
Plane Frame
Fig.7.2.1-2 Examples Illustrating Use Of Beam Elements
11
Y y x 1 2
Fig.7.2.1-3 Local Cartesian System For BEAM Element
7.2.2 2-D Straight Grillage (GRIL)

Formulation This element is a 2-D, 2-noded straight beam formulated by superimposing the bending, shear, and torsional behaviour derived directly from the differential equations for beam displacements used in engineering beam theory. The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.2.2-1)
W, x and y
The displacement variations along the length of the beam are linear axial, linear rotation and cubic transverse displacements. The stress resultant variations are constant axial, and linear moment and linear shear. The nodal forces due to the thermal strains are assumed to be constant within each element, and are evaluated explicitly using
M y = EI yy
LM T OP N dz Q
where ( T dz)e is the average element value. See [P1] for further element details. Evaluation of stresses/forces The element output obtained at the nodes consists of
Fz , M x and M y +ve forces and moments are in the directions of the positive local Cartesian system.
12
Beam Elements The forces are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined as having its local x-axis along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page) (fig.7.2.2-3). The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using
F = Ka
in the local Cartesian system. The local Cartesian forces may also be output at eleven equally spaced points along the bar. These values are evaluated by combining the nodal values with the local element forces and moments calculated explicitly. Nonlinear formulation The element does not possess any nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The element cannot be employed for linear buckling analyses.
Y
y y w Z 1 x x
Fig.7.2.2-1 Nodal Freedoms For GRIL Element
13
Z Y X Point Load
X Problem Defintion Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.2.2-2 Example Illustrating Use Of GRIL Elements

Y
y x 2
1 X
Fig.7.2.2-3 Local Cartesian System For GRIL Element
7.2.3 2-D Ribbed Plate Beam (BRP2)

Formulation This element is a 2-D, 2-noded, straight eccentric beam formulated by superimposing the bending, shear, torsional and axial behaviour derived directly from the differential equations for beam displacements used in engineering beam theory. The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.2.3-1)
U, V, W, X and Y at each node
The displacement variations along the length of the beam are linear axial, linear rotation and cubic transverse displacements. The stress resultant variations are constant axial, linear moment and linear shear. The nodal forces due to the thermal strains are assumed to be constant within each element, and are evaluated explicitly using
14
Beam Elements
R F U = R EAaTTf U SM V |EI L O | T W S MN dz PQ V | | T W
e x e y yy
where (T) and (T/dy) are average element values. See [P1] for further element details. Evaluation of stresses/forces The element output obtained at the nodes consists of
Fx , Fy , Fz , M x , M y +ve forces and moments are in the directions of the positive
local cartesian system. The forces are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined as having its local x-axis along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in the global XY-plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page) (fig.7.2.3-3). The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using
F = Ka
in the local Cartesian system. The local Cartesian forces may also be output at eleven equally spaced points along the beam. These values are evaluated by combining the nodal values with the local element forces and moments calculated explicitly. Nonlinear formulation The element does not possess any nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The element cannot be employed for linear buckling analysis.
15
Y V
y U 2 x
y 1 U x
W Z
Fig.7.2.3-1 Nodal Freedoms For BRP2 Element
RPI4 elements
Z Y X
BRP2 elements X Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.2.3-2 Ribbed Plate Illustrating Use Of BRP2 Element
16
Beam Elements
y x 2
1 X
Fig.7.2.3-3 Local Cartesian System For BRP2 Element
7.2.4 3-D Straight Beam (BMS3)

Formulation This element is a 3-D two noded straight beam formulated by superimposing the bending, shear, torsional and axial behaviour derived directly from the differential equations for beam displacements used in engineering beam theory. The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.2.4-1)
U, V, W, X , Y and Z at each node
The displacement variations along the length of the beam are linear axial, linear rotation and cubic transverse displacements. The stress resultant variations are constant axial, constant torsion and linear moment and linear shear. The nodal forces due to the thermal strains are assumed to be constant within each element, and are evaluated explicitly using
R | EAaTf U | R F U | L T O | |M | = |EI | S V S MN dz PQ V |M | | T W | L T O | |EI MN dy PQ | | | | T W

e x e y z yy e zz
where ( T )e and ( T dz)e are average element values. See [P1] for further element details.
17
Element Formulations Evaluation of stresses/forces The element output obtained at the nodes consists of
Fx , Fy , Fz
Forces in the local Cartesian system.
M x , M y , M z Moments in the local Cartesian system.
The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-plane is defined by the third element node and the element x-axis. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.4-3). The nodal forces F are evaluated directly using
F = Ka
in the local Cartesian system. The local Cartesian forces may also be output at eleven equally spaced points along the bar. These values are evaluated by combining the nodal values with the local element forces and moments calculated explicitly. Nonlinear formulation The element does not possess any nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The element cannot be utilised for linear buckling analysis.
Y Y V Y 1 W Z U X X Z W 2 Z X
Fig.7.2.4-1 Nodal Freedoms For BMS3 Element
18
Beam Elements
3 y x 2
X Z
Fig.7.2.4-2 Local Cartesian System For BMS3 Element
19
(a) 3-D Frame Structure
(a) 3-D Frame Structure
Fig.7.2.4-3 Examples Illustrating The Use Of BMS3 Elements
20
Beam Elements
7.2.5 2-D Curved Thin Beam (BM3, BMX3)

Formulation The BM3 and BMX3 elements are thin, curved, non-conforming beam elements formulated using the constraint technique. The global displacements and rotations are initially quadratic and are interpolated independently using linear Lagrangian shape functions for the end nodes and a hierarchical quadratic function for the central node. Therefore, the initial degrees of freedom are (fig.7.2.5-1) U, V, j u, v, j at the end nodes at the mid-length node.
The Kirchhoff condition of zero shear strain is applied at the two integration points, by forcing
v u v + = z = 0 x z x
and eliminating the local transverse translational and rotational degrees of freedom at the central node. The final degrees of freedom for the element are (fig.7.2.5-1)
U, V, z
at the end nodes,
at the mid-length node
where u is the local axial relative (departure from linearity) displacement. The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined in the local system as
x = u x
2 v x 2
Cartesian
z =
The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus) and modulus matrices are defined as Explicit Numerically Integrated
EA $ D= EI z D=
LM N
EI z EI zz
z LMN
h
OP Q OP Q
Eb Eyb dy Eyb Ey 2 b
The thermal strain vector is defined as
21
R U | | T | | e j = S d T | a f L + T d OV | | dy MN dT P W Q| T
0 t
A complete description of the element formulation is given in [M1,S1]. The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). Evaluation of stresses/forces The element output obtained at the nodes or Gauss points consists of
Fx Mz ex z
- axial force (+ve tension) - moment - axial strain - flexural strain
The forces and strains are output in the local x-axis which lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page) (fig.7.2.5-6). Note. The moments are +ve for tension in the top fibre of the element (hogging). The the fibre lies on the +ve local y side of the element. Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points. Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points. Three options for interpreting the forces and moments within an element are available The axial force and moment are computed at the two Gauss points using numerical integration. The true nodal moments for a beam element between supports is then obtained by adding the fixed end moments to the end node values, and the sagging moment to the mid-node value (fig.7.2.5-7). This is the default technique and must be used for nonlinear analyses. The axial force and moment are computed at the two end nodes by using
F end = T T Ka
where T is the global-local transformation matrix. The values at the centre point are then interpolated from these end values and the values at the Gauss points assuming a cubic variation (fig.7.2.5-7). This method can only be used for linear analyses and is invoked via OPTION 136.
22
Beam Elements This method is similar to (b) except that the stress resultants at the centre node are also computed by considering equilibrium and is invoked via OPTION 137. Nonlinear formulation The beam elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Nonlinear dynamics utilizing the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
BM3 and BMX3 may be used in conjunction with the stress resultant plasticity model (section 4.2). BMX3 may be used with the concrete model and continuum-based plasticity models (section 4.2). The geometric nonlinearity may be either A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by
x = u 1 u + x 2 x
LM OP N Q
1 v 2 x
LM OP N Q
z =
2 v u 2 v v 2 u + x 2 x x 2 x x 2
with reference to the local element x-axis. The force and strain output with the geometrically nonlinear analysis will be the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stress resultants and Green-Lagrange strains respectively, referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative. An Updated Lagrangian formulation takes account of large displacements and large rotations but small strains, provided that the rotations are small within a load increment. The output approximates to the true Cauchy stress resultants and logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-conservative. The initial assumptions used in deriving the BM3 and BMX3 elements limit the rotations to one radian in a Total Lagrangian analysis and rotation increments of one radian in an Updated Lagrangian analysis (section 3.5). The BMX3 elements are valid for rotations (TL) or rotation increments (UL) greater than one radian. As rotations become large, u / x may no longer be interpreted as axial strain. The axial force distribution from a simple problem is given in fig.7.2.5-8.
23
V Z U V Z 2 3 U U Z
U 3
Y Z
Y Z U
X Initial Variables
X Final Variables
Fig.7.2.5-1 Nodal Freedoms For BM3 And BMX3 Elements

Quadrature Points
Quadrature points coincide with frame joints
Fig.7.2.5-2 Portal Frame Showing Locations Of Quadrature Points With A 3-Point Newton-Cotes Rule
24
Beam Elements
Y 2 3
4 Z
Fig.7.2.5-3 Local Cartesian Axes For Cross-Section

Y
Element 1 or Quadrilateral 1
2 1 2 3
3 4
2 1
3 4
Fig.7.2.5-4 Cross-Section Of I-Beam Represented By Superimposing Three BMX3 Elements Or By Defining Three Quadrilaterals
25
Y Y
3-Point Newton-Coates
5-Point Newton-Coates
Fig.7.2.5-5 Quadrature Rules For Cross-Section Integration

Y y 2 x y 1 X x y x 3
Fig.7.2.5-6 Local Cartesian System For BM3 And BMX3 Elements
26
Beam Elements
UDL
Support
True moment distribution LUSAS + fixed end moments wl/12
wl/24
wl/12 Values evaluated at Gauss points and extapolated to nodes
(a) Adding Fixed End Moments
Nodal values computed directly from F = K a Gauss points values
(b) Cubic Fit Through Gauss and Nodal Values
Nodal values computed directly from F = K a
Mid-point moment evaluated using equilibrium (c) Quadratic Fit Through Nodal and Mid-length Values
Fig.7.2.5-7 Interpretation Of Results Obtained Using BM3 And BMX3 Elements
27
Load
(a) Problem Definition BM3
Axial Force
(b) Axial Force Distribution
Fig.7.2.5-8 Axial Force Distributions Obtained For A Geometrically Nonlinear Analysis Of A Cantilever Beam
28
Beam Elements
7.2.6 3-D Curved Thin Beam (BS3, BS4, BSX4)

Formulation The BS3, BS4, and BSX4 elements are 3-D thin, curved, non-conforming beam elements formulated using the constraint technique. The global displacements and rotations are initially quadratic and are independently interpolated using linear Lagrangian shape functions for the end nodes and a hierarchical quadratic function for the central node. This provides C(0) continuity of the in-plane displacement. The initial freedoms are (fig.7.2.6-1)
U, V, W, X , Y , Z U, V, W, X , Y , Z
at the end nodes at the mid-side node
The Kirchhoff condition of zero shear strain is applied at the two integration points, by forcing
v u v + = z = 0 x y x
w u w + = + y = 0 x z x
and eliminating the local transverse translational and bending rotational freedoms at the central node. The final degrees of freedom for the element are (fig.7.2.6-1)
U, V, W, X , Y , Z u and X
at the end nodes at the mid-side node
where u and X are the local relative (departure from linearity) axial displacement and torsional rotation of the central node. The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is
x = u x 2 u x 2 2 v x 2
2 w xy
y = z =
xy =
29
xz = 2w xy
Note. xy + xz = z the total torsional strain The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus) and modulus matrices are defined as Explicit
LM EA MMEI EI $ D=M MM 0 MNM 0 0

y z
EI y EI yy EI yz 0 0 0
EI z EI yz EI zz 0 0 0
0 0 0 GI yy 0 0
0 0 0 0 GI zz 0
0 0 0 0 0 GA
OP PP PP PP QP
Alternatively, if K t has a non-zero value in the element geometric properties data section, the resultant torsional moduli GI yy and GI zz are replaced with GK t / 2 where K t is a torsional constant (typically, for circular cross-sections K t = J , the polar second moment of area). Numerically integrated
$ D=
zz
h b
LM E MMEy MMEz 0 MM 0 MN 0
Ey Ey 2 Eyz 0 0 0
Ez 0 Eyz 0 Ez 2 0 0 Gy 2 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 Gz 2 0
0 0 0 dydz 0 0 G
OP PP PP PP PQ
R daTf T d U | L + T O| | dz MN dT P | | daTf L + T d QO| V e j = S dy M | N dT P | Q| | 0 | | | | 0 T W

0 t
A description of the element formulation is given in [M2]. The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7).
30
Beam Elements Evaluation of stresses/forces The element output obtained at the nodes or Gauss points consists of
Fx My , Mz Ty , Tz x y , z xy , xz
axial force moments torques axial strain flexural strain torsional strain
The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined by BS3 For a curved element the local xy-plane is defined by the three element nodes. Local y is perpendicular to local x and +ve on the convex side of the element. The local y and z-axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (Fig.7.2.6-7a). For a straight element parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given by the unit vector z = j x x (j is a unit vector along the global Y-axis) (fig.7.2.6-7b) For a straight element not parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given the unit vector z = i x x (i is a unit vector along the global X-axis) (fig.7.2.6-7c) The local y-axis forms a right-hand set with the local x and z axes. BS4, BSX4 The local xy-plane is defined by all four element nodes which are assumed to be coplanar. The local y-axis is perpendicular to the local xaxis and +ve on the side of the element where the fourth node lies. The local y and z-axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.6-6) Note. The torques are +ve for anti-clockwise rotations at first node and clockwise rotations at third node. Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points. Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points. Nonlinear formulation The beam elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. 31
Element Formulations Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
BS3, BS4 and BSX4 may be used in conjunction with the stress resultant plasticity model (section 4.2). BSX4 may be used with the concrete model and continuum based plasticity models (section 4.2). All continuum based nonlinear material models do not consider nonlinear torsional effects. The geometric nonlinearity utilises a Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear straindisplacement relationship is defined by
x = u 1 u + x 2 x
LM OP N Q
1 v 2 x
LM OP N Q
y = z =
2 w u 2 w w 2 u w 2 v + + x 2 x x 2 x x 2 y x 2 2 v u 2 v v 2 u w 2 w + x 2 x x 2 x x 2 y x 2 2 w u 2 w w 2 v xy x xy x x 2 2 w u 2 w v 2 v xy x xy x x 2
xz = xy = yz =
v w x x
with reference to the local element x-axis. The force and strain output for a geometrically nonlinear analysis will be 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stress resultants and Green-Lagrange strains respectively, referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative. The initial assumptions in deriving the BS3, BS4 and BSX4 elements limit the rotations to one radian in a Total Lagrangian (TL) analysis, and rotation increments of one radian in an Updated Lagrangian (UL) analysis (Section 3.5).
32
Beam Elements
V Y W V Y 2 Z U X 3 U X W Z V Y 3 U X
V Y Y W Z 1 X Z Z U X Y
V Y 1 X U X
Initial Variables
Final Variables
Fig.7.2.6-1 Nodal Freedoms For BS3, BS4 And BSX4 Elements

Quadrature Points
Quadrature points coincide with frame joints
Fig.7.2.6-2 Portal Frame Showing Locations Of Quadrature Points With A 3-Point Newton-Cotes Rule
33
Y 2 3
4 Z

Y
2 1 2 3
3 4
2 1
3 4
Fig.7.2.6-4 Cross-Section Of An I-Beam Represented By Superimposing Three Bsx4 Elements Or By Defining Three Quadrilaterals
34
Beam Elements
3*3 Newton-Cotes
5*5 Newton-Cotes

Y x y 1 x y X 4 3 x z y
Fig.7.2.6-6 Local Cartesian System For Bs4 And BSX4 Elements
35
Y x-y plane y y x y z 1 X x 3 2 z x
Y z x 1 y X 2 3 y
z x
Z (b) Straight Element Parrallel With Global X-axis y 3 z y x 1 z X 2
Fig.7.2.6-7 Local Cartesian System For The BS3 Element
36
Beam Elements
7.2.7 Semiloof Thin Beam (BSL3, BSL4, BXL4)

Formulation The BSL3,BSL4 and BXL4 elements are 3-D thin, curved beam elements based on the Kirchhoff constraint technique. Their formulation and nodal configuration has been specifically designed to provide an element compatible with the Semiloof shell element QSL8. Initially, the displacements and rotations are interpolated using quadratic and cubic shape functions respectively, where the cubic variation is provided by the rotational degrees of freedoms of the 'loof' nodes, which are located at the quadrature points of the 2 point Gauss rule (fig.7.2.7-1). Unlike the thick beam formulation presented by Irons [I1], the present formulation utilises Kirchhoff constraints of zero shear strain applied at the 2-point Gauss quadrature locations, by forcing
v u v + = z = 0 x y x
w u w + = + y = 0 x z x
which provides four constraint equations and permits elimination of the two flexural degrees of freedoms at these positions. The final degrees of freedom for the element are (fig.7.2.7-1)
U, V, W, X , y , z U, V, W
at nodes 1 and 3 at node 2
and
X
at nodes 4 and 5
Note. The rotations at the 'loof' nodes are local, but are not relative rotations (departures from linearity) as with the other LUSAS beam elements based on Kirchhoff constraints. The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is
x = u x 2 w x 2 2 v x 2
y = z =
37
xy = xz = 2 w xy 2w xy
Note. xy + xz = z the total torsional strain The elastic rigidity (resultant modulus) and modulus matrices are defined as Explicit
LM EA MMEI EI $ D=M MM 0 MM 0 N0
y z
EI y EI yy EI yz 0 0 0
EI z EI yz EI zz 0 0 0
OP PP P 0 0 P GeI + Ae j P 0 Ge I + Ae j 0 P 0 0 GA P Q
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
yy 2 z zz 2 y
Alternatively if K t has a non-zero value in the element geometric properties data section, the resultant torsional moduli
GI yy and GI zz are replaced with GK t / 2 where K t is a torsional constant (typically, for circular cross-sections K t = J ,
the polar second moment of area). Numerically integrated
D=
zz
h b
LM E MME MME0 MM 0 MN 0
Ez 2 Eyz Eyz Ey 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
Ez
Ey
0 0 0 Gz 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 Gy 2 0
OP PP P dydz 0P 0P P GP Q
0 0 0
The thermal strain vector is defined by
LM daTf LT d OP MM dz MN + T dT OPQPP e j = MM dadyTf LM + T d OPPP MM N 0 dT QPP 0 QP NM

0 t
A more detailed description of the element formulation is given in [A1,I1,M1].
38
Beam Elements The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). Evaluation of stresses/forces The element output obtained at the nodes or Gauss points consists of
Fx My , Mz Ty , Tz x y, z xy , xz
axial force moments torques axial strain flexural strain torsional strain
The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system which is defined by
BSL3
For a curved element the local xy-plane is defined by the three element nodes. Local y is perpendicular to local x and +ve on the convex side of the element. The local y and z-axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.7-6a). For a straight element parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given by the unit vector z = j x (j is a unit vector along the global Y-axis) (fig.7.2.7-6b). For a straight element not parallel to the global X-axis, the local z-axis is given the unit vector z = i x (i is a unit vector along the global X-axis) (fig.7.2.7-6c). The local y-axis forms a right-hand set with the local x and z axes.
BSL4
The local xy-plane is defined by all four element nodes which are
BXL4
assumed to be coplanar. The local y-axis is perpendicular to the local x-axis and +ve on the side of the element where the fourth node lies. The local y and z-axis form a right-hand set with the local x-axis (fig.7.2.7-7) Note. The torques are +ve for anti-clockwise rotations at the first node and clockwise rotations at the third node. Force and stress output may be obtained at either the nodes or element Gauss points. Greatest accuracy is obtained at the Gauss points.
39
Element Formulations Nonlinear formulation The beam elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
BSL3, BSL4 and BXL4 may be used in conjunction with the stress resultant plasticity model (section 4.2). BXL4 may be used with the concrete model and continuum based plasticity models (section 4.2). All continuum based nonlinear material models ignore nonlinear torsional effects. The geometric nonlinearity utilises a Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear straindisplacement relationship is defined by
x = u 1 u + x 2 x
LM OP N Q
1 v 2 x
LM OP N Q
y = z =
2 w u 2 w w 2 u w 2 v + + x 2 x x 2 x x 2 y x 2 2 v u 2 v v 2 u w 2 w + x 2 x x 2 x x 2 y x 2 2 w u 2 w w 2 v xy x xy x x 2 2 w u 2 w v 2 v xy x xy x x 2
xz = xy = yz =
v w x x
with reference to the local element x-axis. The force and strain output with the geometrically nonlinear analysis will be the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stress resultants and Green- Lagrange strains respectively, referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
40
Beam Elements
V Y W Z 5 Z X Y 3 U X V W 5 X Z V Y 3 U X
W Y V Y Y W Z 1 X Z Z 4
V X Y W Z 1 X Z Y
4 U X
U X
Initial Variables
Final Variables
Fig.7.2.7-1 Nodal Freedoms For BSL3, BSL4 And BXL4 Elements
QSL8 elements
BSL3 elements
Problem Definition
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.2.7-2 Stiffened Shell Illustrating Use Of BSL3 Element
41
Y 2 3
4 Z

Y
2 1 2 3
3 4
2 1
3 4
Fig.7.2.7-4 Cross-Section Of An I-Beam Represented By Superimposing Three BSL4 Elements Or By Defining Three Quadrilaterals
42
Beam Elements
3*3 Newton-Cotes
5*5 Newton-Cotes
43
Y x-y plane y y x y z 1 X x 3 2 z x
Y z x 1 y 2 3 y X
z x
Z (b) Straight Element Parrallel With Global X-axis y 3 z y x 1 z X 2
Fig.7.2.7-6 Local Cartesian System For BSL3 Element
44
Beam Elements
Y x y 1 x y 4
x z y
Fig.7.2.7-7 Local Cartesian System For BSL4 And BXL4 Elements
7.2.8 3-D Straight Beam (BTS3)

Formulation This element is a 3-D, two noded, straight beam formulated using Timoshenko beam theory so that shear deformations are accounted for. In essence, this element is formulated in a very straight forward manner, using linear shape functions and standard degrees of freedom. The complexities in this formulation arise in the consistent derivation of the geometric tangent stiffness and in the treatment of the rotational degrees of freedom. The nodal degrees of freedom for BTS3 are identical to those of the BMS3 element, (fig.7.2.8-1). End releases may be applied to all the nodal freedoms, see section 7.2.8.4. The nodal degrees of freedom are
U, V, W, X , Y , Z
at each node.
All displacement and rotation variations along the length of the element are linear while all internal forces and moments are constant. Consistent and lumped mass matrices are available which are evaluated using the procedures defined in section 2.7.1. Evaluation of stresses/forces The element output consists of
45
Fx , Fy , Fz Mx , My , Mz
- Forces in the local Cartesian system - Moments in the local Cartesian system
Element strains and curvatures are also available but nodal values are not output. The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local xy-plane is defined by the third element node and the element xaxis. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the local x-axis. These axes are consistent with those of the BMS3 element (fig.7.2.8-2). The formulation is such that engineering strain measures are used in both linear and geometrically nonlinear applications. These strains always relate to a local Cartesian system. The internal forces are computed using:
P = D
Where P are the local internal forces, are the local strains and curvatures and D is the modulus matrix given by (terms not shown are zero)
LM EA MM D=M MM MMEA e N
xx
EA xx e z GA sy GAsz G J xx + A xx e 2 z
xx z
E I yy + A xx e 2 z
j
EI zz
OP PP PP PP PQ
Nonlinear formulation This element can be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the stress resultant plasticity model (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear eigen-buckling analysis. Geometric nonlinearity is accounted for using a co-rotational formulation. In this approach local strains are computed in a local Cartesian frame which is 'fixed' to the element and follows the element as it rotates in 3-D space. Total local strains are computed using the current configuration and local frame. In other words, the strains computed at the end of one increment do not depend on the strains computed at the
46
Beam Elements end of a previous increment. Solutions obtained using this element will not be load step size dependant. The local strains for the element are given by
= x , y , z , X x , X y , X z
where:
x = u / lo
i e = e + i 2 X = e i 10 X = e i 10 X = e i 10
z 3 6 x y 4 1 2 5 z 3 6
y = 2 + 5 2
Where, lo is the initial element length, u is the axial stretch measured in the corotated frame, and i , i=1,6 are the local gradients at the nodes or 'curvature producing' rotations relative to the co-rotated frame, (fig. 7.2.8-3). The current local gradients at the nodes are computed from
2 1 = t 2 T e3 t 3T e 2 2 2 = t1T e 2 t 2 T e1 2 3 = t1T e3 t 3T e1
2 4 = q
2 Te 3
Te
2 5 = q T e 2 q
1
2 3
Te 1
2 6 = q T e3 q
1
Te 1
Where e i are unit vectors defining the co-rotated base frame and t i , q , i=1,3 are the
i
cartesian sets at nodes 1 and 2 respectively defining the orientation of the beam crosssection. These expressions may be thought of as being a means of computing an 'average' value for a local gradient at a node. This is easily visualised in two dimensions where, for example, t1T e 2 = t 2 T e1 .This is not true for the three dimensional case and a stricter derivation of the expressions for local gradients would involve the polar decomposition theorem. The approach then taken is to decompose 47
Element Formulations the total rotation into a rigid body component and a local gradient. The expressions described above are the result of applying these principles. The variation of these expressions is used in the virtual work equation to relate variations in local strains to variations in global nodal displacements. The local frame e i , i=1,3 is easily established for a two dimensional problem. In three dimensions defining the local frame is more difficult. The approach described by Crisfield [C7] has been used for this purpose. The following expressions are used for defining e 2 and e3 .
e2 = r 2 e3 = r 3 r 2 T e1 2 r 3T e1 2
ne ne
+ r1 + r1
s
i
The local frame is established at the centre of the element and the vectors r i , i=1,3 represent the 'average' of the nodal cartesian sets, t i and q . These expressions are approximations to the exact expressions for defining the 'smallest' rotation between vectors r1 and e1 . These expressions have been used with a view to obtaining less costly derivatives in a consistent derivation of the tangent stiffness. This lack of orthogonality has been shown to be 0.25 degrees for a local gradient of 15 degrees and 1.9 degrees for a gradient of 30 degrees [C7]. As these values actually represent the 'curvature producing' rotations in a single element the deformation would need to be very severe to reach these values. The axial stretch may be taken as
u = ln lo
where ln is taken as the current element length (or chord length). By defining the vectors
x 21 = x 2 x1 d 21 = d 2 d1
and then by rearranging Pythagoras's theorem this may be expressed as

u= 2 1 x 21 + d 21 ln + lo 2
R S T
U V W
d 21
The vector x defines the nodes in the initial configuration while d 21 is the 'net' translational displacement vector, (fig. 7.2.8-4). The variation of this expression reduces to
48
Beam Elements
u = e1T d 21
Differentiation of the above equations relating to axial stretch and local gradients allows virtual variations of local strains to be related to virtual variations in global nodal displacements via a strain displacement matrix B
= B a
where a are the global nodal displacements. Using this expression in the virtual work equation allows global internal forces at the nodes to be expressed in terms of local internal forces as
P = BT P
The out of balance force vector is then given by

= BT P R
where R is the applied nodal loading. The variation of this equation gives the tangent stiffness matrix. Assuming conservative loading this gives
d = BT dP + dBT P d = BT DBda + dBT P
The first term on the right hand side of this equation may be recognised as the material or standard linear stiffness matrix. The second term gives rise to the geometric stiffness.
Notes
This geometrically nonlinear formulation is consistently formulated and displays a quadratic rate of convergence in the limit. A consequence of this consistency is the ability of the element to cope with larger load increments. The total strains are computed from the current configuration and local frame only. Therefore, results obtained using this element are not load step size dependant. This element incorporates rotational degrees of freedom. As explained in section 3.5, large rotations in three dimensions are non-vectorial in nature and therefore may not be summed as vectors. To overcome this problem the rotation variables are never added to establish the current orientation of the element. A set of Cartesian axes are established at each node to define the orientation of the beam cross section. These axes, which are used in the computation of internal forces and the stiffness matrix, are updated correctly
49
Element Formulations using the iterative increments in nodal rotations, section 3.5. The procedure for this operation is outlined as Extract the Euler parameters from the initial nodal Cartesian set. Form an incremental Euler parameter from the iterative rotation increment. Update the Euler parameter by manipulating the previous and incremental parameter using quarternion algebra. Form the updated Cartesian set from the updated Euler parameter. In view of the non-vectorial nature of these rotations it should be noted that the nodal rotation output represents approximate values which should be treated with caution. However, the translational displacements and internal force output will be correct for problems involving arbitrary large nodal rotations. A nonsymmetric stiffness matrix will result if a follower load is specified. This arises as additional terms are added to the stiffness matrix to account for the variation in the load direction between iterations. Full details of the derivation of these additional terms are given in [C6]. A more detailed derivation of this element formulation may be found in [C6] and [C8]. End releases Many structures which are modelled with three-dimensional beam elements require joints at the nodes which follow the axes of the rotating system. Examples include deployable space structures, robots and rotating machinery. Prismatic (sliding), revolute (hinges), spherical and cylindrical joints can be modelled by releasing the appropriate degrees of freedom at a node. These freedoms relate to the local beam axes and a master-slave procedure has been adopted to model the release [J2]. At present, this facility is restricted to static analyses. Consider a node which is initially shared by a number of elements, one of which is not fully connected to the others. In the deformed configuration the node is no longer completely shared and from (fig.7.2.8-5) the following relationships can be established:
d = dm +
Q = Q* Q
where d m and Q
node, and d and Q define the displacement vector and rotation matrix of the disconnected (at least partially) slave node. It should be noted that, following conventional beam theory assumptions, the origins of the vectors d m and d coincide, with the gap in (fig.7.2.8-5) drawn for illustrative purposes only.
define the displacement vector and rotation matrix of the master
50
Beam Elements The columns of the rotation matrices Q

q
m1
,q
m2
,q
Q
m3
and q , q , q (fig.7.2.8-5):
1 2 3
m1
and Q consist of orthonormal base vectors
= q
, q
m2
, q
m3
Q= q , q , q
1 2
The rotation matrix Q* is the matrix that defines the rotation of the master triad Q , on to the slave triad Q.
m m
When modelling different types of joints, the master variables, d m and Q , are generally not entirely independent from the slave variables, d and Q . Depending on the type of joint, some of the components of the displacement vectors, d m and d , and/or parameters of the rotation matrices Q and Q , can be the same. Different types of joints are defined by releasing displacements and/or rotations around chosen axes. In a geometrically nonlinear analysis these axes rotate together with the structure. For translational joints, the 'difference vector', (with local components), between the master and slave variables is, when transformed into coordinates defined by the master triad, equal to the vector of released displacements (fig.7.2.8-6):
s = QT
m m
where the vector of released displacements, s , has zero components in non-released directions. In a similar manner, if the rotational pseudovector * , is extracted from the 'rotation difference matrix', Q* and it is transformed to the master triad, the rotational pseudovector of released rotations is obtained (fig.7.2.8-7):
= Q T *
m
Using these equations a relationship can be established between the variations of the master, slave and released freedoms. This relationship can then be used to derive a modified stiffness matrix and internal force vector which accounts for any released freedoms. Full details of this derivation can be found in [J2] while (fig.7.2.8-6) and (fig.7.2.8-7) illustrate a prismatic (sliding) and revolute (hinge) release.
51
Y Y V Y 1 W Z U X X Z W 2 Z X
Fig.7.2.8-1 Nodal Freedoms For BTS3 Element

Y y x 2 3
Fig.7.2.8-2 Local Cartesian System For BTS3 Element
52
Beam Elements
q2 6 4 q1 q3
e2 e1 e3 t1 t2 Y 3 1 t3 2
X Z
Fig.7.2.8-3 Local Gradients BTS3 Element
Final Configuration
ln d2
lo d1 Y x1 X Z x21 x2 Initial Configuration
Fig.7.2.8-4 Axial Stretch BTS3 Element 53
e3 e2
e1
q3 d dm qm3 qm2 q2 q1
qm1
Fig.7.2.8-5 General Displacements At A Node With Released Freedoms

e3 e2
e1
qm3 qm2 qm1
Fig.7.2.8-6 Prismatic (Sliding) Release
54
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements
e3 e2 qm3 q3
e1 qm3= q1
q2 qm2
Fig.7.2.8-7 Revolute (Hinged) Release
7.3 Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements

7.3.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements
Isoparametric finite elements utilise the same shape functions to interpolate both the displacements and geometry, i.e. displacement
U=
N i b, gUi
i =1 n
geometry
X=
Ni b, gXi
i =1
where N i , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes. Fig.7.3.1-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees of freedom are U and V. All the isoparametric elements described in this section must be defined using only X and Y coordinates. For 3-D plane membrane elements see section 7.5 on space membrane elements A complete description of their formulation is given in [H1,B2]. The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). Plane stress (QPM4, QPM8, TPM3, TPM6, QPK8, TPK6) The plane stress elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of out of plane direct stress and shear stresses is zero, i.e.
b g
55
z = 0, xz = 0, yz = 0
The plane stress elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thin in the out of plane direction, e.g. thin plates subject to in-plane loading (fig.7.3.1-2). Note. The thickness of the material is defined at each node and may vary over the element. The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined as
X = Y = U X V Y U V + Y X
XY =
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are
Isotropic
Orthotropic
LM1 M D= e1 j MM0 N LM 1 / E D = M / E MN 0
E
2
1 0
OP 0 P a1 f PP 2 Q
0
xy / E x 1 / Ey 0
0 0 1 / G xy
xy
OP PP Q
where yx has been set to xy E y / E x to maintain symmetry. Note. To obtain a valid material
xy < E x / E y z = z =
1/ 2
x + y E
for isotropic materials for orthotropic materials
yz xz x y Ex Ey
The thermal strain is defined by
56
isotropic
LM(1 ) E M D= (1 + )(1 2 ) M MN 0
(0 )t = T x , y , xy
T
(1 ) 0
OP 0 P (1 2 ) P P 2 Q
0
Orthotropic
Plane strain (QPN4, QPN8, TPN3, TPN6, QNK8, TNK6) The plane strain elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of out of plane direct strain and shear strains is zero, i.e.
Z = 0, YZ = 0, XZ = 0
The plane strain elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thick in the out of plane direction, e.g. dams or thick cylinders (fig.7.3.1-3). The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined as
XY =
Isotropic
Orthotropic
LM(1 ) E M D= (1 + )(1 2 ) M MN 0 LM E E E E MM E E D=M MM E E MM 0 N

z 2 xz x x z xy z yz xz x x z
(1 ) 0
OP 0 P (1 2 ) P P 2 Q
0
xy E z xz yz E y E z 2 E y yz EyEz 0 EyEz
0 0 1 G xy
OP PP PP PP PQ
where for symmetry

E y xy E z + yz xz E x = E x xy E z + xz yz E y
Note. To obtain a valid material 57
xy < E x / E y
z
X
d = b
1/ 2
xz < E x / E z
1/ 2
yz < E y / E z
1/ 2
+ Y
for isotropic materials for orthotropic materials
z = xz
Ez E + yz z EX Ey
The thermal strain is defined by Isotropic
Orthotropic
d i = (1 + )T , , 0 LM E + , E d i = T MM E MN E
0 t T z x xz z x 0 t z y
yz z
+ y , xy
OP PP PQ
Axisymmetric (QAX4, QAX8, TAX3, TAX6, QXK8, TXK6) The axisymmetric elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of out of plane shear stresses is negligible, i.e.
XZ = 0, YZ = 0
and the out of plane direct strain is defined as

Z = U R
where R is the distance from the axis of symmetry. The axisymmetric elements are suitable for analysing solid structures which exhibit geometric symmetry about a given axis, e.g. thick cylinders or circular plates (fig.7.3.1-4). The elements are defined in the XY-plane and symmetry can be specified about either the X or Y axes. The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined as:
XY =
Z =
U R
symmetry about the Y axis
58
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements or

Z = V R
symmetry about the X axis
The isotropic and orthotropic linear elastic modulus matrices are defined as
Isotropic
Orthotropic
LM(1 ) E M D= (1 )(1 2 ) M 0 MN LM 1 / E / E / E 1/ E D=M MM 0 0 / E / E NM

x yx xy x y xz x yz
(1 ) 0
0 0 (1 2 ) / 2 0
OP P 0 P P (1 )Q

0 0 1 / G xy 0
zx / E z zy / E z 0 1 / Ez
OP PP PP Q
where yx , zx and zy are defined by

yx = xy E y / E x zx = xz E z / E x zy = yz E z / E y
to maintain symmetry. Note. To obtain a valid material

xy < E x / E y
1/2
xz < E x / E z
1/2
yz < E y / E zy
1/ 2
The thermal strain vector is defined as Isotropic Orthotropic
d i = T , , 0,
0 t
d i = T , ,
0 t x y
xy ,
Evaluation of stresses The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of Stress Output
X , Y , XY , Z max , min S V
the direct and shear stresses the maximum and minimum principal stresses the angle between the maximum principal stress and the positive X-axis the maximum shear stress von Mises equivalent stress the direct and shear strains
Strain Output
X , Y , XY , z
59
max , min S V
the maximum and minimum principal strains the angle between the maximum principal strain and the positive X-axis the maximum shear strain von Mises equivalent strain
Stress resultant output, which accounts for the thickness of the element, is available as an alternative to stress output for the plane stress elements, i.e Stress Resultant Output N X , N Y , N XY , N z the direct and shear stress resultants/unit length N max , N min the maximum and minimum principal stress resultants/unit length the angle between the maximum principal stress resultant and the positive X-axis N S the maximum shear stress resultant/unit length N V von Mises equivalent stress resultant/unit length The sign convention for stress, stress resultants and strain output is shown in fig.7.3.1-6. The Gauss point stresses are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1. Nonlinear formulation The 2-D isoparametric elements can be employed in:(Materially nonlinear analysis, utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2) and the concrete model (section.4.3) Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
The plane stress elements can be used with the nonlinear concrete model (section 4.3). The plane stress and plane strain elements may be used with the nonlinear interface model (section 4.2). The geometric nonlinearity may utilize: A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by
60
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements Plane stress
LM OP N Q V 1 L U O = + X 2 M Y P N Q
X = U 1 U + X 2 X
Y
LM OP N Q 1 L V O + M P 2 N Y Q
+ 1 V 2 X
XY =
U V U U V V + + + Y X X Y X Y
2
Plane Strain
X = U 1 U + X 2 X
Y
+ 1 V 2 X
XY =
2
Axisymmetric
X =
U 1 U + X 2 X
Y
+ 1 V 2 X
XY =
2
or
LM OP N Q V 1 LVO = + M P R 2 NRQ
Z = U 1 U + R 2 R
Z
symmetry about the Y axis symmetry about the X axis
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative. An Updated Lagrangian formulation, which takes account of large displacements and moderately large strains provided that the strain increments are small. The output is now in terms of the true Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-conservative.
61
Element Formulations An Eulerian formulation, which takes account of large displacements and large strains. The output is in terms of true Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading is non-conservative.
3 5
6 4
2 3 node triangle
2 3 6 node triangle
3 4
4 8
1 4 node quadrilateral
2 8 node quadrilateral
Fig.7.3.1-1 Nodal Configuration For Standard 2-D Isoparametric
62
Problem Definition (a) Plate subject to Inplane Loading
Finite Element Mesh
Problem Definition
Finite Element Mesh
(b) Cantilever subject to a Point Loading
Fig.7.3.1-2 Examples Illustrating The Use Of Plane Stress Elements
63
Problem Definition
QPN8 elements TPN6 elements
Finite Element Mesh
(a) Embankment Dam
QPN4 elements
Problem Definition (b) Thick Cylinder
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.3.1-3 Examples Illustrating The Use Of Plane Strain
64

QAX4 elements
Problem Definition (a) Thick Cylinder
Finite Element Mesh
QAX8 elements
Problem Definition (b) Circular Plate
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.3.1-4 Examples Illustrating The Use Of Axisymmetric Solid Elements
65
Fig.7.3.1-5 Deformed Mesh Illustrating Formation Of Spurious Mechanisms

Y Y XY X XY Y X X X, Y +ve tension XY +ve into XY quadrant
Fig.7.3.1-6 Sign Convention For Stress/Strain Output
7.3.2 Enhanced Strain Elements (QPM4M, QPN4M, QAX4M)

The lower order enhanced strain elements exhibit improved accuracy in coarse meshes when compared with their parent elements QPM4,QPN4 and QAX4, particularly if bending predominates. In addition, these elements do not suffer from 'locking' in the nearly incompressible limit. The elements are based on a three-field mixed formulation [S8] in which stresses, strains and displacements are represented by three independent functions in three separate vector spaces. The formulation is based on the inclusion of an assumed 'enhanced' strain field which is related to internal degrees of freedom. These internal degrees of freedom are eliminated at the element level before assembly of the stiffness matrix for the structure. The formulation provides for the following three conditions to be satisfied
66
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements Independence of the enhanced and standard strain interpolation functions. L2 orthogonality of the stress and enhanced strains. Capability of the element to model a constant state of stress after enforcing the orthogonality condition, i.e. requirement for passing the patch test. In addition to ensuring that the element passes the patch test, these conditions also allow the stress field to be eliminated from the formulation. Formulation The formulation requires that the total strain is expressed as the sum of a 'compatible' strain and an 'enhanced' strain
= c + e
The compatible strain is directly related to the displacements of the element nodes in the standard manner. The enhanced strain is related to internal degrees of freedom which are eliminated using static condensation at the element level. The enhanced strains are therefore discontinuous between elements. The weak form of the three field variational equations for equilibrium, compatibility and constitutive relationship may be expressed as
z z z
c d R T a = 0 e d = 0 +
T T
LM N
OP d = 0 Q
where R is the applied loading, W is the strain energy density, a are nodal displacements and is the stress vector. By enforcing the so called L 2 orthogonality condition between stress and enhanced strain, terms involving T e will disappear. This allows the stress field to be eliminated from the formulation. The compatible and enhanced strains are computed from
c = Ba e = G e
where G operates on the assumed strain parameters e to provide the enhanced strains.
67
Element Formulations Substitution of these expressions into the two remaining field variational equations yields
c D Bda + Gd e R Ta d +
e D Bda + Gd e
} d = 0
The following matrices are defined for use in discretising this equation
Ka k f = H
k
z af z af z
=
k
BT D B d G T D G d G T D B d
( n el * n el matrix) ( m el * m el matrix) ( m el * n el matrix)
n el is the dimension of the element displacement field, m el is the number element enhanced strain modes. D is the modulus matrix at loadstep k.
The internal force vectors are given by

Pa k f = ha k f =
z z
Ba k fT a k f d Ga k fT a k f d
where h (k) is the internal force vector relating to the incompatible modes which is subsequently eliminated at the element level. Using standard finite element techniques for assembling the system of equations gives
LMKa f MN a f
k k
a k fT
OR aak +1f U RR Pakf U | | | | a k f PSa k +1f V = S 0 hak f V H P| | | | W W T T Q
This nonlinear system of equations is solved using a Newton-Raphson iteration scheme. However, for the linear case, no iterations are necessary as h will be 0 and P will not be considered. Static condensation of this system of equations eliminates the equations included to enforce the orthogonality condition. The element stiffness and internal forces used to assemble the equations for the structure then become
K
a k faa k +1f = a k f a k f = Ka k f a k fT Ha k f 1 a k f
68
where
K

akf = R P P
akf
a k f = P a k f a k f T H a k f 1 h a k f
1
In nonlinear analyses, the enhanced strain parameters are updated as

a k +1f = a k f Ha k f a k f a a k f ha k f
The actual implementation of this formulation requires the orthogonality condition to be related to the isoparametric space. Transformations are therefore required to assemble matrices and vectors that relate to covariant strains and contravariant stresses. Standard transformations are applied and full details of this procedure are given in [S8]. It is postulated that the covariant enhanced strain field is given by
e = E e
where E is the equivalent of G in the isoparametric space. Enhanced strain interpolation - plane elements (QPM4M, QPN4M) The incompatible displacement field is given by
U = N1 1 + N 2 2
bg
af
where
N1 =
b g 1 e1 j, 2
2
N2 =
a f 1 e1 j 2
2
and i represent the incompatible modes

1 = u1, v1
q,
T
2 = u 2 , v2
The covariant base vectors associated with the isoparametric space are
g =
Rx | Sy | T Rx | =S |y T
T N, T
T T
U = Rx a U + Rx hU = g | | | | | V S V Sy h V N, | |y a | T W W T W | | N, U Rx a U Rx h U | = | | + | | = g V S V S V N, | |y a | |y h | W T W T W
T T 1 1 T T
0 1
+ g
T T
2 2
T T
0 2
+ g
where
N = a 0 + a1 + a 2 + h
69
Element Formulations and

a0 = a1 = a2 = h= 1 T 1 1 1 1 4 1 1 4 1 1 1 1 1
T
1 1 1 4 1 1
1 4
1 1
T T
x = x1 x 2 x3 x 4
y = y1 y 2 y3 y 4
The initial enhanced strain field in isoparametric space is then given by
R e u, j g | | d u, i g =S | |du, i g + eu, j | T
T T T
U | | V | | | W
T 1 T 2 T 1 T 2 T 1 T 2 0 1 0 2 0 2 0 1
0 0 0 = 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
LM MM N
R g U | g | | | 0 O| | P | g | = E P S V g | P| Q| g | | | | g | T W
i 2
i e
The stress field for the element is derived from the linear uncoupled stress field [P2]
= y =
xy
R | S | T
U | V | W
LM1 MM N
OP PP 1 Q
The introduction of four internal degrees of freedom allows four of the nine stress parameters () to vanish. The remaining terms satisfy the equilibrium equations. By basing the formulation on natural coordinates the element is less sensitive when distorted and possesses no zero-energy deformation modes. Full details of the elimination of the four stress parameters is described in [P2] for a hybrid element. The final contravariant stress field using five parameters is defined as 70
R | = S | | T
U L1 | = M0 V M | NM0 | W
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0
OP PP Q
To satisfy the L 2 orthogonality condition < , > L 2
zz
1
1 1
r T
d d 0
This condition is violated if the six initial enhanced strain parameters () are used. However, the condition is satisfied if
5 = 6
Forcing this equality, and hence L 2 orthogonality, gives the final enhanced strain interpolation matrix as
LM E = M0 MN0
0 0 0 0 0 0
OP P P Q
2 2
This matrix is used in linear analyses but for nonlinear applications four enhanced strain parameters are used with the final column of E deleted [S8]. The final interpolation functions E also allow condition (III) to be satisfied. This is a requirement for passing the patch test [S8] and is implied in the sense that:
zz
1
1 1
E dd 0
Enhanced strain interpolation - axisymmetric element (QAX4M) The procedure for establishing the enhanced strain interpolation matrix for the axisymmetric element is similar to that used for the plane elements. The initial matrix is given by
Ei
LM 0 =M MM0 N0
1
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0
OP PP PQ
For the axisymmetric case, a factor r(,) will be included in the integrand for enforcing orthogonality
zz
1
1 1
r T
d d 0
71
Element Formulations where
= 2
r = rT N z = zT N r = r1, r2 , r3 , r4 z = z1, z 2 , z3 , z 4
Inclusion of the factor r( ,) means that the orthogonality condition is violated using this interpolation matrix. Simo and Rifai [S8] have derived interpolation functions which account for the factor r and satisfy this condition
E = Ei
zz
1
1
1
1 1
r dd
zz
1
1 1
E i r dd
LM 0 =M MM 0 MN 0
where
=
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OP PP PP Q
1 r T a1 1 rT a2 1 rT h , = , = Ta Ta 3r 0 3r 0 9 rT a0
a 0 , a1 , a 2 and h vectors have been defined for the plane elements.
Evaluation of stresses The evaluation of stresses is identical to that described in section 7.3.1.5. Nonlinear formulation The comments made in section 7.3.1.6 regarding the nonlinear capability of the standard elements are also applicable to these elements. The nonlinear formulation for the enhanced strain elements involves enforcing orthogonality between assumed Green-Lagrange strains and 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses. The geometrically nonlinear performance of these elements is much improved in comparison with the standard elements.
72
7.3.3 Incompatible Plane Membrane Element (PMI4)

Formulation This element is a high performance, non-conforming, 4-noded, plane membrane element. It is formed by adding two non-conforming modes to the standard isoparametric formulation presented for QPM4, i.e.
U=
N i b, gU i
i =1
is replaced with
U=
b g
i =1
N i , U i +
Pi b, ga i
i =1
where
P1 , = 1 2
b g
and
P2 , = 1 2
b g
and a i are nodeless degrees of freedom which are condensed out before element i assembly. The nodal configuration and non-conforming shape functions are shown in fig.7.3.3-1. The element passes the patch test (ensuring convergence as the mesh is refined) and the displacement field is approximately an order higher than the QPM4 element (i.e. quadratic displacement accuracy). The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is the same as QPM4, i.e.
XY =
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are defined as
Isotropic
LM1 M D= e1 j MM0 N
E
2
1 0
OP 0 P a1 f PP 2 Q
0
73
Orthotropic
L 1 D = M / E MM N 0
xy
yx / E y 1 / Ey 0
OP P 1 / Gxy P Q
0 0
where yx is set to xy E x / E y to maintain symmetry. Note. For a valid material xy < E x / E y The thermal strain is defined by Isotropic Orthotropic
1/ 2
d i = T , , 0
0 t 0 t x y
d i = T , ,
T xy
Full details of the formulation are presented in [T2,W2]. Only a lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedure defined in (section 2.7). Evaluation of stresses The element output obtained at the element nodes consists of Stress Resultant Output N x , N y , N xy the direct and shear stress resultants/unit length N max , N min the maximum and minimum principal stress resultants/unit length the angle between the maximum principal stress resultant and the positive X-axis NS the maximum shear stress resultant/unit length NV Von Mises equivalent stress resultant/unit length. Strain Output
X , Y , XY max , min
S V
the direct and shear strains the maximum and minimum principal strains the angle between the maximum principal strain and the positive X-axis the maximum shear strain Von Mises equivalent strain
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.3.3-4. The stress resultants are evaluated directly at the nodes.
74
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements Nonlinear formulation The element has no nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The element cannot be used for linear buckling analyses.
Y,V 3 4
2 1 X,U (a) Nodal Configuration P1 = 1- 2 P2 = 1- 2
(b) Non-conforming shape functions
Fig.7.3.3-1 Nodal Configuration And Non-Conforming Shape Functions For The PMI4 Element
Problem Definition (a) Plate subject to Inplane Loading
Finite Element Mesh
Problem Definition (b) Cantilever Plate subject to Point Loading
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.3.3-2 Examples Illustrating The Use Of PMI4 Elements
75
3
4 2 y x 1
FIG.7.3.3-3 LOCAL CARTESIAN SYSTEM FOR THE PMI4 ELEMENT

Y Y XY X XY Y X X X, Y +ve tension XY +ve into XY quadrant
7.3.4 2D Explicit Dynamics Elements

Explicit time integration schemes have used simple linear elements rather than those of a higher order by virtue of their computational efficiency. A number of further advantages may also be obtained in explicit dynamic analyses The use of higher order shape functions creates difficulties at the contact interface in the form of uncontrolled overlap. It has been shown that higher order continuum elements require a time step reduced from that of linear elements because of the greater mass associated with the interior nodes.
76
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements The mass lumping formulations for higher order elements are currently impractical for modelling shock wave propagation since the resulting numerical noise pollutes or destroys the solution. The combination of mass lumping with linear elements, when applied in conjunction with the central difference operator, increases accuracy in solutions by virtue of their respective compensatory spectral errors. The linear explicit dynamics elements have been implemented to take advantage of these benefits. They are for use only with the explicit central difference time integration scheme. The explicit dynamics elements are based upon the isoparametric approach in which the same shape functions are used to interpolate both the displacements and the geometry, i.e. displacement
U=
N i b, gU i
i =1 n
geometry
X=
Ni b, gXi
i =1
where N i , is the element shape function for node and n is the number of nodes. Fig.7.3.1-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees of freedom are U and V. All the explicit dynamics elements described in this section must be defined using only X and Y coordinates. Plane stress (QPM4E, TPM3E) The plane stress elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of the out of plane direct stress and shear stresses is negligible, i.e.
Z = 0, XZ = 0, YZ = 0
b g
The plane stress elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thin in the out of plane direction, e.g. thin plates subject to in-plane loading (fig.7.3.4-2). Note that the thickness of the material is defined at each node and may vary over the element. A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement characteristics as
t x = & t y = &
& t U t X & t V t Y
77
t & =
& & t U t V + t t Y X
XY
t z = &
& & LM U + V OP MN X Y PQ
t t t t
Isotropic
Orthotropic
LM1 M D= e1 j MM0 N L 1 D = M / E MM N 0
E
2 xy x
1 0
OP P a f PP Q
0 0 1 2
0
yx / E y 1 / Ey
OP P 1 / Gxy P Q
0 0
where yx is set to xy E y / E x to maintain symmetry. Note. To obtain a valid material xy < E x / E y The initial thermal strain is defined by Isotropic Orthotropic
1/ 2
d i = T , , 0
0 t 0 t x y
d i = T , ,
T xy
Plane strain (QPN4E, TPN3E) The plane strain elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of the out of plane direct strain and shear strains is negligible, i.e.
Z = 0, YZ = 0, XZ = 0
The plane strain elements are suitable for analysing structures which are thick in the out of plane direction, e.g. dams or thick cylinders (fig.7.3.4-3). A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement characteristics as
t&
X =
& t U t X & t V tY
t&
Y =
78

t
& & t U t V & XY = t + t Y X Y = 0
t&
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are Isotropic
LM(1 ) O 0 P E M P D= a1 f(1 2) MM (1 ) a1 02f PP 0 P 2 Q NM 0 LM E E E E MM E E Orthotropic D=M MM E E MM 0 N

z 2 xz x x z xy z yz xz x x z
xy E z xz yz E y E z 2 E y yz EyEz 0 EyEz
0 0 1 G xy
OP PP PP PP PQ
where for symmetry

E y xy E z + yz xz E x = E x xy E z + xz yz E y
i
T x y
The initial thermal strain is defined by Isotropic Orthotropic
d i = a1 + fT , , 0 d i = a1 + fT , ,
0 t 0 t x y
T xy
Axisymmetric (QAX4E, TAX3E) The axisymmetric elements are formulated by assuming that the variation of out of plane shear stresses is negligible, i.e.
XZ = 0, YZ = 0
and the out of plane direct strain rate is defined as

& Z = & U R
where R is the distance from the axis of symmetry.
79
Element Formulations The axisymmetric elements are suitable for analysing solid structures which exhibit geometric symmetry about a given axis, e.g. thick cylinders or circular plates (fig.7.3.4-4). The elements are defined in the XY-plane and symmetry can be specified about either the X or Y axes. Standard axisymmetric isoparametric elements are formulated with the Galerkin weighted residual method, in which the governing differential equation is utilised directly to form a weighted residual statement, where the weighting functions are generally the element shape functions. For large strain axisymmetric analyses, the use of elements based on the Galerkin method leads to computational difficulties near the axis of symmetry. These difficulties may be overcome by formulating the elements with the Petrov-Galerkin method [G2]. This method is also a weighted residual method, however, the weighting functions are taken to be the product of the element shape functions and the inverse of the radius, i.e. eliminating the radial weighting in the governing equations. The use of this particular formulation produces a time dependent mass matrix and as such must be computed each time. A rate relationship is used to define the strain-displacement characteristics as
t&
X = Y =
& t U t X & t V t Y & & t U t V + t t Y X
t&
t&
XY = Z =
t
t&
& U R
(symmetry about the Y axis) (symmetry about the X axis)
or
t&
Z =
& V R
The isotropic and orthotropic linear elastic modulus matrices are defined as Isotropic
E D= (1 )(1 2 )
LM(1 ) MM 0 MN
(1 ) 0
0 0 (1 2 ) / 2 0
OP P 0 P P (1 )Q

Orthotropic 80
LM 1 / E / E D=M MM 0 MN / E
x xy xz
0 yx / E y 1 / Ey 0 0 1 / G xy 0 yz / E y
zx / E z zy / E z 0 1 / Ez
OP PP PP Q
in which symmetry is maintained by defining

Note. To obtain a valid material

xy < E x / E y
1/ 2
xz < E x / E z
yz < E y / E zy
1/ 2
The initial thermal strain vector is defined as Isotropic Orthotropic
d i = T , , 0,
0 t x y
T z
d i = T , ,
0 t x y
xy ,
Integration rule for the elements A one point quadrature integration rule is utilised. This provides elements that are efficient, do not lock when incompressible behaviour is being modelled, e.g. plastic straining with von Mises plasticity, and integrate the stresses at the most accurate location. The location of the integration point is given in Appendix A. Element stabilisation The utilisation of one point Gauss quadrature has a limitation in that zero energy deformation or hourglass modes are generated (see fig.7.3.4-5). The effects of such modes are minimised by the viscous damping technique [H7]. The technique provides a damping force capable of preventing the formation of spurious modes but which has negligible influence on the true structural modes. This is possible since the spurious modes are orthogonal to the real deformations. The rate of diagonal drifting is defined by the velocity at which the mid-points of the element are separating. This is utilised as the basis for hourglass detection, giving the hourglass velocities as
h ij =
& xik jk ai = 1,2f

j =1
The viscous hourglassing forces are
81
fik = 1 / 4 Q hg A1/2 c
dh ij jk i
j=1
in which A is the current element area, Q hg is a constant which is modified via the & SYSTEM command and is usually set to a value between 0.05 and 0.15, and x ik is the nodal velocity of the kth node in the ith direction. is the current element density, while c, the material sound speed is defined from
c2 = E 1 1 + 1 2
a f a fa f
The hourglass base vectors for the four node quadrilateral are defined as:i = 1 - 1 1 - 1 T
these viscous forces are included directly into the element force vector. Shock wave smoothing The shock discontinuities that occur in impact problems may promote numerical instabilities which must be smoothed out. This is achieved using an artificial bulk viscosity method. The salient characteristic of the method is the augmentation of element pressure with an artificial viscous term (q) prior to the evaluation of the element internal force. This is zero in expanding elements and non-zero in contracting elements. The algorithm has the effect of spreading the shock front over a small number of elements. The exact form of artificial viscosity is somewhat arbitrary and the method used is based on the formulation originally proposed in [V1]
q = L c D kk Q1 L c D kk + Q 2 c
where Q1 and Q 2 are dimensionless constants which default to 1.5 and 0.06 respectively, and may be modified as necessary via the SYSTEM command. D kk is the trace of the velocity strain tensor and L c is the characteristic length of the element which is related to the smallest element diagonal as
Lc = 2A LD
where
L D = MAX 1 / 2 y 24
+ 1 / 2 x 42 , 1 / 2 y31
+ 1 / 2 x13
in which the distance between any two nodal points i,j is given as
82

x ij = x i x j
The quadratic term in strain rate is chosen to be small except in regions of very large gradients. The linear term, however, is included to control the small spurious oscillations following the shock waves in which the gradients are insufficient to make the quadratic term effective. Care should be taken with the linear term since there is a danger of distorting the solution. In converging geometries, the centred strain rate term is negative and the q term is then non-zero. This occurs even though no shocks are generated and results in a nonphysical generation of pressure. In view of the abundance of excellent results, however, it is generally agreed that the effect is negligible. Force calculations The direct stresses at time t+t are modified by the addition of the artificial viscosity pressure q as follows
x = x + q and y = y + q
The contribution to the force vector due to the element stresses is evaluated from the equilibrium equations of Timoshenko as
Fx = x / x + xy / y + r / r = 0 Fy = y / y + xy / x + xy / r = 0
Note that the terms r r and xy r from these two equations are not typically included in static analyses and occur as a result of the inertial effects. The hourglass forces are included to give the final force vector. The mass matrix is computed as each node i as
t M x = 1 / 4 t t A = 1 / 4 o t A t v / o v
i
tMy
e j = 1 / 4 A = 1 / 4 Ae v / vj
t t o t t o
where t v is the current volume and o v is the initial volume of an element. Evaluation of stresses The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of Stress Output
X , Y , XY , Z max , min
the direct and shear stresses the maximum and minimum principal stresses the angle between the maximum principal stress and the positive X-axis 83
S V
the maximum shear stress von Mises equivalent stress the direct and shear strains the maximum and minimum principal strains the angle between the maximum principal strain and the positive X-axis the maximum shear strain von Mises equivalent strain
Strain Output
X , Y , XY , Z max , min
S V
Stress resultant output which accounts for the thickness of the element is available as an alternative to stress output for the plane stress elements, i.e.
N X , N Y , N XY , N Z N max , N min
Stress Resultant Output the direct and shear stress resultants/unit length the maximum and minimum principal stress max min resultants/unit length the angle between the maximum principal stress resultant and the positive X-axis NS the maximum shear stress resultant/unit length NV von Mises equivalent stress resultant/unit length.
The sign convention for stress, stress resultants and strain output is shown in fig.7.3.4-5. The Gauss point stress is usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1. Nonlinear formulation The 2-D explicit dynamics elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear dynamic analysis utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O2] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear dynamic analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
Notes
The plane stress elements may not be used with nonlinear material model 75. Plain strain and axisymmetry are, however, supported. All explicit dynamics elements may be used with nonlinear material models 61, 64, 72. Eulerian geometric nonlinearity is always invoked with the use of the explicit elements in which the velocity strain measure is utilised. The Green-Naghdi stress rate formulation is used to refer the constitutive variables to an unrotated 84
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements configuration prior to the stress integration. The output is in terms of true Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading is non-conservative.
3 4
2 2 1 1
Fig.7.3.4-1 Nodal Configuration For 2d Explicit Dynamics Elements
Problem Definition Plate subject to Inplane Loading
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.3.4-2 Example Illustrating The Use Of Plane Stress Elements
85
Problem Definition Thick Cylinder
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.3.4-3 Example Illustrating The Use Of Plane Strain
Problem Definition Thick Cylinder
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.3.4-4 Example Illustrating The Use Of Axisymmetric Solid Elements
86
Fig.7.3.4-5 Deformed Mesh Illustrating Formation Of Spurious Mechanisms

Y
X, Y +ve tension XY +ve into XY quadrant Y XY
X XY Y
7.3.5 Two Phase Plane Strain Continuum Elements (TPN6P and QPN8P)
Formulation These isoparametric finite elements utilise the same shape functions to interpolate the displacements and geometry, i.e. displacements
U=
N i b, gUi
i =1 n
geometry
X=
Ni b, gXi
i =1
87
Element Formulations where N i , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes. However, for consideration of stability, the pressures are only interpolated using the corner nodes pressures
P=
n corner i =1
b g
N b, gP
i
where ncorner is the number of corner nodes. Fig.7.3.5-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees of freedom are U, V and P at the corner nodes and U and V at the midside nodes. The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). The plane strain assumptions and details of elastic modulus matrices applicable for these elements are described in section 7.2.1.2. These elements are used to model the behaviour of a two phase medium such as soil. In this instance the two phases comprise the soil skeleton and the pore water fluid. Separate equations are derived for each phase, coupled by the interaction of the pore pressure and the soil deformation. The soil skeleton is analysed in terms of effective stress (total stress minus pore water pressure), taking into account the loading due to the pore pressure; whilst the pore fluid analysis takes account of the volumetric strain due to the soil skeleton deformation. The finite element method is used to solve the coupled equations in terms of nodal displacements and pore pressures. Two plane strain elements QPN8P (quadrilateral) and TPN6P (triangular) based on a mixed displacement-pressure formulation are available in LUSAS to solve these problems. Undrained/fully drained conditions In this type of analysis no consolidation is assumed to take place and the coupled governing equations for static undrained conditions can be expressed as:
LMK MNL
R U OPR U = | F F | SP V SL U SPV S PT W | | Q T W
L U
ext T int
where the matrices K, L and S are defined as:

K=
L = - BT mN dv
v
z z
v
BT D' B dv
88

S= -
z
v
1 T N N dv Ke
K is the tangent stiffness matrix L is the coupling matrix S is the compressibility matrix, where K e is the equivalent bulk modulus of
the soil (see section 7.2.5.4) and D' the effective soil modulus matrix.
F and int F are external and internal forces Under static fully drained conditions the above coupled governing equations can be further simplified as
ext
LMK 0OPR UU = R T W T N0 I Q S P V S
ext
F int F 0
U V W
where I is a unit matrix block. Drainage/consolidation process In the drainage/consolidation process, fluid flow in/out from the soil needs to be considered. For linear transient consolidation the coupled governing equations can be expressed as:
LMK NML
where:
OPRUU TH Q TP W PS V
L
=
t + t
LMK NML
OPRUU + R F U (1 )THQ TP W T Q W PS V S V
L
t
F is the incremental load Q the incremental flow

the time stepping scheme parameter (set to1.0 for backward Euler scheme) H the permeability matrix
The permeability matrix H is defined in terms of the shape function derivatives and a permeability matrix of the soil, K , as:
H = N T K N dv
v p
For nonlinear consolidation process, the coupled governing equations can be written as
89
LM K NL
n +1 k k L F ext n +1 F int Uk = t H P k t n Q + Q tH n +1 P k L T
OPR U R S V | c | QT W S T
U | c U U hV | W
n +1 k n
where the superscript on the left/right hand side represents the increment/iteration number. Material assumptions The bulk modulus of the soil particle Ks is very large compared to the bulk modulus of the pore fluid K f . Therefore the overall compressibility of the soil mass is approximated to be that of the pore fluid.
(1 ) 1 = + Ke Kf Ks Kf
where:
K e is the equivalent bulk modulus of the soil K f the bulk modulus of the pore fluid K s the bulk modulus of the solid soil particle the porosity of the soil
In practical geotechnical applications it is usually difficult to determine K f and Ks so a large value of the equivalent modulus K e is usually assumed, 1012> K e >109. Nonlinear formulation The two phase plane strain continuum elements can be employed in:Materially nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Geometrically and materially nonlinear dynamic drained/undrained analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
7.3.6 Large-strain Mixed-type Elements (QPN4L, QAX4L)

Nonlinear formulation These elements are based on a mixed displacement/pressure formulation, which overcomes the problems of near-incompressibility and effective incompressibility in standard plane-strain and axisymmetric elements. The formulation utilises a nonlinear (spatial) Eulerian formulation, based on the logarithmic strain tensor, associated with the polar decomposition of the deformation gradient F = VR , where V is the left
90
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements stretch tensor and R is the rotation of the axes of the stretches i . The Kirchhoff (nominal) stress tensor is related to the (true) Cauchy stress via = J , where
J = det F = 1 2 3 .The deformation gradient is given as: F= x X
where X and x denote the material and spatial position vector of a material particle. The elements are currently available with Hencky and Ogden matrial models described in section 4.10, so that the principal Kirchhoff stresses i = i obtained from the corresponding stored-energy function as
i = 2G ln i + kJ J 1 [C16] are i
a f a f
for the Hencky material model, where G is the shear modulus, k is the bulk modulus and i = i / 3 J are the deviatoric stretches, and as
i =
p [ i
p =1
1 ( 1 p + 2 p + 3 p )] + kJ J 1 3
for the Ogden material model, where N is the number of pairs of Ogden parameters p and p , while k and i have the same meaning as for the Hencky model. By introducing the independent pressure variable as
p = k J 1
a f
and by transforming i from the principal directions the Kirchhoff stress tensor is obtained as
= 2Gn ln n T pJ
for the Hencky material model, where is the diagonal matrix of deviatoric stretches and n = [ n1, n 2 , n 3 ] is the Eulerian triad (spatial orientation of the principal directions) and as
=n
p [
p =1
1 tr ( p )I]n T pJ 3
for the Ogden material model. Element equilibrium (mixed formulation) The element equilibrium equations are given as 91
gPR=0 f
V0
z LMNa
T
J 1 +
p f k OPQdV
=0
where the first equation is the conventional nodal equilibrium equation, where R is the vector of applied loading and P is the vector of nodal internal forces, and the second equation follows from p = k J 1 . By expressing the stress tensor in the vector form, the vector of nodal internal forces can be written as
a f
P=
V0
B x dV0
bg
where, in line with the adopted spatial approach, x is the spatial and not the material position vector. Note that the formulation is defined in terms of the Kirchhoff and not the Cauchy stresses, hence integration is still performed over the initial rather than the current volume. Linearisation of the equilibrium - tangent stiffness matrix By expanding the element equilibrium into a Taylors series, the following linearised equilibrium is obtained
RgU LMK K OPRa U = RgU Sf V M T W MNK K PPQSpV Sf V T W TW

11 T 12 12 22
where a is the vector of nodal displacements, and the entries in the tangent stiffness matrix are obtained by the consistent linearisation of the element equilibrium. In order to derive the subvector K12 and (in particular) submatrix K
11
it helps to
regard the vector of nodal internal forces P as coming from the internal virtual power via
& aT P =
V0
& : dV0
da & 1 & is the time rate of the nodal displacements, and = ( L + L T ) is the where a = dt 2
strain-rate tensor with

& & u L=d= x
92
Two-Dimensional Continuum Elements with L being the so-called velocity gradient and d =
u being only introduced for the x & & & sake of convenience during the following derivation. Also : = tr( T ) = ij ij , where
the repeated indices indicate summation over the dimension of the space. For & & configuration-independent loads, a T g is equal to a T P , hence
& a T ( K a + K12p) =
11
V0
& & ( ij ij + ij
ij kl
kl )dV0 +
V0
& ij
ij p
pdV0
where, for both material models,
= J ij so, by introducing standard FE p & & matrix/vector notation whereby = B( x)a , subvector K12 immediately follows as
ij
K12 = B ( x)iJdV0
V0
R1U R1U |1| || || with i = S1 V for the plane strain element QPN4L and i = S V for the axisymmetric |0 | |0 | TW |1| TW
Piola-Kirchhoff stress S via = FSF T and bearing in mind that FF 1 = d we obtain
= F( E S E)F T + d + d T = + d + d T , or in indicial notation
T
element QAX4L. By noting the relationship between Kirchhoff stress and second
ij kl
T
tTK kl = T, ij + d ik kj + ik d jk = D ijkl kl + d ik kj + ik d jk
where is called the Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress (which is often used in ratedependent constitutive models; here it is introduced because it enables a tTK straightforward formation of the material part of the stiffness matrix) and D ijkl is the tangent constitutive matrix relating the strain-rate tensor to the Truesdell rate of
& & & Kirchhoff stress. By using ij = (d ij + d ji ) and noting the symmetry of the Kirchhoff
& stress tensor ij = ji , the product ij & ij
1 2
ij kl
kl can be written as
ij kl
& & & tTK kl = ijD ijkl kl + d ijd ik kj + d jid ik kj
93
& & By noting that the above-mentioned FF 1 = d yields
& u & = dF , the variation of which X
gives
& u & & X = dF + d F , and by noting that the variation of the material X X & & & position vector X is equal to zero, we obtain d = d FF 1 = d d , which finally
F I GH JK
gives
& ij =
1 & 1 & & & (d ij + d ji ) = (d ik d kj + d jk d ki ) 2 2
& so that, after noting the symmetry of the Kirchhoff stress tensor, the product ij ij reduces to & & ij ij = d ik d kj ij
The symmetry of the Kirchhoff stress tensor further implies

& ij
ij kl
& & & tTK kl + ij ij = ijD ijkl kl + d ij kjd ik
so that eventually the submatrix K

& a T K a =
11
V0 11
11
follows from
& & tTK ( ijD ijkl kl + d ij kjd ik )dV0
Following the standard FE notation, the submatrix K

K
11
is then given as
V0
[BT ( x)D
tTK
$ B( x) + G T ( x) G( x)]dV0
where the tangent constitutive matrix D
tTK
, which relates the strain-rate to the

tTKE
Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress can be defined in different ways. An easy way to , which relates the strain-rate with define it is by rotating the constitutive matrix D the Truesdell rate of Kirchhoff stress, where both of these are given with components in the Eulerian frame, via
tTK tTKE D ijkl = n ia n jb n kc n ld Dabcd
where n ij denotes components of the Eulerian triad n . The components of the constitutive matrix D
tTKE
follow from the stretches and the principal Kirchhoff
stresses. By dropping the summation convention, the normal components are defined as
94
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

tTKE D iijj = j
i 2 i ij j
where ij is the Kronecker symbol and

j i 2 = pJ + 2 ij j 3
for the Hencky model and

j i = j
p p 3
p =1
1 [3 i p ij + ( 1 p + 2 p + 3 p ) i p j p ] pJ 3
for the Ogden model. The shear components are defined as ( i j )

tTKE tTKE D ijij = D ijji = D tTKE = D tTKE = jiji jiij
2j i 2 j i 2 2 i j
unless i = j , in which case the shear components are given as

tTKE tTKE D ijij = D ijji = D tTKE = D tTKE = jiji jiij
i i i i 2 i j
F GH
I JK
which returns the result i for the Hencky model and Ogden model. Varying the second equilibrium equation gives
T f K12a + K 22p =
p p
2
i for the
p =1
V0
z LMN
J +
p dV0 k
OP Q
where K12 has already been defined and

K 22 =
V0
dV0 k
7.4 Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements

7.4.1 Standard Isoparametric Elements (HX8, HX16, HX20, PN6, PN12, PN15, TH4, TH10)
Three dimensional isoparametric finite elements utilise the same shape functions to interpolate both the displacements and geometry, i.e.
95
Element Formulations displacement

U=
N i b, gU i
i =1 n
geometry
X=
Ni b, gXi
i =1
where N i , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of i nodes. Fig.7.4.1-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees of freedom are U, V and W at each node
b g
The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is fully 3-D and is defined as

X = Y = Z = U X V Y U Z U V + Y X V W + Z Y U W + Z X
XY = YZ = XZ =
The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are Isotropic
LMa1 f O 0 0 0 P MM P 0 0 0 P a1 f MM PP 0 0 P MM a1 f 0 E D= P a1 fa1 2f M 0 0 0 a1 2f 0 0 P MM P 2 a1 2f 0 PP 0 MM 0 0 0 2 a1 2f PP MM 0 0 0 0 0 2 P N Q
96
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements Orthotropic
LM 1 / E E MM // E D=M MM 0 MM 0 N 0
x xy xz
yx E y
x x
zx E z
1 / Ey yz / E y 0 0 0
zy / E z 0 0 0 1 / Ez 0 0 0 0 1 / G xy 0 0 0 0 1 / G yz 0 0 0 0 1 / G xz
OP PP PP PP QP
where yx , zx , and zy are defined by

to maintain symmetry. Note. To obtain a valid material

xy < E x / E y
1/2
xz < E x / E z
1/2
yz < E y / E zy
1/ 2
The thermal strain is defined by Isotropic Orthotropic
d i = T , , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
d i = T , , ,
0 t x y z
xy ,
yz , xz
A complete description of their formulation is given in [H2,B1]. The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). Evaluation of stresses The element output can be obtained at both the element nodes and Gauss points and consists of Stress Output
X , Y , Z , XY , YZ , XZ
the direct and shear stresses the direct and shear strains
Strain Output
X , Y , Z , XY , YZ , XZ
Principal stresses and strains and the corresponding direction cosines may also be output. The sign convention for stress and strain output is shown in fig.7.4.1-3.
97
Element Formulations The Gauss point stresses are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1. Nonlinear formulation The 3-D isoparametric elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
The nonlinear interface model (section 4.2) may be used with elements HX8, HX16, HX20, PN6, PN12. The geometric nonlinearity may utilise A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by
LM OP + 1 LM V OP + 1 LM W OP N Q 2 N X Q 2 N X Q V 1 L U O 1 L V O 1 L W O = + Y 2 M Y P N Q + 2 MN Y PQ + 2 MN Y PQ W 1 L U O 1 L V O 1 L W O = + Z 2 M Z P N Q + 2 MN Z PQ + 2 MN Z PQ
X = U 1 U + X 2 X
2 2 2 2 Y 2 2 Z
XY = YZ = XZ =
U V U U V V W W + + + + Y X X Y X Y X Y V W U U V V W W + + + + Z Y Y Z Y Z Y Z U W U U V V W W + + + + Z X X Z X Z X Z
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and GreenLagrange strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative. An Updated Lagrangian formulation, which takes account of large displacements and moderately large strains provided that the strain increments 98
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements are small. The output is now in terms of the true Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-conservative. An Eulerian formulation, which takes account of large displacements and large strains. The output is in terms of true Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading is non-conservative.
99
8 5 6 1 2 19 18 16 12 7 6 10 2 3 12 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 10 7 3 1
TH4 HX8
7 4 3 9
16
15 14 12 11 8 7 4 3 6 5
HX16
13
10
20
6 17 11 5 4
HX20
4 5 1 2 15 10 11 7 1 8 2 3 9 5 4 2 3
TH10
13 9 1
14 15 8
3
PN6
11 10 6 4
PN12
14 13 12 9 6 4
PN15
Fig.7.4.1-1 Nodal Configuration For Solid Elements
100
Fig.7.4.1-2 Tractor Brake Component
Arrows indicate +ve stress directions
Y XY YZ
Y YZ XZ Z XZ
XY X
101
7.4.2 Enhanced Strain Element (HX8M)

The low order enhanced strain element HX8M exhibits improved accuracy in coarse meshes when compared with the parent element HX8, particularly if bending predominates. In addition, the element does not suffer from 'locking' in the nearly incompressible limit. The element is based on a three-field mixed formulation [S8] in which stresses, strains and displacements are represented by three independent functions in three separate vector spaces. The formulation is based on the inclusion of an assumed 'enhanced' strain field which is related to internal degrees of freedom. These internal degrees of freedom are eliminated at the element level before assembly of the stiffness matrix for the structure. The formulation provides for the following three conditions to be satisfied Independence of the enhanced and standard strain interpolation functions. L2 orthogonality of the stress and enhanced strains. Capability of the element to model a constant state of stress after enforcing the orthogonality condition, i.e. requirement for passing the patch test. In addition to ensuring that the element passes the patch test, these conditions also allow the stress field to be eliminated from the formulation. Formulation The general approach taken to formulate this element is identical to that described for the 2-D continuum elements in section 7.3.2. Enhanced strain interpolation The incompatible displacement field is given by
u = N1 1 + N 2 2 + N3 3
bg
bg
bg
where
N1 =
b g 1 e1 j, N af = 1 e1 j, N bg = 1 e1 j 2 2 2
2 2 2 3 2
and i , represent the incompatible modes

1 = u1, v1
q,
T
2 = u 2 , v2
q,
T Th T T 3 3
3 = u 3 , v3
q,
T 0 1
The covariant base vectors associated with the isoparametric space are
g
Rx | = Sy |z T
Ta 1 Ta 1 Ta 1
U Rx | + |y V S | |z W T
Th 1 Th 1 Th 1
U Rx | + |y V S | |z W T
U Rx | | h V + Sy h | W |z T
3
Tk Tk T
U |=g V k| W
+ g1 + g1 + g
1 3
102
Rx | = Sy |z T Rx | = Sy |z T
Ta Ta Ta
2 2 2
U Rx | + |y V S | |z W T
Th 1 Th 1 Th 1 2 2 2
U Rx | + |y V S | |z W T
Th Th Th
2 2 2 3 3
U Rx | + |y V S | |z W T
Tk Tk T
U |=g V k| W
0 2
+ g1 + g1 + g
1 2
Ta Ta T
U Rx | + |y V S a | T W |z
3 3 3
Th Th Th
U Rx | + |y V S | |z W T
Th Th T
U Rx | + |y V S h | W |z T
3
Tk Tk T
U |=g V k| W
0 3
+ g1 + g1 + g
2 3
where
a1 = a2 = a3 = h1 = h2 = h3 = k= 1 1 8 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
T
1 1 1 8
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1 1 1 1 1
1 1
1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1 1
T T
1 1 8
1 1
x = x1 x 2 x3 x 4 x 5 x 6 x 7 x8
y = y1 y 2 y3 y 4 y 5 y 6 y 7 y8
z = z1 z 2 z3 z 4 z 5 z 6 z 7 z8
T
The enhanced covariant strains are given by

= 2 2 2
T
The enhanced strain field in isoparametric space can initially be expressed using 21- parameter interpolation functions as follows
103
U Reu, j g | | | |du, i g | | | | | |eu, j g | | =S | |du, i g + eu, j g V | | |eu, j g + du, i g | | | |eu, j g + e u, j g | | | W T

T T T i T T T T T T
LM MM0 0 =M MM0 MM0 N0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 = Ei i e 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 0 0
0 0 0 2 0
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0
0 0 0 2 0 2
0 0 2 2 0 0
OP P P P 0 P P P P Q
0 0
2 2
i e
An element stress field with 12- parameters is considered:
LM1 MM0 0 = M0 MM MM0 N0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 12 0 1
OP PP PP PP PQ
where the contravariant stresses are defined as
This stress field is similar to the assumed five stress field used by Pian [P2] for a hybrid stress quadrilateral element. The field satisfies both equilibrium and symmetry conditions. The final enhanced strain interpolation matrix is assembled by enforcing the L 2 orthogonality condition < , > L 2
zzz
1 1
1 1 1
ddd 0
104
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements The final interpolation matrix involving eighteen parameters is
18
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 0
0 0 2 2 0
0 0 0 2 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 2 0 0 2 2 0 0 2
OP PP PP PP PQ
A further enhanced strain interpolation matrix is also derived which is similar to an interpolation field defined in [S8] for planar elements. This matrix is based on nine a parameters and is also orthogonal to the twelve stress field
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
OP PP PP PP PQ
and E
18
Both the final interpolation functions E
also allow condition III to be
satisfied. This is a requirement for passing the patch test [S8] and is implied in the sense that
zzz
1 1
1 1 1
E ddd 0
Evaluation of stresses The evaluation of stresses is identical to that described in section 7.4.1.2. Nonlinear formulation The comments made in section 7.4.1.3 regarding the nonlinear capability of the standard isoparametric element are also applicable to this element. The nonlinear formulation for the enhanced strain element involves enforcing orthogonality between assumed Green-Lagrange strains and 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses. The geometrically nonlinear performance of this element is much improved in comparison with HX8.
7.4.3 3D Explicit Dynamics Elements (HX8E, PN6E, TH4E)

Explicit time integration schemes have used simple linear elements rather than those of a higher order by virtue of their computational efficiency. A number of further advantages may also be obtained in explicit dynamic analyses
105
Element Formulations The use of higher order shape functions creates difficulties at the contact interface in the form of uncontrolled overlap. It has been shown that higher order continuum elements require a time step reduced from that of linear elements. The mass lumping formulations for higher order elements are currently impractical for modelling shock wave propagation since the resulting numerical noise pollutes or destroys the solution. The combination of mass lumping with linear elements, when applied in conjunction with the central difference operator, increases accuracy in solutions by virtue of their respective compensatory spectral errors. The linear explicit dynamics elements have been implemented to take advantage of these benefits. They are for use only with the explicit central difference time integration scheme. The explicit dynamics elements are based upon the isoparametric approach in which the same shape functions are used to interpolate both the displacements and geometry, i.e. displacement
U=
N i b, gU i
i =1 n
geometry
X=
Ni b, gXi
i =1
where N i , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes. Fig.7.4.3-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees of freedom are U, V and W at each node. Evaluation of current strain increments The velocity strain rates e t+Dt/2are defined from the midpoint velocity ij gradients in the global axis system. A rate relationship is used to define the straindisplacement characteristics as
t x = & t y = & t z = & t &
& t U t X & t V t Y & t W t Z
b g
XY
& & t U t V + t t Y X
106

t & t & = =
& & t V t W + t t Z Y & & t U t W + t t Z X
YZ
XZ
Evaluation of modulus matrices The isotropic and orthotropic elastic modulus matrices are as follows Isotropic
LMa1 f O 0 0 0 P MM P 0 0 0 P a1 f MM PP 0 0 P a1 f 0 MM E D= P a1 fa1 2f M 0 0 0 a1 2f 0 0 P MM P 2 a1 2f 0 PP 0 MM 0 0 0 2 a1 2f PP MM 0 0 0 0 0 P 2 Q N
Orthotropic
LM 1 / E E MM // E D=M MM 0 MM 0 N 0
x xy xz
yx E y
x x
zx E z zy / E z 1 / Ez 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 / G xy 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 / G yz 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 / G xz
1 / Ey yz / E y 0 0 0
OP PP PP PP QP
to maintain symmetry the following relations are utilised

Note that a valid material is obtained only if

xy < E x / E y
1/2
xz < E x / E z
1/2
yz < E y / E zy
1/ 2
The initial thermal strain is defined by Isotropic
d i = T , , , 0, 0, 0
0 t
107
Element Formulations Orthotropic
d i = T , , ,
0 t x y z
xy ,
yz , xz
The lumped mass matrix is computed as each node i as

t t
M x i = 1 / 8t t V M y i = 1 / 8t t V
where t v is the current volume of an element. Integration rule for the elements A one point quadrature integration rule is utilised. This provides elements that are efficient and do not lock when incompressible behaviour is being modelled, e.g. plastic straining with von Mises plasticity. The stresses are integrated at the most accurate location. The location of the integration point is given in Appendix I. Element stabilisation The utilisation of one point Gauss quadrature has a limitation in that zero energy deformation or hourglass modes are generated (see Fig.7.3.3-5). The effects of such modes are minimised by the viscous damping technique [H7]. The technique provides a damping force capable of preventing the formation of spurious modes but which has negligible influence on the true structural modes. This is possible since the spurious modes are orthogonal to the real deformations. The rate of diagonal drifting is defined by the velocity at which the mid-points of the element are separating. This is utilised as the basis for hourglass detection, giving the hourglass velocities as
h ij =
& xik jk ai = 1,3f
j =1 4
The viscous hourglassing forces are

fik = Q hg v2/3 c / 4 e
dh ij jk i M1 + 100 Qhg dh ij jk iP M P
j=1 j =1
L N
O Q
in which ve is the current element volume, Q hg is a constant which is modified via & the SYSTEM command and is usually set to a value between 0.05 and 0.15, and x ik is th th the nodal velocity of the k node in the i direction. is the current element density, while c, the material sound speed is defined from
108

c2 = E 1 1 + 1 2
a f a fa f
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
The hourglass base vectors ij for the 8 node solid elements are given as
ij
LM1 1 =M MM1 N1
OP PP PQ
these viscous forces are included directly into the element force vector. Shock wave smoothing The shock discontinuities that occur in impact problems may promote numerical instabilities which must be smoothed out. This is achieved using an artificial bulk viscosity method. The salient characteristic of the method is the augmentation of element pressure with an artificial viscous term (q) prior to the evaluation of the element internal force. This is zero in expanding elements and non-zero in contracting elements. The algorithm has the effect of spreading the shock front over a small number of elements. The exact form of artificial viscosity is somewhat arbitrary and the method used is based on the formulation originally proposed in [V1]
q = L c D kk Q1 L c D kk + Q 2 c
where Q1 and Q 2 are dimensionless constants which default to 1.5 and 0.06 respectively, and may be modified as necessary via the SYSTEM command. D kk is the trace of the velocity strain tensor and L c is the characteristic length of the element which is related to the smallest element diagonal as
Lc = V Af
where V is the current element volume and A f the current largest face area of the element. The face area is evaluated by considering each face in turn and using
A f = 4 J 0,0
a f
x x *
The surface Jacobian J may be evaluated from

J 0,0 =
a f
in which the differentials are evaluated explicitly.
109
Element Formulations The quadratic term in strain rate is chosen to be small except in regions of very large gradients. The linear term, however, is included to control the small spurious oscillations following the shock waves in which the gradients are insufficient to make the quadratic term effective. Care should be taken with the linear term since there is a danger of distorting the solution. In converging geometries the centred strain rate term is negative and the q term is then non-zero. This occurs even though no shocks are generated and results in a nonphysical generation of pressure. In view of the abundance of excellent results, however, it is generally agreed that the effect is negligible. The direct stresses at time t+t are modified by the addition of the artificial viscosity pressure q as follows
ii = ii + q
Nonlinear formulation The 3-D explicit dynamics elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear dynamic analysis (see note 1.) Geometrically nonlinear dynamic analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in note I.
Notes
The 3D explicit dynamics elements may be used with nonlinear material models 61 to 64, 72 and 75 (section 4.2). Eulerian geometric nonlinearity is always invoked with the use of the explicit elements in which the velocity strain measure is utilised. The Jaumann stress rate formulation is used to eliminate rigid motion prior to stress integration. The output is in terms of true Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading is non-conservative. Evaluation of stresses The element output can be obtained at both the element nodes and Gauss points and consists of Stress Output
X , Y , Z , XY , YZ , XZ
the direct and shear stresses the direct and shear strains
Strain Output
X , Y , Z , XY , YZ , XZ
Principal stresses and strains and the corresponding direction cosines may also be output.
110
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements The sign convention for stress and strain output is shown in fig.7.4.3-3. The Gauss point stress is usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1.
8 5 6 1 2
HX8E
7 4 3
6 4 5 1 2
PN6E
3 1 2
TH4E
Fig.7.4.3-1 Nodal Configuration For 3d Explicit Dynamics Elements
111
HX8E Elements
PN6E Elements
Fig.7.4.3-2 Compact Tension Fracture Specimen
Arrows indicate +ve stress directions
Y XY YZ
Y YZ XZ Z XZ
XY X
112
7.4.4 Composite Solid Elements (HX8L,HX16L,PN6L PN12L)

If brick elements are used for an analysis of composite structures the number of degrees of freedom even for small laminate structures rapidly becomes very large leading to prohibitively excessive computer costs. To overcome this difficulty layered brick elements were developed where several laminae are included in a single element. For these elements the three degrees of freedom per node are used to interpolate a displacement field that varies linearly over the thickness and quadratically in-plane for the higher order elements. Each layer is specified by an orthotropic material stiffness matrix. In order to speed up the computation, the elements are restricted to reasonably constant layer thicknesses [H13]. This limitation requires the calculation of only a 2x2 Jacobian matrix. For the integration of the element stiffness matrix, the material stiffnesses are summed layerwise through the thickness, while the strain-displacement matrices by default are integrated using a plane 2x2 (for HX8L and HX16L), or a single point (for PN6L), or a 3 corner point quadratic (for PN12L) gauss integration scheme outside the through thickness loop. The shape functions for the top and bottom surfaces of the composite elements can be considered to be single membrane element shape functions, see figure 7.4.4-1. The shape functions N i ( top) = N i ( bot ) = N i , are defined in terms of natural coordinates and , for the HX16L element these are given by:
Ni = Ni = 1 1 + i 1 + i i + i 1 4 1 1 2 2 2 1 + i + i i i 2
gb
gb
for corner nodes for mid-side nodes
jb
The PN12L, HX8L, and PN6L elements use the equivalent shape functions for 6, 4 and 3 noded membranes. To form the complete shape functions for the brick element N br , linear interpolation is used between the functions for the top and bottom surfaces:
NT = br 1 + 1 N T bot f ; + 1 N T top g ia ib 2
b g
The in-plane and through-thickness shape functions can then be separated to give:
N T = T + T br
where
T = 1 T T N ;N 2 i i
113
T = 1 NT ; NT i i 2
The displacement field, U, can now be interpolated as:
LM U=M MNM
+ T 0T 0T
0T T + T 0T
0T 0T T + T
OPR u U SV PP| v | TW QP|w|
U = Ha
with the displacement vectors in terms of the nodal degrees of freedom:
l q v = lv , v ,.............. v q w = lw , w ,........... w q
u = u1, u 2 ,.............. u n
1 2 n 1 2 n
T T
The three-dimensional strain vector is defined as

T =
R u , v , w , u + v , v + w , u + w U S x y z y x z y z x V T W
The strain displacement relationship is given by:

= Ba
where B is the strain displacement matrix.
LM + MM x x MM 0 MM M 0 B= M MM + MM y y MM 0 MM 2 N c
T T T T T T
0T T y + 0T T x + T x T y
2 T c 0T
OP PP PP 0 PP 2 PP c PP 0 P P + y y P P P + x P x Q
0T
T T T T T T T
B can be split into two matrices combining in-plane and through thickness terms:
114

B = B + B
1 2
where
LM MM x MM 0 MM M0 =M MM MM y MM 0 MM 2 Nc
T T T
0T T y 0T T x 2 T c
0T 0T 2 T c 0T T y T x
0T
OP PP PP PP PP PP PP PP PP Q
LM MM x MM 0 MM M0 =M MM MM y MM 0 MM 0 N
T T T T
0T T y 0T T x 0T 0T
OP PP 0 P PP 0 P PP 0 P P P P y P P P x P Q
0T
T T T T T
The restriction of constant layer thicknesses provides an uncoupling between the inplane coordinates and the through-thickness coordinate. Consequently for the transformation of the cartesian derivatives into the natural derivatives only a 2 dimensional Jacobian matrix is required.
R U LM x | | = M S V M x | | M | | T W N
or inverted
y y
OPR U PP| x | S V | | PQ| y | T W
1 1 = J11 + J12 x 1 1 = J 21 + J 22 y
and an integration constant for the thickness is computed from:

z= c 2 = . 2 z c
where c is the depth of the element see figure 7.4.4-1. The differential of the volume is given by
dV = c J dd 2
115
Element Formulations where |J| is the Jacobian determinant. The element stiffness matrix in basic form may be defined as
K=
BT DB dV
where D is the modulus matrix for an orthotropic material.
LM 1 / E E MM // E D=M MM 0 MM 0 N 0
x xy xz
x x
yx E y 1 / Ey yz / E y 0 0 0
zx E z zy / E z 1 / Ez 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 / G xy 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 / G yz 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 / G xz
OP1 PP PP PP QP
where yx , zx and zy are defined by

to maintain symmetry. As the matrices B and B are independent of , only D varies from layer to layer.
1 2
Therefore the strain-displacement matrices can be left out of the integration through the thickness:
K=
zz
2
F GG B GG GG H
T 1
LM MN
nlay n =1
lay
D d B + B T
n 1 1 nlay n =1
+ BT
2
O LM D d P B MN PQ LM O L D d P B + B M MN PQ MN OP PQ
nlay n =1
lay
nlay n =1
lay
T 2
lay
I JJ c JJ 2 J dd O D d P B J PQ JK
2 n 2
with B and B as:

1
116
LMJ MM MM MM M B =M MMJ MM MM MM N LMJ MM MM MM M B =M MMJ MM MM MM N

1 2
1 11
1 + J12
T
1 J 21
0T T
1 + J 22
0T T 0T 2 T c 0T
1 J 21 1 J11
0T 0T T
1 + J 22
0T T
1 J11
1 21
0T 2 T c T
1 + J12
2 T c 0T
1 + J12
T T
1 + J 22 1 + J12
OP PP PP PP PP PP P P P P P P Q
T T
1 11
T
1 J 21
0T T
1 + J 22
0T T 0T 0T T
1 J 21
0T 0T
1 21
0T T
1 J11
1 + J 22
1 + J12
0T T
1 + J 22 1 + J12
0T 0T
0T 0T
J11
T 1
OP PP PP PP PP PP P P P P P P Q
T T
The through thickness dependency is condensed in the integration of the material modulus matrix which makes the assembly of the element stiffness matrix more efficient. The strain displacement matrices only have to be computed in-plane. This is possible by restricting the element to a reasonably uniform thickness for a single layer. Nonlinear formulation The 3-D solid composite elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear analysis utilising the corotational formulation (section 3.5.2). Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
117
Element Formulations Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Fig.7.4.4-1 Topology Of 3-D Layered Isoparametric Bricks
7.4.5 Two Phase 3D Continuum Elements (TH10P, PN12P, PN15P, HX16P and HX20P)
Formulation These isoparametric finite elements utilise the same shape functions to interpolate the displacements and geometry, i.e. displacements
U=
N i b, gUi
i =1 n
geometry
X=
Ni b, gXi
i =1
118
Three-Dimensional Continuum Elements where N i , is the element shape function for node i and n is the number of nodes. However, for consideration of stability, the pressures are only interpolated using the corner nodes pressures
P=
n corner i =1
b g
N b, gP
i
where ncorner is the number of corner nodes. Fig.7.4.5-1 shows the nodal configurations available within LUSAS. The nodal degrees of freedom are U, V, W and P at the corner nodes and U, V and W at the midside nodes. The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). The details of elastic modulus matrices applicable for these elements are described in section 7.3.1. These elements are used to model the behaviour of a two phase medium such as soil. In this instance the two phases comprise the soil skeleton and the pore water fluid. Separate equations are derived for each phase, coupled by the interaction of the pore pressure and the soil deformation. The soil skeleton is analysed in terms of effective stress (total stress minus pore water pressure), taking into account the loading due to the pore pressure; whilst the pore fluid analysis takes account of the volumetric strain due to the soil skeleton deformation. The finite element method is used to solve the coupled equations in terms of nodal displacements and pore pressures. Five 3D elements TH10P, PN12P, PN15P, HX16P and HX20P based on a mixed displacement-pressure formulation are available in LUSAS to solve these problems. Undrained/fully drained conditions In this type of analysis no consolidation is assumed to take place and the coupled governing equations for static undrained conditions can be expressed as:
R U LMK LOPRUU = | F F | SP V SL U SPV | NML S PQT W | T W

ext T int T
where the matrices K, L and S are defined as:

K=
L = - BT mN dv
v
z z
v
BT D' B dv
119
S= -
z
v
1 T N N dv Ke
K is the tangent stiffness matrix L is the coupling matrix S is the compressibility matrix, where K e is the equivalent bulk modulus of
the soil (see section 7.3.5.4) and D' the effective soil modulus matrix.
F and int F are external and internal equivalent nodal forces Under static fully drained conditions the coupled governing equations can be further simplified as
ext
LMK 0OPR UU = R F FU V T W T N0 I Q S P V S 0 W
ext int
where I is a unit matrix block. Drainage/consolidation process In the drainage/consolidation process, fluid flow in/out from the soil needs to be considered. For linear transient consolidation the coupled governing equations can be expressed as:
LMK NML
where:
OPRUU TH Q TP W PS V
L
=
t + t
LMK NML
OPRUU + R F U (1 )THQ TP W T Q W PS V S V
L
t
F is the incremental load Q the incremental flow

the time stepping scheme parameter (set to 1.0 for backward Euler scheme) H the permeability matrix
The permeability matrix H is defined in terms of the shape function derivatives and a permeability matrix of the soil, K , as:
H = N T K N dv
v p
For nonlinear consolidation, the coupled governing equations can be written as
120
LM K NL
F OPR U U = R S S P V | tc Q + Qh tH t H Q T | W T L
k n +1 k ext k n
k F int n +1 k P LT
n +1
U | c U U hV | W
n +1 k n
where the superscript on the left/right hand side represents the increment/iteration number. Material assumptions The bulk modulus of the soil particle Ks is very large compared to the bulk modulus of the pore fluid K f . Therefore the overall compressibility of the soil mass is approximated to be that of the pore fluid.
(1 ) 1 = + Ke Kf Ks Kf
where:
K e is the equivalent bulk modulus of the soil K f the bulk modulus of the pore fluid K s the bulk modulus of the solid soil particle the porosity of the soil
In practical geotechnical applications it is usually difficult to determine K f and Ks so a large value of the equivalent modulus K e is usually assumed, 1012> K e >109. Nonlinear formulation The two phase 3-D continuum elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear drained/undrained/consolidation analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Geometrically and materially nonlinear dynamic drained/undrained analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
121
7.5 Space Membrane Elements

7.5.1 Axisymmetric Membrane (BXM2, BXM3)
Formulation BXM2 and BXM3 elements are axisymmetric, isoparametric membrane elements. They are defined in the XY-plane and symmetry may be specified about either the X or Y axes. The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.5.1-1) U and V at each node The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined in the local Cartesian system by
x = u x
z =
U R
The elastic modulus matrix is defined by

D= 1 E 1 2 1
LM N
OP Q
The thermal strain is defined by
b g = T ,
o t
The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). Evaluation of stresses The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of
x z x z
Stress Output Meridional stress (+ve tension) Circumferential stress (+ve tension)
Strain Output Meridional strain (+ve tension) Meridional stress (+ve tension)
The element local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local y and z axes form a right-hand set with the x122
Space Membrane Elements axis such that the y-axis lies in the global XY-plane and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page) (fig.7.5.1-4). The Gauss point stresses are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal values of stress and strain are obtained using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1. Nonlinear formulation The axisymmetric membrane elements can be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elasto-plastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear eigen-buckling analysis.
Notes
LM OP N Q U 1 LUO = + M P R 2 NRQ
x = u 1 u + x 2 x
2 x
The geometric nonlinearity utilises a Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear straindisplacement relationship is defined by
2
1 u 2 x
LM OP N Q
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and GreenLagrange strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
Y,V 1 2 1 2 BXM3 3 BXM2
X,U
123
Element Formulations Fig.7.5.1-1 Nodal Configuration For BXM2 And BXM3 Elements
Problem Definition (b) Circular Plate
Finite Element Mesh
Problem Definition (b) Circular Pipe
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.5.1-2 'Stand-Alone' Applications For BXM2 And BXM3 Elements
124
Space Membrane Elements
BXM3 elements
QAX8 elements
Problem Definition
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.5.1-3 Fibre Reinforced Cylinder Illustrating Coupling Between QAX8 And BXM3 Elements
y Y 2 y x 1
y
x 3
x
y x 2 x
1 X
Fig.7.5.1-4 Local Cartesian System For Bxm2 And Bxm3 Elements
125
7.5.2 3-D Space Membrane (SMI4, TSM3)

Formulation SMI4 and TSM3 elements are membrane elements that function in 3-D. They are formulated in 2-D, by forming a local Cartesian system in the plane of the element (using a least squares fit through the element nodes). Once the element matrices have been formed they are then transformed to the global Cartesian basis. Their formulations are exactly equivalent to their 2-D conterparts given in table 7.5.21
Space Membrane Plane Membrane
SMI4 TSM3
PMI4 TPM3
TABLE 7.5.2-1 Space Membrane Elements And Equivalent Plane Elements The nodal configurations are shown in fig.7.5.2-1. The nodal degrees of freedom are U, V and W at each node Only a lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedure defined in (section 2.7). Evaluation of stresses The element output obtained at the element nodes consists of Stress Resultant Output Nx , Ny , Nxy the direct and shear stress resultants/unit length Nmax,Nmin the maximum and minimum principal stress resultants/ unit length b the angle between the maximum principal stress resultant and the positive X-axis Strain Output x , y , xy the direct and shear strains max , min the maximum and minimum principal strains the angle between the maximum principal strain and the positive X-axis The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.5.2-4. The stress resultants are evaluated directly at the nodes. Nonlinear formulation The element has no nonlinear capability, but may be utilized in a nonlinear environment. The element cannot be used for linear buckling analyses. 126
Space Membrane Elements

3 Y, V 3
1 TSM3 2 1 SMI4 2
X, U
Z, W
Fig.7.5.2-1 Nodal Configuration For SMI4 And TSM3 Elements
Thin membrane
SMI4 Elements
Stiffening members
QSI4 elements
Problem definition
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.5.2-2 Box Structure Illustrating The Use Of Space Membrane Elements
127
4 Y z y 3 x 1 2 X
Fig.7.5.2-3 Local Cartesian System For SMI4 And TSM3 Elements
X, Y +ve tension XY +ve into XY quadrant Y XY
X XY Y
7.6 Plate Elements

7.6.1 Isoflex Thin Plate (QF4, QF8, TF3, TF6)
Formulation The Isoflex family of thin plate elements are formed by applying Kirchhoff constraints within elements formulated using Mindlin plate assumptions. The displacements and rotations are considered independent and the unconstrained nodal configurations are (fig.7.6.1-1) 128
Plate Elements
w, x , y w, x , y x , y
at the corner at the mid side nodes of the quadrilateral, at the central node of the triangle.
where and re the relative (departure from linearity) and absolute rotations of the through-thickness normals after deformation. These rotations include the transverse shear deformations (fig.7.6.1-2). An element with thin plate performance is then produced by constraining the shear strains to zero at discrete points within the element. These constraints provide extra equations that permit certain nodal degrees of freedom to be discarded. The final nodal configurations are (fig.7.6.1-3)
w, x , y
at the corner at the mid side nodes
where is the relative rotation about a tangent to the element edge. This removes 8 and 11 degrees of freedom for the 6 and 3 noded triangles and 11 and 15 degrees of freedom for the 8 and 4 noded quadrilaterals respectively. This is achieved by using the following constraints, originally proposed by Irons for the Semiloof shell [I1]
t = w y = 0 x
At the points shown in fig.7.6.1-4, Where t is the through-thickness shear strain tangential to the element edges. This provides 6 and 8 constraints respectively for the triangles and quadrilaterals which are suitable for eliminating the mid-side translation and normal rotation.
z z
XZ dA = 0 ,
YZ dA = 0
Where the integral is performed using 2*2 Gauss quadrature. This provides 2 constraints for both the triangles and quadrilaterals, which are suitable for removing the rotations at the central node.
S
n dS = 0
Where n is the transverse shear strain normal to the element sides and the integral is performed using 2-point quadrature along each side. This provides 1 constraint suitable for removing the central translation of the quadrilaterals. These constraints are sufficient for the higher order elements and the extra constraints required for the lower order elements are provided by enforcing a linear variation of tangential rotation along the element sides.
129
Element Formulations The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is derived from the 3-D continuum relationship [Section 7.4] by neglecting Z which is zero in the Mindlin plate assumptions, and XZ and YZ which have been constrained to zero, so that
XY =
The continuum displacements for plates of varying thickness are related to the original degrees of freedom of the plate using
U= z t
Ni b, g t i Y
i =1
V=
z t
n
N i b, g t i X
i =1
W=
Ni b, g Wi
i =1
where t and t i are the thicknesses of the plate at the integration and nodal points respectively, and N(,) are the element shape functions. Therefore the discretised, generalised, flexural strain-displacement relationship is
LM MM N
X Y
XY
LM 1 t N X OP M 1t X N t = M PP M t Y Y Q MM1 t N + 1 t N N t Y X t X Y
i n i i =1 i
0 ti t t i t N1 Y N1 Y
t i N1 t X
OP PPLM W OP 0 PPMM PP t N N Q t Y P Q
i Xi Yi i 1
where the terms involving t / X and t / Y are the small strain contributions due to thickness variations. For flat plates
LM MM N
X Y
XY
LM W OP OP MM XW PP PP = MM Y PP Q M2 W P MN XY PQ
2 2 2 2 2
130
Plate Elements The isotropic and orthotropic elastic resultant modulus or rigidity matrices are Isotropic Orthotropic
e j = d(dzT) , , 0, 0, 0
0 t T
e j = d(dzT) , ,
0 t x y
xy ,
yz , xz
where yx has been set to xy E y / E x to maintain symmetry. Note. For a valid material xy < ( E x / E y )1/ 2 The thermal strain is defined by Isotropic Orthotropic
e j = dadzTf , , 0 e j = daTf , ,
T 0 t 0 t
T xy
dz
Full details of the element formulation are given in [L1]. Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). Evaluation of stresses/strains The element output obtained at the element nodes or Gauss points consists of Stress Resultant Output M X , M Y , M XY the moments/unit width in the global Cartesian system. Strain Output
X , Y , XY
the flexural strains in the global Cartesian system.
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.5.2-6. The Gauss point values are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1. Note. Approximate shear forces evaluated by differentiating the moments may also be output. Nonlinear formulation The element has no nonlinear capability, but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The element cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.
131
W y x W y x W y x 1 X Z Quadrilateral Element Triangular Element x 2 8 x W y x 3 x 1 9 7 x W y 6 x W y 4 x W y Y W y x 2 W y x 3 y 6 x W y W y x 4 W y 5 W y W y x 5
Fig.7.6.1-1 Initial Nodal Configuration For Isoflex Plate Element
W / X
Y XZ
Displacement of any point a distance z along normal is U = z Y where W Y = XZ X
Fig.7.6.1-2 Rotation Of The Through-Thickness Normal For A Thick Plate
132
Plate Elements
x W 4 x y W 3 x y x W y
W y x 1 QF4
W y x 2
W y x TF3
W y x
W 4 x 8 W Z x 1 Y X y 5 QF8 y
W 7 x 6 W y W 1 x y 4 6 3 y 3
W y
x 5 W y x TF6 2
Fig.7.6.1-3 Final Nodal Configuration For Isoflex Thin Plate Elements

1/ 3 1/ 3
1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3
2
1/ 3
2
1/ 3
1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3
Fig.7.6.1-4 Locations Where The Transverse Shear Strain Tangential To The Element Edge Is Constrained To Zero
133
(a) Problem Definition
QF4 elements Y
(b) Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.6.1-5 Thin Cantilever Plate Illustrating Use Of QF4 Element
134
Plate Elements
MXY
MY
MX MXY
MX MXY
Z Y
MY
MXY
Fig.7.6.1-6 Sign Convention For Stress Resultant Output
7.6.2 Isoflex Thick Plate (QSC4)

Formulation The Isoflex thick plate element QSC4 is formed by imposing an assumed shear strain field on the isoflex thin plate element QF4 [section 7.6.1]. This is accomplished by first forming the constrained flexural strain-displacement relationship in exactly the same manner as for the QF4 element, and then imposing a bilinear shear strain field defined using nodeless degrees of freedom, i.e.
XZ = P1 XZ1 + P3 XZ 3 and YZ = P2 YZ 2 + P4 YZ 4
where XZi and YZi are the transverse shear strains along the element sides and Pi are linear interpolation functions defined in fig.7.6.2-1. The extra higher order degrees of freedom are condensed out before assembly so that the final nodal configuration is (fig.7.6.2-2)
w, X , Y
at the corner nodes
The elastic resultant modulus or rigidity matrix is defined as
135
$ LMD MN 0 0 $ D
$ D=
OP PQ
where, for isotropic materials
LM1 0 OP $ M 1 0 PP D= 12e1 j M MN0 0 a1 f PQ 2 Et L1 0 O $ D = 2.4a1 + f M0 1 P N Q

Et 3
2 s
and for orthotropic materials

1 / Ex 3 $ = t / E D yx y b 12 0
LM MM N
xy / E x 1 / Ey 0
0 0 1 / G xy
OP PP Q
and
t G yz $ D = s 1.2 0
LM N
0 G xz
OP Q
where yx has been set to xy E y / E x to maintain symmetry. Note. For a valid material xy < ( E x / E y )1/ 2 The thermal strain is defined by Isotropic Orthotropic
e j = dadzTf , , 0, 0, 0 e j = daTf , , ,
0 t 0 t T
dz
xy
yz ,
xz
Full details of the element formulation are given in [C4]. Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the procedures defined in section 2.7. Evaluation of stresses/strains The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of Stress Resultant Output M X , M Y , M XY the moments/unit width in the global Cartesian system,
136
Plate Elements
S X , SY
the shear forces/unit width in the global Cartesian system.
Strain Output X , Y , XY the flexural strains in the global Cartesian system,

YZ , XZ
the shear strains in the global Cartesian system.
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.6.2-4. The Gauss point values are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1. Nonlinear formulation The element has no nonlinear capability but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The element cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.
P5
P6 6
3 3
1 P7
1 P8
Fig.7.6.2-1 Interpolation Functions For Nodeless Freedoms Of The QSC4 Element
137
x W 4 x y W 3 x y
W y Z x Y X 1
W y x 2
Fig.7.6.2-2 Nodal Configuration For The QSC4 Element
Fig.7.6.2-3 Perferated Thick Plate Example Illustrating Use Of QSC4 Element
138
Plate Elements
MXY
MY
MX MXY
SY
MX MXY SX
Z Y
SX
MY
SY X MXY
7.6.3 Isoparametric Thick Mindlin Plate (QTF8, TTF6)

Formulation The QTF8 and TTF6 elements are isoparametric plate elements formulated using Mindlin plate theory [M3], which assumes that Normal stress in the transverse stress is negligible in comparison with the in plane stresses, 'normals' to the mid-surface remain straight but not necessarily normal to the mid-surface after deformation (fig.7.6.3-1). Thus the elements account for the transverse shear effects associated with thicker plates and the elements are termed 'thick' plate elements. The theory also permits treatment of lateral displacement and rotations as independent variables, producing elements which only require C(0) continuity. The nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.6.3-2)
W, X , Y
at each node
where X and Y are the rotation of the normals to the mid-surface and include the effects of shear deformations. The infinitesimal, generalized, flexural straindisplacement relationship is derived from the 3-D continuum strain-displacement relationship by neglecting the out of plane strain, so that
139
X = Y X X Y Y Y Y X W X Y W + Y Y
Y = XY = YZ = XZ =
The elastic resultant modulus or rigidity matrix is defined as

$ D= $ LMD MN 0
b
0 $ D
OP PQ LM MM N
0 G xz
1 0 1 0
where, for isotropic materials

Et 3 $ D = b 12(1 2 )
OP1 0 PP (1 ) / 2 Q
0
and
t G yz $ D = s 1.2 0
LM N
OP Q
xy / E x 1 / Ey 0 0 0 1 / G xy
and for orthotropic materials

1 / Ex 3 $ = t / E D xy x b 12 0
LM MM N
OP1 PP Q
and
t G yz $ D = s 1.2 0
LM N
0 G xz
OP Q
where yx has been set to xy E y / E x to maintain symmetry. Note. For a valid material xy < ( E x / E y )1/ 2
140
Plate Elements The thermal strain is defined by Isotropic Orthotropic

e j = dadzTf , , 0, 0, 0 e j = daTf , , ,
0 t 0 t T
dz
xy
yz ,
xz
Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the procedures defined in section 2.7. Evaluation of stresses/strains The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of Stress Resultant Output M X , M Y , M XY - the moments/unit width in the global Cartesian system,
S X , SY
- the shear forces/unit width in the global Cartesian
system. Strain Output X , Y , XY - the flexural strains in the global Cartesian system,
YZ , XZ
- the bending strains in the global Cartesian system.
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.6.3-4. The Gauss point values are usually more accurate than the nodal values. The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1. Nonlinear formulation The element has no nonlinear capability but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The elements cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.
141
Displacement of any point a distance z along normal is U = z Y where W XZ Y = X
W / X
Y XZ
Fig.7.6.3-1 Rotation Of The Through-Thickness Normal For A Thick Plate

W y x W y x W y x 1 X Z QTF8 x 2 8 x W y x 3 x 1 W y Y W y x 2 W y x 3 4 7 x W y 6 x 5 W y W y x y 6 x W y W y x 4 W y 5
TTF6
Fig.7.6.3-2 Nodal Configuration For QTF8 And TTF6 Elements
142
Plate Elements
Fig.7.6.3-3 Perforated Thick Plate Illustrating Use Of The TTF6 Element
MXY
MY
MX MXY
SY
MX MXY SX
Y Z
SX
MY
SY X MXY
143
7.6.4 Ribbed Plate (RPI4, TRP3)

Formulation The 2-D flat ribbed plate elements are formulated by superimposing standard isoparametric plane stress elements (QPM4,TPM3,PMI4) on the isoflex thin plate elements (QF4,TF3). The membrane and bending stiffnesses are formed independently, and combined to give
LMK MN
membrane
0 K
bending
OPRa | | PQS a T
membrane bending
U = RR | | V SR | | W T
membrane bending
U | V | W
The component elements are listed in table 7.6.4-1

Element Membrane Bending
RPI4 TRP3
PMI4 TPM3
QF4 TF3
Table 7.6.4-1 Component Elements Used To Form Ribbed Plate Elements The element is formulated in a local Cartesian basis and then transformed to the global Cartesian system. The final nodal variables are (fig.7.6.4-1)
U, V, W, X , Y at each node
The strain-displacement relationship, resultant modulus matrix and thermal strains are defined in section 7.3 (in-plane) and section 7.6 (bending). For further details of the element formulation see Section 7.3, Section 7.6 and [Z1,L1]. A lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedures presented in section 2.7. Evaluation of stresses/strains The element output obtained at the element nodes consists of
x , y , xy
Stress Output direct and shear stresses in the local Cartesian system, max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane stresses, the angle between the maximum principal membrane stress and the local x-axis. Stress Resultant Output the membrane stress resultants/unit width in the local Cartesian system,
N x , N y , N xy
144
Plate Elements
M x , M y , M xy the moments/unit width in the local Cartesian system,
Strain Output the membrane strains in the local Cartesian system, max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane strains, the angle between the maximum principal membrane strain and the local x-axis, x , y , xy the flexural strains in the local Cartesian system, max , min the maximum and minimum principal bending strains, the angle between the maximum principal bending strain and the local x-axis
x , y , xy
The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.6.4-3. The local x-axis is defined as being a line joining the first and second element nodes. The xy-plane is defined by the third element node and the local x-axis. The local y and z-axes are defined by a right hand screw rule (fig.7.6.4-4). The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1. The stress resultants are most easily interpreted if the local Cartesian axes are all parallel. Also, the presence of eccentricity requires that the forces and moments are examined at the mid-points of the element sides by averaging the nodal values. Nonlinear formulation The element has no nonlinear capability but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The elements cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.
W W 4 U x y V x U 3 y V U 3 x W y V
W Z U x 1 y V U RPI4
W y x 2 V U 1
W y V U TRP3
W y x 2 V
Y X
Fig.7.6.4-1 Nodal Configuration For Ribbed Plate Elements
145
RPI4 elements
Z Y X
BRP2 elements
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.6.4-2 Ribbed Plate Illustrating Use Of RPI4 Element

MXY
MY Y Y X, Y +ve tension XY +ve into XY quadrant MXY XY X XY Y X X Y Z MY
MX
MX MXY
X MXY
Stresses
Stress Resultants
Fig.7.6.4-3 Sign Convention For Stress And Stress Resultant Output
146
Plate Elements
4 3 1 x z y
z y 1 Z Y x 2 2 3
Fig.7.6.4-4 Local Cartesian System For Ribbed Plate Elements
147
7.7 Shell Elements

7.7.1 Axisymmetric Thin Shell (BXS3)
Formulation The BXS3 element is a thin, curved, non-conforming axisymmetric shell element formulated using the constraint technique. The global displacements and rotations are initially quadratic and are interpolated independently using linear Lagrangian shape functions for the end nodes and a hierarchical quadratic function for the central node. Therefore, the initial degrees of freedom are (fig.7.7.1-1) U, V, and u, v, at the end nodes at the mid-length node.
The Kirchhoff condition of zero shear strain is applied at the two integration points by forcing
v u v + = z = 0 x z x
and eliminating the local transverse translational and rotational degrees of freedom at the central node. The final degrees of freedom for the element are (fig.7.7.1-1)
U, V, z
at the end nodes, at the mid-length node
and
where u is the local axial relative (departure from linearity) displacement. The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationship is defined in the local cartesian system as
x = u x
z =
U V cos sin R R
2 v x 2
x = z =
1 v cos R x
148
Shell Elements where R and are the radius and angle between the local and global Cartesian systems (fig.7.7.1-2) The elastic modulus and resultant modulus (or rigidity) matrices are defined as Explicit
$ D= $ LMD MN 0
m
0 $ D
OP PQ
$ D =
b
where
Isotropic
$ D =
m
Et 1 1 2 1 t 1 2 xz
x
Orthotropic Numerically Integrated

E D= t 1 2
$ D =
m
LM OP N Q LM E OP N E Q
xz z xz
$ D
LM1 OP 12e1 j N 1 Q LM E OP t = E Q 12e1 j N

Et 3
2 3 x xz z 2 xz xz
LM 1 MM MNyy
1 y y
y y y2 y
2
OP P dy y P P y Q
y y
2 2
Isotropic
Orthotropic
LM T OP MM daTTf PP e j = M dy P MM daTf PP MN dy PQ LM T OP MM daT PP e j = M dyTf P MM daTf PP NM dy QP

0 t x z 0 t x z
Further information on the element formulation is given in [S1,C1,Z1]. The consistent and lumped mass matrices are evaluated using the procedures defined in section 2.7.
149
Element Formulations Evaluation of stresses/strains Element output is available at both the nodes and Gauss points and consists of (fig.7.7.1-5)
Nx , Nz
Stress Resultants the meridional and circumferential forces/unit width in the local Cartesian system, the meridional and circumferential moments/unit width in the local Cartesian system.
Mx , Mz
Strains x , z - the meridional and circumferential membrane strains,

x , z - the meridional and circumferential bending strains.
The forces and strains are output in the local Cartesian system, defined as having its x-axis lying along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The local y and z-axes form a right-hand set with the x-axis, such that the y-axis lies in the global XY plane, and the z-axis is parallel to the global Z-axis (up out of page) (fig.7.7.1-4). The top fibre lies on the +ve local y side of the element and +ve values define tension. The forces have greatest accuracy at the Gauss points. Note Layer stress output is also available when the nonlinear continuum plasticity model is utilised. Nonlinear formulation The axisymmetric shell element may be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2). Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear and nonlinear buckling analysis.
Notes
The BXS3 element may be used in conjunction with the stress resultant plasticity model (section 4.2). Geometric nonlinearity utilises either
150
Shell Elements A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by
x =
z =
u 1 u + x 2 x
LM OP N Q
1 v 2 x
LM OP N Q
u v u2 v2 uv cos sin + cos2 + sin 2 sin 2 2 2 R R 2R 2R 2R2 2 v u 2 v v 2 u + x 2 x x 2 x x 2
x = z =
1 v u v v v cos 2 cos2 + 2 cos sin R x x R R x
where R is the radius and is the angle between the local and global Cartesian systems. The forces and strains output with the geometrically nonlinear analysis will be the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff forces and Green-Lagrange strains respectively, referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative. or An Updated Lagrangian formulation which takes account of large displacements and large rotations but small strains, provided that the rotations are small within a load increment. The output now approximates to the true Cauchy stresses and logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-conservative. The initial assumptions used in deriving the BXS3 element limit the rotations to one radian in a Total Lagrangian analysis and rotation increments of one radian in an Updated Lagrangian analysis (section 3.5).
151
V Z U V Z 2 3 U U 3 Z U V
Y Z
Y Z U
X Initial Variables
X Final Variables
Fig.7.7.1-1 Nodal Configuration For The BXSs3 Element
Axis of Revolution
v, y
u, x
Fig.7.7.1-2 Definition Of R And For The Axisymmetric Shell Element
152
Shell Elements
Plan
Section A - A Finite Element Mesh (a) Spherical Shell
Problem Definition
Problem Definition (b) Circular Shell
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.7.1-3 Examples Illustrating The Use Of BXS3 Element
153
y x
Y y x
Fig.7.7.1-4 Definition Of Local Cartesian System For BXS3 Element

y z x
Y z x
Mx Nz
Mz Nx X
154
Shell Elements
7.7.2 Flat Thin Shell (QSI4, TS3)

Formulation These flat shell elements are formulated in a local Cartesian system by superimposing standard isoparametric plane stress elements (QPM4,TPM3,PMI4) and the isoflex thin plate elements (QF4,TF3). The xy-plane of the local Cartesian system is evaluated using a least squares fit through the element nodes. The membrane and bending stiffnesses are then formed independently, and combined to give
LMK MM MN
membrane
0 K
bending
0 0 K
art
0 0
OPRa PP|a S PQ| T
membrane bending z
U RR |=| R V S | | M W T
membrane bending z
U | V | W
where the component elements are listed in Table 7.7.2-1

Element Membrane Bending
QSI4 TS3
PMI4 TPM3
QF4 TF3
Table 7.7.2-1 Primary Elements Used To Form Flat Thin Shell Elements Initially, the membrane stiffness is formed in terms of u and v, the in-plane displacements. An artificial in-plane rotational stiffness K is then added to prevent
art
singularities occurring when elements are co-planar. K
art
is defined as
Triangles
art
1.0 0.5 0.5 1.0 0.5 = k ip E x + E y tA 0.5 1.0 0.5 0.5
Quadrilaterals
art
= k ip
L i MM MN LM 1.0 dE + E itA MM1 // 3 MN1 / 3 1 3 d

x y
OP PP Q OP PP PQ
1 / 3 1 / 3 1 / 3 1.0 1 / 3 1 / 3 1 / 3 1.0 1 / 3 1 / 3 1 / 3 1.0
The in-plane stiffness parameter k ip has a default value of 0.02 which may be changed by using the SYSTEM command (variable STFINP). Once the local element matrices have been evaluated they are transformed to the global Cartesian system. The final nodal variables are (fig.7.7.2-1)
U, V, x , y , z
at each node
155
Element Formulations The strain-displacement relationship is defined in section 7.3 (in-plane) and section 7.6 (bending). Note. The incompatible terms in the strain-displacement matrix are not used to evaluate nodal loads due to initial Gauss point stresses, e.g. thermal loading, initial stresses. For further details of the element formulation see section 7.3, section 7.6, [Z1,L1] A lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedures presented in section 2.7. Evaluation of stresses/strains The element output obtained at the element nodes consists of Stress Output
x , y , xy
direct and shear stresses in the local Cartesian system, max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane stresses, the angle between the maximum principal membrane stress and the local x-axis.
Stress Resultant Output N x , N y , N xy the membrane stress resultants/unit width in the local Cartesian system, M x , M y , M xy the moments/unit width in the local Cartesian system. Strain Output the membrane strains in the local Cartesian system, max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane strains, the angle between the maximum principal membrane strain and the local x-axis, x , y , xy the flexural strains in the local Cartesian system, max , min the maximum and minimum principal bending strains, the angle between the maximum principal bending strain and the local x-axis The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.2-3. The xy-plane of the local Cartesian system is evaluated using a least squares fit through the element nodes. The local x-axis is defined as being a line joining the first and second element nodes, and the local y and z-axes are defined by a right hand screw rule (fig.7.7.2-4)
x , y , xy
156
Shell Elements The nodal stress resultants are evaluated by extrapolating the strain-displacement relationship at the Gauss point to the nodes. The nodal stress is computed at each node directly. The stress resultants are most easily interpreted if the local Cartesian axes are all parallel. Average nodal stresses are in the global Cartesian system. Nonlinear formulation The elements have no nonlinear capability but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The elements cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.
W W z y V W x U 3 z y V z x U 3 V y
x U
W z Z U x 1 y V U QS4/QSI4
z y V
z 1 U
W V y TS3 U
z y V
Y X
Fig.7.7.2-1 Nodal Configuration For Flat Thin Shell Elements
Problem Description
Finite Element Model
Fig.7.7.2-2 Cylindrical Roof Example Illustrating Use Of Thin Flat Shell Elements
157
MXY
MY
MX Stress Resultants MXY
MX MXY
Y Z
MY
X MXY X, Y +ve tension XY +ve into XY quadrant Y XY X XY Y X X
Stresses

4 3 1 x z y
z y 1 Z Y x 2 2 3
Fig.7.7.2-4 Local Cartesian System For Thin Flat Shell Elements
158
Shell Elements
7.7.3 Flat Thin Shell Box (SHI4)

Formulation The flat shell box element is formulated in a local Cartesian system by superimposing a non-standard isoparametric plane membrane element on the isoflex thin plate element. The xy-plane of the local Cartesian system is evaluated using a least squares fit through the element nodes. The membrane and bending stiffnesses are then formed independently and combined to give the total element stiffness in the local Cartesian system, i.e.
LMK NM
membrane
0 K
bending
OPRa | S T QP| a
membrane bending
U = RR | | V SR | | W T
membrane bending
U | V | W
The component bending stiffness and force vector used for this element is from the QF4 element [Section 7.6.1]. The elements use a non-standard plane membrane formulation which is more effective for modelling the in-plane bending in the web of box structures than the standard plane membrane formulation. The initial nodal configuration (fig.7.7.3-1) has 4 nodes with 3 in-plane degrees of freedom at each node u, v and v / x where v / x is the rotation of a line = constant at each node and approximates to
z .
In addition, incompatible displacement modes are utilised so that typically

U=
N i b, g Ui + Pi b, g a i
i =1 i=1
where
P1 , = 1 2 and P2 , = 1 2
b g
b g
and a i are nodeless degrees of freedom which are condensed out before element assembly. The extra incompatible modes are condensed out and the element matrices are then transformed to the global Cartesian system. This provides an element with the following nodal degrees of freedom (fig.7.7.3-2)
U, V, W, x , y , z - at the corner nodes
u - the relative (departure from linearity) local x-displacement for the mid-side nodes
159
Element Formulations The strain-displacement relationship is defined in section 7.3 (in-plane) and section 7.6 (bending). Note. No artificial in-plane rotational stiffnesses are required for this element. For further details of the element formulation see section 7.6, [L1,T2]. A lumped mass matrix is evaluated using the procedures presented in section 2.7. Evaluation of stresses/strains The element output obtained at the element nodes consists of Stress Output
x , y , xy
direct and shear stresses in the local Cartesian system, max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane stresses, the angle between the maximum principal membrane stress and the local x-axis.
Stress Resultant Output N x , N y , N xy the membrane stress resultants/unit width in the local Cartesian system, M x , M y , M xy the moments/unit width in the local Cartesian system. Strain Output the membrane strains in the local Cartesian system, max , min the maximum and minimum principal membrane strains, the angle between the maximum principal membrane strain and the local x-axis, x , y , xy the flexural strains in the local Cartesian system, max , min the maximum and minimum principal bending strains, the angle between the maximum principal bending strain and the local x-axis. The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.3-4. The xy-plane of the local Cartesian system is evaluated using a least squares fit through the element nodes. The local x-axis is defined as being a line joining the first and second element nodes, the local y and z-axes are defined by a right hand screw rule (fig.7.7.3-5). The nodal stress resultants are evaluated by extrapolating the strain displacement relationship at the Gauss points to the nodes, and then computing the nodal stress at each node directly. The stress resultants are most easily interpreted if the local Cartesian axes are all parallel.
x , y , xy
160
Shell Elements Note. The averaged nodal stresses are output in the global Cartesian system. Nonlinear formulation The elements have no nonlinear capability but may be utilised in a nonlinear environment. The elements cannot be used for linear buckling analysis.
V z 4 U z 3 V U
V V Z z 1 SHI4 U z 2 U
Fig.7.7.3-1 Initial In-Plane Nodal Configuration

W x U W z V 4 y x U 3 z V y Z
Y W W z V U x 1 y SHI4 U x 2 z y V X
Fig.7.7.3-2 Final Nodal Configuration For Flat Thin Box Shell ElemENTS
161
Box Girder
Box Girder Bridge
Fig.7.7.3-3 Structures Suitable For Analysis With Flat Box Shell Elements
MXY
MY
MX Stress Resultants MXY
MX MXY
Y Z
MY
X MXY X, Y +ve tension XY +ve into XY quadrant Y XY X XY Y X X
Stresses
162
Shell Elements
4 3
z y 1 Z Y x 2
Fig.7.7.3-5 Local Cartesian System For Thin Flat Box Shell Elements
7.7.4 Semiloof Thin Shell (QSL8, TSL6)

Formulation The Semiloof shell element is a thin, doubly curved, isoparametric element formed by applying Kirchhoff constraints to a three dimensional degenerated thick shell element. The displacements and rotations are considered independent and the unconstrained nodal configurations are (fig.7.7.4-1) U, V, W
x , y
- at the corner and mid-side nodes, - at the loof nodes, - at the central node,
and
w, x , y
where x and y are the rotations of the through-thickness normals. These rotations include transverse shear deformations. An element with thin shell performance is then produced by constraining the shear strains to zero at discrete points within the element, i.e. by ensuring that [I1]
t = w y = 0 x
at the points shown in fig.7.7.4-2. Where t is the through-thickness shear strain tangential to the element edges. This provides 6 and 8 constraints respectively for the triangles and quadrilaterals which are suitable for eliminating the tangential rotations at the loof nodes.
xz dA = 0,
yz dA = 0
163
Element Formulations where the integral is performed using 2*2 Gauss quadrature. This provides 2 constraints for both the triangles and quadrilaterals which are suitable for removing the rotations at the central node.
n dS = 0
where n is the transverse shear strain normal to the element sides and the integral is performed using 2-point quadrature along each side. This provides 1 constraint suitable for removing the central translation of the quadrilaterals. These constraints provide extra equations that permit certain nodal degrees of freedom to be discarded. The final nodal configurations are (fig.7.7.4-3) U, V, W and - at the corner and mid-side nodes, - at the loof nodes.
Using the assumptions of thin shell theory, the strain-displacement relationship is written as
x = u x
y =
v y u v + y x
2w x 2
xy =
2 w y 2
2 w xy
xy 2
The isotropic and orthotropic modulus and resultant modulus (rigidity) matrices are defined as Explicit
$ D= $ LMD MN
membrane
0 $ D
bending
OP PQ
where, for Isotropic materials
164
Shell Elements
$ D
membrane
$ D
bending
LM1 0 OP E M 1 0 P = 1 M a1 f PP MN0 0 2 Q LM1 0 OP Et M 1 0 PP = 12e1 j M MN0 0 a1 f PQ 2

2 3 2
and for Orthotropic materials

$ D
membrane
LM 1 / E = M / E MN 0
x xy 3 x xy
xy / E x
x
0 0 1 / G xy 0
1 / Ey 0 xy / E x
x
OP PP Q
$ D
bending
L 1/ E t M = M / E 12 M N 0
1 / Ey 0
0 1 / G xy
OP PP Q
where yx has been set to xy E y / E x to maintain symmetry.

Notes
To obtain a valid material xy < E x / E y
1/ 2
remove the YZ and XZ shear strain rows and columns, invert the matrix so that the stress-strain relationship is obtained, remove the s Z row and column since this stress is assumed to be zero, re-invert the matrix to obtain the stress-strain relationship (a 3 by 3 matrix).
A three dimensional orthotropic modulus matrix may be specified by using the appropriate data input. This 6 by 6 modulus matrix is the same as that given in section 7.4.1 and is reduced to the plane stress modulus matrix in the following way:
165
Element Formulations Numerically Integrated
E D= t 1 2
LM 1 MM MM 0 MMzz MM 0 N
1 0 z z 0
a f a f
0 0 1 2 0 0 1 z 2
z z 0 z z 2 0
2
z z 0 z 2 z2 0
OP a f PP PP PP a f PP Q
0 0 1 z 2 dz 0 0 1 z2 2

T OP LM T MM PP 0 e j = MM dadzTf LMN + T d OPQPP dT P MM daTf L d O P MM dz MN + T dT PQPP 0 Q N T OP LM T PP MM T MM daTf L d P MN + T dT OPQ PP e j = MM dz MM dadzTf LM + T ddT OP PPP N MM daTf L + T d QOPP PP dT Q Q NM dz MN
0 t
x y xy x y x y 0 t xy xy
Isotropic
Orthotropic
Full details of the element formulation are given in [I1]. Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). Evaluation of stresses/strains The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of Stress Output
x , y , xy max , min
direct and shear stresses in the local Cartesian system, the maximum and minimum principal membrane stresses, the angle between the maximum principal membrane stress and the local x-axis. 166
Shell Elements Stress Resultant Output N x , N y , N xy the membrane stress resultants/unit width in the local Cartesian system, M x , M y , M xy the moments/unit width in the local Cartesian system, Strain Output
the membrane strains in the local Cartesian system, the maximum and minimum principal membrane strains, the angle between the maximum principal membrane strain and the local x-axis, the flexural strains in the local Cartesian system, the maximum and minimum principal bending strains, the angle between the maximum principal bending strain and the local x-axis.
The local Cartesian system varies over the element for curved elements. For the quadrilateral element, the local y-axis, at any point within the element, coincides with the curvilinear line = constant (fig.7.7.4-8). The local x-axis is perpendicular to the local y-axis in the +ve direction and is tangential to the shell mid-surface. For the triangular element, the local Cartesian system is formed by orientating the local y-axis parallel to a line joining the mid-point of the first side with the 5th node. The x-axis is then formed perpendicular to the y-axis and tangential to the shell mid-surface, with the +ve direction defined by the +ve direction. The local z-axis forms a righthanded set with the x and y-axes. The +ve z-axis defines the top surface. The sign convention for stress resultant and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.4-9. The nodal stress resultants are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1.
Notes
The Gauss point stresses are converted to the global Cartesian system before extrapolation. The average nodal stresses are in the global Cartesian system. Nonlinear formulation The Semiloof shell element may be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2) and the nonlinear concrete model (section 4.3). Geometrically nonlinear analysis. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1.
167
Element Formulations Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear and nonlinear buckling analysis.
Notes
Geometric nonlinearity may be represented with either A Total Lagrangian formulation which accounts for large displacements but small rotations and strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by
LM OP N Q v 1 L u O = + M P y 2 N y Q
x = u 1 u + x 2 x
y
LM OP N Q 1 L v O + M P 2 N y Q
+ 1 v 2 x
LM OP N Q 1 L w O + M P 2 N y Q
+ 1 w 2 x
xy =
u v u u v v w w + + + + y x x y x y x y
2w x 2
x =
x =
2w y 2 2 w xy 2
xy = 2
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and GreenLagrange strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative. or An Updated Lagrangian formulation, which takes account of large displacements and moderately large strains provided that the strain increments are small. The output is now in terms of the True Cauchy stresses and the strains approximate to logarithmic strains. The loading approximates to being non-conservative. The initial assumptions used in deriving the shell elements limit the rotations to one radian in a Total Lagrangian analysis, and rotation increments of one radian in an Updated Lagrangian analysis (section 3.5).
168
Shell Elements
V 7 W x y W V 8 W x y V Y U W 1 X Z x y y V U W 4 U x W x W 2 y V U x W (a) QSL8 5 V U 3 y y x V U U x W 4 y V U U y x 6 W V U y y x x W 5 V U
V 6 x y V V Y W 1 X Z U x y W 2 U x W
y y V
W (b) TSL6
Fig.7.7.4-1 Initial Nodal Configurations For QSL8 And TSL6 Elements
169
1/ 3 1/ 3
1/ 3
2
1/ 3
2 (a) QSL8
1/ 3 1/ 3
2
1/ 3
1/ 3
1/ 3 1/ 3
2 (b) TSL6
Fig.7.7.4-2 Locations Where Transverse Shear Strains Tangential To The Element Edge Are Constrained To Zero
170
Shell Elements
V 7 W V U 2 1 W V 8 W U x W 4 y V U W 6 U 1 2 W 5 V U
2 V Y U W 1 X Z (a) QSL8 W 1
V U 2 2
1 V U W V 5 W 1 V 2 U 3
V 6 W 2 V V Y U W 1 X Z (b) TSL6 1 W 2 U U
1 V 2 W U
Fig.7.7.4-3 Final Nodal Configuration For QSL8 And TSL6 Elements
171
Fig.7.7.4-4 Tubular Joint Example Illustrating Use Of QSL8 And TSL6 Elements
Fig.7.7.4-5 Pressure Vessel Example Illustrating Coupling Of HX20 And QSL8 Elements
172
Shell Elements
QSL8 elements
BSL3 elements
Problem Definition
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.7.4-6 Stiffened Shell Illustrating Coupling Between QSL8 And BSL3 Elements
Fig.7.7.4-7 Bending Mechanism For QSL8 Element
173
5 z 6 y 3 x 4
(a) QSL8 Element
z y 5 4
1 (b) TSL6 Element
Fig.7.7.4-8 Local Cartesian System
174
Shell Elements
X, Y +ve tension XY +ve into XY quadrant Y Y XY X XY Y X X
Stresses X, Y +ve tension XY +ve into XY quadrant Y Y XY X XY Y X X
MXY
MY
MX MXY
MX MXY
Y Z
MY
X MXY Stress Resultants
175
7.7.5 Thick Shells (TTS3, TTS6, QTS4, QTS8)

Formulation The formulation for this family of thick shell elements is based on the degeneration of a three dimensional continuum. In this approach, the displacements at any point in the shell are defined by the translation of the reference surface together with the rotation of a director. The director is subsequently referred to as the normal, however, the director need not be initially normal to the reference surface. The normal is considered to remain straight during deformation for computation of displacements through the element thickness. The triangular elements (TTS3, TTS6) are formulated using a standard isoparametric approach. The quadrilateral elements (QTS4,QTS8) adopt an assumed strain field for interpolation of the transverse shear strains. The inclusion of an assumed strain field prevents the element from 'shear locking' when used as a thin shell. The displacements and rotations are considered independent and the nodal degrees of freedom are (fig.7.7.5-1) U, V, W, , - at all nodes.
and are the rotations of the through-thickness normals. These rotations include
transverse shear deformations and relate to a set of 'local' axes set up at each node. To avoid singularities, the direction of these axes is dictated by the direction of the nodal normal. One of the global axes is chosen to define the rotation, the axis chosen corresponds with the smallest component of the nodal vector. The cross product of this axis and the nodal vector defines the second axis of rotation for (fig.7.7.5-1). This definition of the rotations is used when a smooth surface configuration is to be modelled (fig.7.7.5-2). In the event of a discontinuity, connection with a beam element, or a branched shell junction, these rotations are transformed to relate to global axes, x , y , z (fig.7.7.5-1). The location of the transverse shear sampling points for defining the assumed strain fields are shown in fig.7.7.5-3. For the four noded quadrilateral (QTS4) the factors for interpolating from the sampling points to the gauss points are
R1 = R2 = 1 1 2
a f a f
OPa f Q
1 1+ 2
while for the eight noded element (QTS8) the factors are
R1 = 1 1 1 1 R5 a 4 4
LM N
176
Shell Elements
R2 = R3 R4
LM OPa f N Q 1 L O 1 = M1 + Pa1 f R 4 N aQ 4 1 L O 1 = M1 + Pa1 + f R 4 N aQ 4

1 1 a 4
1 1 1 1 + R5 a 4 4
5
R5 =
LM L O OP 1 MN MN PQ PQe j
2 2
where
a =1/ 3
and
Si ( , ) = R i (, )
The covariant transverse shear strains at the gauss points are then given by
=
i R i b, g i =1 n n
Si b, g i
i =1
where and are the covariant transverse shear strains at the gauss points and
i , i are the transverse shears at the sampling points.
Using this representation of shear strains allows Correct representation of the six rigid body modes. Approximation of the Kirchhoff-Love thin shell hypothesis. No spurious zero energy modes using full numerical integration. It is necessary to express the transverse shear strains in terms of covariant components so that interpolation can be carried out using the isoparametric map. The stress and strain terms are ultimately transformed to relate to a local orthogonal set of axes at each gauss point. The local axes are set up using
$ e1 = G / G $ $ $ e3 = e1 x G / e1 x G
177
$ $ $ e 2 = e3 x e1
where G and G are the covariant base vectors at a gauss point. Strains in the curvilinear system lm may then be transformed to strains in the
$ orthogonal local system ij by using the contravariant base vectors
$ d i =
ij
lm
d i dG e$ ieG e$ j
1 i m j
b g
The elements are formulated using the plane stress hypothesis so that zz in the thickness direction is set to zero. The continuum strains are evaluated at integration points through the thickness, and for the geometrically linear case these strains are given by
$ xx =
u x
$ yy =
v y
u v $ xy = + y x v w $ yz = + z y
u w $ yz = + z x
Material properties are specified in the local orthogonal axes. For a thick shell the modulus matrix is condensed so that the plane stress hypothesis is observed. The isotropic modulus matrix is given by [Z1]
D=
E 1 2
LM 1 MM MM MM MNSymm.
0 0 1 2
0 0 0 1 2.4
OP P 0 P PP 0 P 1 P P 2.4 Q
0 0
If orthotropic properties are specified the modulus matrix becomes
178
Shell Elements
E LM E MM d1 i d1 i E MM d1 i D=M MM MM MN Symm.
x x yx xy yx xy yx y xy yx
0 0 G xy
0 0 0 G yz 1.2
OP PP 0 P P 0 P PP 0 P G P P 1.2 Q
0
xz
Factors of 5/6 have been included in the transverse shear terms to take account of a parabolic distribution through the thickness. As the material properties are specified in local element directions and the element formulation is based on covariant components of strain, the modulus matrix must be transformed. The required transformation of the modulus matrix is
C ijkl = G i ea G j e b G k e c G l e d D
id
id
id
abcd
where G m m = , , are the contravariant base vectors. Full details of the element formulations may be found in [D4],[H9] and [S7]. Both consistent and lumped mass matrices are available and are evaluated using the procedures defined in (section 2.7). Evaluation of stresses/strains The element output obtained at the element nodes and Gauss points consists of Stress Output
x , y , xy yz , xz , e
direct and shear stresses in the local Cartesian system, together with von Mises equivalent stress
Three dimensional principal stresses and the corresponding direction cosines may also be output Stress Resultant Output N x , N y , N xy the membrane stress resultants/unit width in the local Cartesian system, M x , M y , M xy the moments/unit width in the local Cartesian system, Sx ,Sy the shear stress resultants/unit width in the local Cartesian system
179
Element Formulations Strain Output

x , y , xy , yz , xz , e
the direct and shear strains in the local Cartesian system, together with von Mises equivalent strain
The local cartesian systems are set up at the element reference surface. For curved elements, the local Cartesian system will vary over the reference surface. The local xaxis, at any point within the element, coincides with the curvilinear line = constant in the direction of increasing (fig.7.7.5-4). The direction of the local z-axis is defined by the vector product of the local x-axis and the curvilinear line = constant (in the direction of increasing ). The local y-axis is defined by the vector product of the local z and local x-axes. The +ve z-axis defines the element top surface. The position of the origin of the curvilinear system for each element together with the directions of increasing values are shown in (fig.7.7.5-5). The sign convention for stress and strain output is shown in fig.7.7.5-6 and fig.7.7.57. The nodal stresses and strains are evaluated using the extrapolation procedures detailed in section 6.1.
Notes
The Gauss point stresses are converted to the global Cartesian system before extrapolation. The average nodal stresses are in the global Cartesian system. Nonlinear formulation The thick shell elements may be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis utilising the elastoplastic constitutive laws [O1] (section 4.2) and the nonlinear concrete model (section 4.3). Geometrically nonlinear analysis using a Total Lagrangian formulation. Geometrically and materially nonlinear analysis utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Nonlinear dynamics utilising the nonlinear material laws specified in 1. Linear and nonlinear buckling analysis. Creep analysis Note. The Total Lagrangian formulation used for these elements is valid for both large displacements and large rotations. However, the formulation is only valid for small strains. The nonlinear strain-displacement relationship is defined by
x = u 1 u + x 2 x
LM OP N Q
1 v 2 x
LM OP N Q
1 w 2 x
LM OP N Q
180
Shell Elements
y = v 1 u + y 2 y
LM OP N Q
1 v 2 y
LM OP N Q
1 w 2 y
LM OP N Q
xy = yz =
xz =
u v u u v v w w + + + + y x x y x y x y v w u u v v w w + + + + z y z y z y z y
u w u u v v w w + + + + z x z x z x z x
The output is now in terms of the 2nd Piola-Kirchhoff stresses and Green-Lagrange strains referred to the undeformed configuration. The loading is conservative.
181
Z,w (a) 5 degrees of freedom Definition of nodal rotations when global X defines . X,u V
Y,v
Z,w z y Y,v x
X,u
(b) 6 degrees of freedom
Fig.7.7.5-1 Nodal Variables For Thick Shell Elements
182
Shell Elements
Default angle < 20o Averaged nodal vector V2
V1 2 1 Element 1 Element 2 3
V3
(a) SMOOTH SURFACE (5 degrees of freedom)
Default angle > 20o Separate nodal vector
V 21
V 22
V1
V3
Element 1
Element 2
(b) DISCONTINUOUS SURFACE (5 degrees of freedom)
Fig.7.7.5-2 Smooth And Discontinuous Surface
183
2 4 3 4 3
1 2
1 Shear
Shear (a) QTS4 3 5 7
6 a a
4 5
3 a 8 a 1 5 a a
a a = 3-1/2
2 Shear
1 1
2 Shear
3 2
(b) QTS8
Fig.7.7.5-3 Shear Sampling Points
184
Shell Elements
z y 5
= constant
x 2 6
= constant
(a) TTS6 (TTS3 axes coincide when element is flat)
5 = constant 6 y = constant z x 4
7 3
(a) QTS8 (QTS4 axes coincide when element is flat)
Fig.7.7.5-4 Local Cartesian Systems
185
4 3 5 2
1 (a) TTS3 3 6
1 (b) TTS6 5
8 2
1 (c) QTS4
1 (d) QTS8
Fig.7.7.5-5 Curvilinear Coordinates
186
Shell Elements
y y xy x xy y x x
xz
yz
xz x
yz y
Direct stress (+ve) Tension Shear stress (+ve) Shear into XY, YZ and ZX quadrants Note: Positive values shown in figure
Fig.7.7.5-6 Sign Convention For Continuum Stress Output
187
Y Y
Mxy My Mx Mxy Sy Sx
Mxy
Mx Mxy
Sy Sx
My
Y X Nx Nxy Ny X
Nxy
Nxy Ny
Nxy Nx
Membrane stress Flexural stress Shear stress Note:
(+ve) Direct tension (+ve) In-plane shear into XY quadrant (+ve) Hogging moment (producing +ve stresses on the element top surface) (+ve) In-plane shear into YZ and XZ quadrants Positive values shown in figure
188
Field Elements
7.8 Field Elements

7.8.1 Thermal Bar (BFD2, BFD3)
The thermal bar element (fig.7.8-1) has either 2 or 3 nodes and may transfer heat along its length. The bar is assumed to be perfectly insulated along its length and may transfer heat across its end areas via conduction, convection, radiation or applied heat flux. The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable . The cross sectional area of the material is defined at each node and may vary over the element. The gradient-field variable relationship is defined as
gx = x
where x represents the local x-direction of the element. The field gradient is related to the flow by
q x = k gx
Element Output The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables and flow in the local element axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.
gx qx
field gradient flow
The local x-axis lies along the element axis in the direction in which the element nodes are specified. The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.
189
Y,V 1 2 1 BFD2 2 BFD3 3
X,U
Fig.7.8-1 Nodal Configuration For Bar Field Elements

Struts represented with BFD2 elements
Pressure
Continuum elements Heat transfer between members
Fig.7.8-2 Example Illustrating The Use Of Bar Field Elements
190
Field Elements
7.8.2 Thermal Axisymmetric Bar (BFX2, BFX3)

The axisymmetric thermal bar element (fig.7.8-3) has either 2 or 3 nodes and may transfer heat along its length. The bar is assumed to be perfectly insulated along its length and may transfer heat across its end areas via conduction, convection, radiation or applied heat flux. The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable . The gradient-field variable relationship is defined as
gx = x
The field variable is related to the flow by

q x = k gx
Element output The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables and flows in the local element axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.
gx qx
field gradient flow
Y,V 1 2 1 BFX2 2 BFX3 3
X,U
Fig.7.8-3 Nodal Configuration For Axisymmetric Bar Field Elements
191
Problem Definition
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.8-4 Spinning Cylinder Example Illustrating The Use Of Axisymmetric Bar Field Elements
7.8.3 Thermal Link (LFD2, LFS2, LFX2)

The thermal link element (fig.7.8-5) has 2 nodes and may transfer heat between two nodal points by either conduction, convection or radiation. The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable . The cross sectional area of the material is defined at each node and may vary over the element. The heat flow is positive in the direction of the local x-axis and is defined as Conduction Convection Radiation
q = K(1 2 ) q = h c (1 2 )
4 4 q = h r (1 2 )
where K is the gap conductance. h c and h r are the convective and radiative heat transfer coefficients.
192
Field Elements Note that the material properties may be dependent on both the gap distance and the temperature evaluated at the centre of the element. The element stiffness matrix may be derived from the nodal flows which are defined as
Q1 = K t A 1 2 = Q 2
where K t is the combined heat transfer coefficient for the element. The stiffness matrix is then rewritten as
K=K +K
o o 1
where K is the linear contribution to the stiffness matrix defined as follows

K = KtA
o
LM 1 1OP N 1 1 Q
t 1 2
and K1 is the nonlinear contribution to the stiffness matrix defined as
LM K Ab g =M MM K Ab g N
1 t 1 1 2
K t A 1 2 2 K t A 1 2 2
g OP P gPPQ
The nodal flows are evaluated directly using

Q = K
where K is evaluated using the current properties in temperature dependent analyses. Element output The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables and flows in the local element axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.
gx qx
field gradient flow
193
Y,V
1 LFD2 LFX2 LFS2 2
X,U
Fig.7.8-5 Nodal Configuration For Link Field Elements
LFX2 elements
QAX8 elements
Problem Definition
Finite Element Mesh
Fig.7.8-6 Thermal Analysis Of An Interface Fit Illustrating The Use Of Link Field Elements
7.8.4 Plane Field (QFD4, QFD8, TFD3, TFD6)

The plane field element (fig.7.8-7) is defined in the global XY-plane. The gradientfield variable relationship is defined as 194
Field Elements
gX = gY = X Y
The isotropic and orthotropic thermal conductivity modulus matrices are defined as follows Isotropic Orthotropic Element output The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables or flows in the global axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.
gX , gY qX , qY
LMk 0 OP N0 k Q Lk 0 OP k=M N0 k Q
k=
x y
field gradient flow
The Gauss point values are generally more accurate.
195
3 6 7 5
8 2 1 Y QFD4 1 1 2 QFD8 5 4 6 2 3 TFD3 2 TFD6 3
Fig.7.8-7 Nodal Configuration For Plane Field Elements
196
Field Elements
Fig.7.8-8 Cofferdam Example Illustrating The Use Of Plane Field Elements
197
7.8.5 Axisymmetric Field (QXF4, QXF8, TXF3, TXF6)

The axisymmetric field elements (fig.7.8-9) are formulated using the axisymmetric quasi-harmonic equation (section 2.10) and are defined in the global XY-plane. The gradient-field variable relationship is defined as
gX = gY = X Y
The isotropic and orthotropic thermal conductivity modulus matrices are defined as follows Isotropic Orthotropic Element output The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables or flows in the global axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.
gX , gY qX , qY
LMk 0 OP N0 k Q Lk 0 OP k=M N0 k Q
k=
x y
field gradient flow
198
Field Elements
3 6 7 5
8 2 1 Y QXF4 1 1 2 QXF8 5 4 6 2 3 TXF3 2 TXF6 3
Fig.7.8-9 Nodal Configuration For Axisymmetric Field Elements
199
Well
Flow
Point sink to represent well
Fig.7.8-10 Groundwater Flow Example Illustrating The Use Of Axisymmetric Field Elements
7.8.6 Solid Field (HF8, HF16, HF20, PF6, PF12, PF15, TF4, TF10)
The solid field elements (fig.7.8-11) are formulated using the 3-D quasi-harmonic equation (section 2.10). The nodal degree of freedom is the field variable . The gradient-field variable relationship is defined as
gX = gY = gZ = X Y Z
200
Field Elements The isotropic and orthotropic thermal conductivity modulus matrices are defined as follows Isotropic
Orthotropic Element output
LMk MM N0 LMk k=M0 MN 0

k= 0
0 0 0 ky 0
k 0
OP PP kQ OP 0P k P Q
0
z
The element output consists of the gradients of the field variables or flows in the global axis system at either the Gauss or nodal points, i.e.
g X , gY , g Z qX, qY, qZ
field gradient flow
201
8 5 6 1 2 19 18 16 12 7 6 10 2 3 12 7 8 9 1 2 3 4 10 7 3 1
TF4 HF8
7 4 3 9
16
15 14 12 11 8 7 4 3 6 5
HF16
13
10
20
6 17 11 5 4
HF20
4 5 1 2 15 10 11 7 1 8 2 3 9 5 4 2 3
TF10
13 9 1
14 15 8
3
PF6
11 10 6 4
PF12
14 13 12 9 6 4
PF15
Fig.7.8-11 Nodal Configuration For Solid Field Elements
202
Field Elements
Beryllia heat sinks Silicon Chips
Stainless steel side walls
Copper Base
Fig.7.8-12 Thermal Analysis Of A Hybrid Power Assembly Illustrating Use Of Solid Field Elements
203
7.8.7 Solid Composite Field (HF8C, HF16C, PF6C, PF12C)

If brick elements are used for a structural analysis of composites the number of degrees of freedom even for small laminate structures rapidly becomes very large leading to prohibitively excessive computer costs. To overcome this difficulty layered brick elements were developed where several laminae are included in a single element. Composite field elements are designed to compliment the structural elements in a thermo-mechanical analysis. For these elements the field variable at a node (temperature) is used to interpolate a temperature field that varies linearly over the thickness of the whole element and quadratically in-plane for the higher order elements. As with the PN6L, PN12L, HX8L and HX16L structural elements, in order to speed up the computation the elements are restricted to constant layer thicknesses [H13]. This limitation requires the calculation of only a 2x2 Jacobian matrix. For the integration of the element thermal stiffness matrix, the thermal conductivity matrices are summed layerwise through the thickness, while the shape function derivative matrices are integrated using a plane 2x2 (for HF8C and HF16C), or a single point (for PF6C), or a 3 corner point quadratic (for PF12C) gauss integration scheme outside the through thickness loop. This indicates that the (in plane) shape function derivative matrix is independent of the non-dimensional coordinate through the thickness. The shape functions for the top and bottom surfaces of the composite elements can be considered to be single membrane element shape functions, see figure 7.8-13. The shape functions N i ( top) = N i ( bot ) = N i , are defined in terms of natural coordinates and , for the HF16C element these are given by:
Ni = Ni = 1 1 + i 1 + i i + i 1 4 1 1 2 2 2 1 + i + i i i 2
gb
gb
for corner nodes for mid-side nodes
jb
The PF12C, HF8C, and PF6C elements use the equivalent shape functions for 6, 4 and 3 noded membranes. To form the complete shape functions for the brick element N br , linear interpolation is used between the functions for the top and bottom surfaces:
NT = br 1 + 1 N T bot f ; + 1 N T top g ia ib 2
b g
The in-plane and through-thickness shape functions can then be separated to give:
N T = T + T br
where
204
Field Elements
T = T = 1 T T N ;N 2 i i 1 NT ; NT i i 2
The scalar temperature field, , can now be interpolated as:
= T + T
= H
lq
with the field variable in terms of the nodal variables:
= 1 , 2 ,.............. n
The field gradient vector g is defined as

g =
T
R , , U S x y z V T W
The field gradient - variable relationship is given by:
g = B
where B is the field gradient - variable matrix.
LM + OP MM x x PP B=M + MM y 2 y PPP MM c PP Q N
T T T T T
and c is the overall depth of the element shown in figure 7.8-13.
205
B can be split into two matrices combining in-plane and through thickness terms:
B = B + B
1
where
LM OP MM x PP B =M MM 2 y PPP MM c PP N Q
T T
1
B2
LM OP MM x PP =M MM y PPP 0 MN PQ
T T T
The restriction of constant layer thicknesses provides an uncoupling between the inplane coordinates and the through-thickness coordinate. Consequently for the transformation of the cartesian derivatives into the natural derivatives only a 2 dimensional Jacobian matrix is required.
R U LM x | | = M S V M x | | M | | N T W
or inverted
y y
OPR U PP| x | S V | | PQ| y | T W
1 1 = J11 + J12 x 1 1 = J 21 + J 22 y
and an integration constant for the thickness is computed from:

z= c 2 = . 2 z c
where c is the depth of the element see figure 7.8-13. The differential of the volume is given by
dV = c J dd 2
where |J| is the 2x2 Jacobian determinant. The element thermal stiffness matrix in basic form may be defined as 206
Field Elements
K=
B T k B dV
where k is the principal thermal conductivity matrix for an orthotropic material.
LMk k =M0 MN 0
0 ky 0
0 0 kz
OP PP Q
As the matrices B1 and B 2 are independent of , only k varies from layer to layer. Therefore the field gradient - variable matrices can be left out of the integration through the thickness: As the matrices B1 and B 2 are independent of , only k varies from layer to layer. Therefore the strain-displacement matrices can be left out of the integration through the thickness:
F B L k d O B + B L k d O B I PQ MN z PQ GG MN z JJ c K = zz GG LM k d OP B + B LM k d OP B JJ 2 J dd +B H N z Q N z Q K
T 1 nlay n =1
lay
T 1
nlay n =1
lay
T 2
nlay n =1
lay
T 2
nlay n =1
lay
with B1 and B 2 as:
LM J MM B = MJ MM MNM
1
1 11
T T 1 + J12 T T 1 1 + J22 21
2 T c
OP PP PP PP QP
B2
LM J MM = MJ MM MM N
1 11
T T 1 + J12 T T 1 1 + J22 21
0
T
OP PP PP PP QP
207
Element Formulations The through thickness dependency is condensed in the integration of the thermal conductivity matrix which makes the assembly of the element thermal stiffness matrix more efficient. The field gradient - variable matrices only have to be computed inplane. This is possible by restricting the element to a reasonably uniform thickness for a single layer.
Fig.7.8-13 Nodal Configuration For Solid Composite Field Elements
7.9 Joint Elements

7.9.1 Joints (JNT3, JPH3, JF3, JRP3, JNT4, JL43, JSH4, JL46, JSL4, JAX3, JXS3)
Joint elements are composed of translational and rotational springs that may be used to connect two nodes on adjacent finite elements (fig.7.9-1). The number of springs utilised in each element type is chosen to be compatible with a corresponding finite element type, e.g. two translational springs for plane elements or one translation and two rotations for plate bending elements (fig.7.9-2).
208
Joint Elements The local element stiffness matrix is formulated directly from user input stiffness coefficients and is then transformed to the global Cartesian system. The element mass matrix is lumped and formed directly from user input masses.
7.9.2 Evaluation of Stresses/Forces

Element forces f are evaluated directly in the local Cartesian system from
f = ka'
where k and a are stiffness matrix and displacement vector in the local Cartesian system. Element strain output is evaluated in the local element system as
and
R U R u | | = | v S V S | | |w T W T R U R | | = | S V S | | | T W T
x y z x y z
2 2 2
U | V w | W
u1 v1
1
translational strain
x2 y2 z2
x1 y1 z1
U | V | W
rotational strain
The element local axes are defined by 3 noded element The local x-axis is defined by a line joining the first and third element nodes. The local y-axis forms a right handed set with the xaxis such that the local z-axis is upwards (out of page) (fig.7.9-5). 4 noded element The local x-axis is defined by a line joining the first and third element nodes. The local xy-plane is defined by the fourth element node and the element x-axis. The local y and z-axes form a right handed set with the local x-axis (fig.7.9-6). For convenience, element output may be obtained at either nodal or Gauss points.
7.9.3 Nonlinear Formulation

The joint elements may be employed in Materially nonlinear analysis using the nonlinear joint models (section 4.4). Note. The joint element possess no geometrically nonlinear terms, however they may be used as nonlinear support conditions in geometrically nonlinear analysis.
209
2
Y 1 Springs
Fig.7.9-1 Springs Connecting Two Nodes In 2-D (No Rotational Stiffness)

Rotational springs y 3 1 2 Translational spring x
Fig.7.9-2 Joint Element For Plate Bending Elements (One Translation And Two Rotations)
210
Joint Elements
y x
Y y is given zero stiffness to allow rotation X
Fig.7.9-3 Modelling A Hinged Connection Between Shell Elements
Fig.7.9-4 Excavation Example Illustrating Use Of Joint Elements For Nonlinear Support Conditions
211
y Y 3 1, 2
Fig.7.9-5 Local Cartesian System For 3-Noded Joint Elements

z Y y 4 3 1, 2 x
Fig.7.9-6 Local Cartesian System For 4-Noded Joint Elements
7.9.4 Use of Joints With Higher Order Elements

To illustrate the behaviour of joints with higher order elements, consider the problem of the beam on the elastic foundation shown in figure 7.9-7. A constant stress per unit length q along the top face is transmitted through the beam to the elastic foundation beneath. For equilibrium, the elastic foundation must apply an equal and opposite stress per unit length. The beam is modelled by a single quadratic element of length two and the elastic foundation by three joint elements, as depicted in figure 7.9-8. For convenience, the coordinate system is centred at the mid-node of the element. The equivalent nodal loads are calculated using the principle of virtual work as
212
Joint Elements
qu dx = q u1
LM N LM 1 u =q N3
11
1 2
x x 1 dx + u 2
a f
4 1 u 2 + u3 3 3
OP Q
ze
1
1 x 2 dx + u3
11
1 2
x x + 1 dx
a f OPQ
where the virtual work of the load is calculated from the perturbation of shape functions particular to each node. From equilibrium, the nodal loads calculated must be identical to the nodal loads developed by the discrete joint elements connected to the nodes on the lower surface. Note, the nodal loads are different since the virtual work arising from the perturbation of the mid-node is larger than that of the side nodes; there is a corresponding difference in the internal strain energy associated with each virtual perturbation. If the elastic foundation has a stiffness per unit length of k, then the stress per unit length is related to k by q = ku For a constant deflection u along the lower face, q may be substituted in each of the nodal equilibrium equations resulting with discrete spring stiffnesses K of (see fig.7.9-9) At node 1 and 3 At node 2
K= K= 1 k 3 4 k 3
If the beam is modelled by two or more elements, then the spring stiffness at connecting nodes must be summed (fig.7.9-10). For non-central midside nodes, the computer program may be used to calculate the ratio of joint stiffnesses. If the appropriate boundary nodes are restrained, and a unit face load applied, the resulting nodal reactions will correspond to the integrated shape functions; these are also the ratio of spring stiffnesses to be used. With a little ingenuity a variety of spring boundary conditions can be evaluated using appropriate loading and the program to calculate equivalent reactions. However, it is recommended that for nonlinear contact problems, linear elements should be used if possible as higher order elements poorly represent the discontinuities in the boundary conditions. This may result in either poor convergence or divergence of the solution.
213
q
Fig.7.9-7 Beam On An Elastic Foundation

l l q 3 4 2 1 8 y x 7 6 5
Fig.7.9-8 Finite Element Discretisation

q/3 4q/3 q/3
y x k/3 4k/3 k/3
Fig.7.9-9 Discrete Joint Stiffnesses
214
Joint Elements
q/3 4q/3 q/3 q/3 4q/3 q/3
k/3
4k/3
k/3
k/3 2k/3
4k/3
k/3
Fig.7.9-10 Summation Of Joint Stiffnesses
7.10 Fourier Element Formulation (TAX3F, QAX4F, TAX6F, QAX8F)

These are axisymmetric solid elements that may be subjected to non-axisymmetric loading (fig.7.10-1).
7.10.1 Global and Local Coordinate Systems

The structural mesh is specified in the global XY-plane and, together with the global Z-coordinate, the global coordinate axes form a right-hand coordinate system. In general the structure may be axisymmetric about either the X or Y axis, unless CBF loading is applied, in which case the structure is restricted to be axisymmetric about the X-axis. The element axes are defined in the cylindrical coordinate system xyz, with associated displacements u,v,w. The tangential displacement w is positive in the direction of increasing j, where is the positive rotation defined by the right-hand coordinate system about the axis of symmetry. u and v are positive in the direction of increasing x and y respectively and may be either axial or radial displacements depending on the definition of the axis of symmetry.
7.10.2 Standard Isoparametric Elements

The geometry of the body is defined using the shape functions
215
X=
b g
i =1
N i , X i
and
Y=
Ni b, gYi
i =1
where N i , are standard linear or quadratic isoparametric element shape functions for node i and m is the number of nodes. The nodal degrees of freedom of the element are u,v,w
4
b g
at each node in the cylindrical coordinate system

3 6 7 5
8 2 1 QAX4F 1 2 QAX8F
5 4 6 2 TAX6F 3
2 3 TAX3F
Y,V
X,U
Figure 7.10-1 Nodal Configurations For Fourier Elements
216
Fourier Elements where u,v,w are given by the Fourier expansions,

u=
n=0 m
us cos n + n
uan sin n
n =1 m n =1 m
v=
n=0 m
vsn cos n + van sin n

n =0
w=
ws sin n n
n=0
wan cos n
n=0,1,..,m represents the range of harmonics considered and superscripts 's' and 'a' denote the symmetric and asymmetric components. For each harmonic, the discretised displacement is defined as
u = N' a
where a is the nodal displacement vector and for any node i

a i = as , aa i i
T
= u s , vs , w s , u a , v a , w a i i i i i i
and N' is the shape function matrix defined as
LMN cos n N' = M 0 MN 0

i
0 N i cos n 0
0 0 N i sin n
N i sin n 0 0
0 N i sin n 0
0 0 N i cos n
OP PP Q
where N i are the standard isoparametric shape functions.
7.10.3 Strain-Displacement Relationships

The infinitesimal strain-displacement relationships for structures symmetric about the global X-axis are given by
x = u x
y =
v y
1 w v + Y Y
=z = XY =
u v + Y X
217
Y = YZ = X = XZ = w W 1 v + Y Y Y 1 u w + Y X
7.10.4 Constitutive Relationships

The modulus matrix D, which for isotropic and orthotropic elasticity is defined as Isotropic
0 0 0 O LMa1 f P 0 0 0 P a1 f MM 0 P MM a1 f a1 02f 0 P E 0 0 0 0 0 P D= 2 a1 + fa1 2f MM a1 2f 0 PPP 0 0 0 0 MM 2 a1 2f PP MM 0 0 0 0 0 P 2 Q N
Orthotropic
LM 1 / E E MM // E D=M MM 0 MM 0 N 0
x xy xz
yx / E y
x x
zx / E z zy / E z 1 / Ez 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 / G xy 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 / G yz 0
0 0 0 0 0 1 / G xz
1 / Ey yz / E y 0 0 0
OP PP PP PP QP
where for symmetry

xy Ex = yx Ey , xz zx yz zy = , = Ex Ez Ey Ez
In addition to the solid material definition of the element, a plane stress material model may also be utilised. The constitutive relationship is,
LM 1 / E MM 0 / E D=M MM 0 MM 0 N 0
x xy
yx / E y 1 / Ey 0 0 0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 / G xy 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
OP PP P 0P 0P P 0P Q
218
Fourier Elements The use of this material model results in a reduction of the active stresses from
x , y , z , xy , yz and xz
to
x , y and xy
The plane stress material option is intended to allow the modelling of fan blades for which the use of the full modulus matrix is inappropriate. Note that elements using this material model should be adequately restrained in the tangential w direction. A complete description of the element formulation is given in [C1].
7.10.5 Element Loading

Concentrated loads, constant body forces and body force potentials are applied in the global XYZ directions, in contrast, surface tractions, initial stresses, initial strains and thermal loading are applied in the local xyz directions. Note that concentrated loads (and nodal reactions) are applied as forces per unit length of the structural surface. The resolution of the global loads into the local tangential and radial directions is performed using the following matrices. Two possible axes of symmetry must be considered.
(i) Axisymmetric about x-axis
From fig.7.10-2a, the global loads are related to the local loads via
LMP MMP NP
x1 y1 z1
OP LM1 PP = MM0 Q N0
0 cos sin
OPLMP sin P M P cos P M P QN

0
XG
YG ZG
OP PP Q OPLMP sin cos n P M P cos sin n P M P QN

0 0
Applying the appropriate virtual perturbations gives For symmetric contributions
LMP MMP NP
x1 cos n y1 z1
OP LMcos n cos nP = M 0 sin n P M 0 Q N OP LMsin n sin nP = M 0 cos nP M 0 Q N
0 cos cos n sin sin n
XG YG ZG
OP PP Q OP PP Q
For asymmetric contributions
LM P MM P N P
x1 sin n y1
0 cos sin n sin cos n
z1
OPLMP sin sin n P M P cos cos nP M P QN
XG
YG ZG
219
(ii) Axisymmetric about y-axis
From fig.7.10-2b, the global loads are related to the local loads via
LMP MMP NP
x1 y1 z1
OP LM cos PP = MM 0 Q N sin
sin PXG 1 0 PYG 0 cos PZG 0
OPLM PPMM QN
OP PP Q OPLM PPMM QN OP PP Q
Applying the appropriate virtual perturbations gives For symmetric contributions
LMP MMP NP
x1 cos n y1 z1
OP LM cos cos n 0 cos nP = M sin n P M sin sin n Q N OP LMcos sin n 0 sin nP = M cos nP Msin cos n Q N
sin cos n PXG 0 cos n PYG cos sin n PZG 0 0
For asymmetric contributions
LM P MM P N P
x1 sin n y1
z1
sin sin n PXG 0 sin n PYG 0 cos cos n PZG 0
OPLM PPMM QN
OP PP Q
For dynamic and harmonic response analyses where the automatic evaluation of Fourier loads is not available, the global loads for the 'nth' harmonic must be converted to local loads using the above expressions.
220
Fourier Elements
Z Pz PZ Py PY x Y
(a) Axi-symmetric about the global X-axis Pz Px PX Y PZ X
Z (b) Axi-symmetric about the global Y-axis
Fig 7.10-2 Local And Global Loads
7.10.6 Inertial Loading

The inertial loading due to angular accelerations and rotations require explicit evaluation and are directly applied to the element.
221
Element Formulations Assuming an arbitrary origin for the XYZ coordinate system (as shown in fig.7.10-3), about which the angular accelerations and velocities are to be applied, results in the following definition for the displacement vector r
r = X + x i + Y + r cos j + Z + r sin k
i d
i d
where X, Y, Z define the shift in the global coordinate system. Definition of the acceleration vector The instantaneous acceleration of a particle in a rotating coordinate system
r( X, Y, Z) with respect to a fixed system r' ( X' , Y' , Z' ) is [S4]
&&' = && + 2xr + x xr + xr & r r
b g
where a dot signifies the derivative with respect to time and the vectors
= X i + Y j + z k = X i + Y j + z k
are the angular velocities and accelerations about the r'(X', Y', Z') axes and
&& && && && = Xi + Y j + Zk r
are the linear accelerations in the global X', Y' and Z' directions. Substituting for r gives the accelerations with respect to the fixed system, X', Y' and Z'. To apply the resulting inertial forces in the cylindrical coordinate system, the accelerations are resolved (fig.7.10-4)
&& = &&' x x && L = &&' cos + &&' sin y y z &&L = &&' sin + &&' cos z y z
222
Fourier Elements
z zl Z yl Y x y
Figure 7.10-3 Definition Of Rotation Axes Origin

Z
Z, Z z x x r
X, X
Y, Y
Y X
X Y
Figure 7.10-4 Resolution Of Global To Local Accelerations 223
Element Formulations which gives the following acceleration terms in cylindrical coordinates
&&' = c1 + c2 cos + c3 sin + c 4 cos 2 + c5 sin 2 r
where
c1
c2
c3
c4
c5
LM&& e + jdX + xi + b gY + b + gZOP x 1 M PP & =M F + + 2e + j I r K 2H MM PP e&& + jr N Q OP LM & e e + 2j j r && = MY + b + gd X + xi e + jY + b g Z P MM && PP NMZ + b gdX + xi + b + gY e + jZ QP OP LM & e e + 2j + j r && = M Z + b gd X + xi + b + gY e + jZ P MM && P Y b + gd X + xi + e + jY b gZ P MN PQ L 0 OP 1 M = r M P 2 MN 2 PQ L 0 O 1 = r M 2 P 2 M MN PPQ
2 Y 2 Z X Y Z X Z Y 2 Y 2 Z 2 X X Y X Z X Y Z 2 X 2 Z Y Z X X Z Y Y Z X 2 X 2 Y Z X Y X Z Y Y Z X 2 X 2 Y X Y Z 2 X 2 Z Y Z X 2 Y 2 Z Y Z 2 Z Y Z 2 Y
Using d'Alembert's principle, the inertia force may be included as part of the load vector
Rb =
ze j e
v
N'
f && dv x
= R b( f ) + R b(a )
where R b( f ) is the element nodal and body forces and R b( a ) is the inertial force vector which includes the effects of angular velocities and accelerations
R b( a ) =
zzzbg
+ 1 +1 2 1 1 0
N'
&& Y J d d x
224
Fourier Elements Centripetal load stiffening Centripetal load stiffening has been applied to the n = 0 term, but there is no nonlinear stress stiffening contribution. The centripetal load stiffening matrix, contrary, to its name, actually decreases the stiffness of the structure. Centripetal forces are proportional to the angular rotation squared and the lever arm of the mass from the centre of rotation. As the body spins, the lever arm is lengthened by positive displacements, which increases the applied load. This may, conversely, be thought of as reducing the stiffness. The centripetal load stiffness is applied by default, but it may be omitted by setting OPTION 102.
7.10.7 Evaluation of Stresses

The stresses are evaluated at the element Gauss points and are extrapolated to the nodal points. The output consists of Stress Output
x , y , z , xy , yz , xz
direct and shear stresses direct and shear strains
Strain Output
x , y , z , xy , yz , xz
where x , y are the coefficients of the Fourier series expansion of the stresses and strains. The principal stresses and strains are evaluated at = 0 only.
7.11 Interface Elements (INT6, INT16)

7.11.1 Definition and interpolation
Interface elements INT6 (6-noded line element for 2D analyses) and INT16 (16-node surface element for 3D analyses) are used to model composite delamination in an incremental non-linear analysis. They may be inserted at planes of potential delamination to model inter-laminar failure, and crack initiation and propagation. These elements have no geometric properties and are assumed to have no thickness (see Fig. 7.11-1).
15 14 13
zero
6 5 3 4 1 2
zero
16
7 8 10
6 11
12 4
225
Element Formulations Fig.7.11-1 Interface Elements INT 6 and INT16 The displacement field u for these elements contains the bottom displacement u b and the top displacement u t (number of components in u b and u t is two for INT6 and three for INT16) so that u T = u T u T . The bottom and the top displacement are b t interpolated as
u b = Hp
b b
and u t = Hp
where p and p are the vectors of the bottom and the top nodal displacements
t
(number of components in these vectors is six for INT6 and twenty-four for INT16) and H is the matrix of shape functions of the type
INT6:
Lh H=M NM0
T T
0T hT
OP QP
or INT16:
LMh H = M0 MN0
T T T
0T hT 0T
0T 0T hT
OP PP Q
where ith component in the vector h (i=3 for INT6 and i=8 for INT16) is the value of the ith shape function at a particular point. The actual constitution of the interface element is defined in terms of the relative displacements between the bottom and the top surfaces
= ut ub = B
Rp U = Bp | | Sp V | | T W
b t
where p is the vector of the nodal displacements (which has twelve components for INT6 and forty-eight components for INT16) and the matrix B follows as
LMh MN 0 LMh B= M 0 MN 0
B=
hT 0T hT 0T 0T
0T hT 0T hT 0T
0T hT 0T hT 0T
T T
T T
OP for INT6 and PQ 0 0 O P 0 0 P for INT16. h h P Q

T T T T T T
7.11.2 Internal force vector and stiffness matrix

The element equilibrium equation in a vector form is given as
gPR=0
where R is the vector of applied loading and P is the vector of nodal internal forces. The vector of nodal internal forces can be written in a standard form as 226
Interface Elements
P = B dA
A
where the integration domain A is a line for INT6 and an area for INT16. For a given arbitrary constitutive relationship (note that is a relative displacement between the elements surfaces rather than a strain measure)
=
bg
T
where is a stress vector, the stiffness matrix in a geometrically linear analysis follows as
K = B D BdA
A t
where D is a tangent constitutive matrix, which follows from D t,ij =

t
i for a given j
material model. In order to eliminate spurious oscillations of the stress field along the element [H13], the internal force vector and the stiffness matrix are integrated using a Newton-Cotes integration rule rather than a reduced or full Gauss integration rule. The 3-point Newton-Cotes scheme is utilised for INT6 and the 3*3-point NewtonCotes scheme is utilised for INT16. The interface elements INT6 and INT16 can currently be used only with the delamination damage model (non-linear material model 25).
227
Appendix A
Appendix A
Quadrature Rules
The locations and weights of the quadrature points used in integrating the element matrices are listed in table A-1 to table A-7 and are shown in fig.A-1 to fig.A-7.
ORDER LOCATION i WEIGHT WI
1 2 3 4
0.0000000000
0.5773502692 0.7745966692
2.0000000000 1.0000000000 0.5555555555 0.8888888888 0.3478548454 0.6521451549
0.00000000000
0.8611363116 0.3399810436
TABLE A-1 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR BARS, BEAMS,QUADRILATERAL 2-D SOLIDS, PLATES, SHELLS AND 3-D HEXAHEDRA AND PENTAHEDRA
RULE
LOCATION
WEIGHT
5 point
0.592348877
0.592348877
0.95000000 0.20000000
0.000000000
0.000000000
TABLE A-2 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR 5-POINT RULE FOR 2D QUADRILATERALS AND SHELLS
229
Appendix A
RULE A1
LOCATION A2 A3
WEIGHT
1-point 3-point 4-point 7-point
0.3333333333 0.5000000000 0.3333333333 0.6000000000 0.3333333333 0.0597158717 0.7974269853
0.3333333333 0.0000000000 0.3333333333 0.2000000000 0.3333333333 0.4701420641 0.1012865073
0.3333333333 0.0000000000 0.3333333333 0.2000000000 0.3333333333 0.4701420641 0.1012865073
1.0000000000 0.3333333333 -0.5625000000 0.5208333333 0.2250000000 0.1323941527 0.1259391805
TABLE A-3 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR TRIANGULAR 2-D SOLIDS, PLATES, SHELLS AND 3-D PENTAHEDRA
RULE A1
LOCATION A2 A3
WEIGHT
3-Point
1.0000000000
0.0000000000
0.0000000000
0.3333333333
TABLE A-4 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR TRIANGULAR SEMILOOF SHELL
RULE V1 V2
LOCATION V3 V4
WEIGHT
1-Point 2-Point 3-Point
0.25000000 0.58541020 0.50000000
0.25000000 0.13819660 0.50000000
0.25000000 0.13819660 0.00000000
0.25000000 0.13819660 0.00000000
1.00000000 0.25000000 0.16666666
TABLE A-5 SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR 3-D TETRAHEDRA
230
Appendix A
RULE i
LOCATION i i
WEIGHT
13-Point
0.00000000
0.88030430 0.79562143
0.00000000
-0.49584802 0.79562143
0.00000000
-0.49584802 0.025293237
1.684210565 0.54498736 0.507644216 0.355555556 0.335180055 0.335180055 0.335180055 0.335180055
14-Point
0.795822426
0.000000000 -0.758786911 -0.758786911 0.758786911 0.758786911
0.000000000 -0.758786911 -0.758786911 -0.758786911 0.758786911
-0.758786911 0.758786911 0.758786911 0.758786911
TABLE A-6 - SAMPLING POINTS AND WEIGHTS FOR SPECIAL RULES FOR 3-D SOLIDS
RULE
LOCATION
WEIGHT
1-Point 2-Point 3-Point 4-Point 5-Point
0.000000000
1.000000000 1.000000000
2.000000000 1.000000000 0.166666667 1.333333333 0.250000000 0.750000000 0.155555556 0.711111111 0.266666667
0.000000000
1.000000000 0.333333333 1.000000000 0.500000000
0.000000000
TABLE A-7 - SAMPLING POINTS AND LOCATIONS FOR NEWTON-COTES RULES
231
Appendix A
1
(a) 1-Point Rule
(b) 2-Point Rule
(c) 3-Point Rule
(d) 4-Point Rule
FIG.A-1 GAUSS QUADRATURE RULES FOR BAR, BEAM AND AXISYMMETRIC SHELL ELEMENTS
232
Appendix A
4 4 3 6 8 1 2 1 2 3 3 7 9 5 6 8 4 4 7 5
1 (a) 2*2 Rule
2 (b) 3*3 Rule
7 13 9 8 5 1 1 6 2
6 14 10 15 11 7 3 2 (a) 4*4 Rule 16 12
7 4
6 3 5
4 8
8 1 2
4 3 1 2 (b) 5-Point Rule 3
FIG.A-2 GAUSS QUADRATURE RULES FOR QUADRILATERAL 2-D CONTINUUM, PLATE AND SHELL ELEMENTS
233
Appendix A
3 3
3 1
1 (a) 1-Point Rule
2 (b) 3-Point Rule
3 2 1
5 7 4 1 2 (b) 7-Point Rule
4 3 1 (a) 4-Point Rule 2 2 3 6
FIG.A-3 GAUSS QUADRATURE RULES FOR TRIANGULAR 2-D CONTINUUM, PLATE AND SHELL ELEMENTS
1 1
2 2
FIG.A-4 SPECIAL 3-POINT RULE FOR TRIANGULAR SEMILOOF SHELL ELEMENT
234
Appendix A
4
1 1 3
2 (a) 1-Point Rule 4 3
4 1 1
2 3
2 (b) 4-Point Rule 4
6 3 5 1 4 2 (c) 6-Point Rule
3 1
FIG.A-5 GAUSS QUADRATURE RULES FOR SOLID TETRAHEDRA ELEMENTS
235
Appendix A
8 5 8 3 5 6 4 4 5 5 6 6 7 7
4 2 3 1 2 1 2 1 1 2
3 3
(a) 3*2 Rule
(b) 2*2*2 Rule
8 16 5 10 13 11 7 4 1 2 5 3 14 12 8 6 6 17 18 15
8 25 5 19 6 18 26 27
9 3 10 4 1 2 11 5 3 2 (d) 3*3*3 Rule 12 6 9 3
1 (c) 3*3*2 Rule
FIG.A-6 QUADRATURE RULES FOR SOLID PENTAHEDRA AND HEXAHEDRA ELEMENTS
236
Appendix A
1 (a) 1-Point Rule
(b) 2-Point Rule
(c) 3-Point Rule
(d) 4-Point Rule
(e) 5-Point Rule
FIG.A-7 NEWTON-COTES RULESAppendix B
237
Appendix A
238
Appendix B
Appendix B
Restrictions On Element Topology
Mid-Length and Mid-Side Nodes
The mid-length and mid-side nodes of elements should be equidistant from the two end nodes, and the element curvature must satisfy the following requirements (i) (ii) |a - b|/(a + b) < 0.05 (a + b)/c < 1.02
where a, b and c are defined in fig.B-1.

b a c
Fig.B-1 DEFINITION OF PARAMETERS FOR CURVATURE LIMITS
Warping of Flat Elements

The four nodes defining a flat quadrilateral element in 3-D should be coplanar. However, a small amount of warping is permitted provided that z < 0.01 a where and z is the distance of the out of plane node from the plane a is the length of the side between the first and second nodes.
239
Appendix B
240
References
References
Contact support@lusas.com for details of all references stated in this manual.
241
References
242

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Theory Manual Volume 2

LUSAS Version 14 : Issue 2

diag , Diagonal matrix with terms given

Orthogonality condition Variables defined in local axes

Theory Manual 2 Subscripts cr g i max n o t x x,y,z X,Y,Z Z ,x Superscripts i l t

g , g , g Covariant base vectors Mm n P

Matrices/Tensors A Matrix of slopes

Bar Elements (BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3)

7.1 Bar Elements (BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3)

The elastic constitutive relationship is defined as

7.1.2 Evaluation and Output of Stresses/Forces

7.1.3 Nonlinear Formulation

BRS2 and BRS3 2

Bar Elements (BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3)

(a) 2-D Bar Elements

(b) 3-D Bar Elements

Element Formulations Fig.7.1-1 Nodal Freedoms For BAR Elements

Continuum elements 2-D Roof Truss Excavation Supports

Fig.7.1-2 Examples Illustrating Use Of BAR Elements

Bar Elements (BAR2, BAR3, BRS2, BRS3)

Z (a) Curved Element

Z (b) Straight Element Parrallel With Global X-axis y 2 z y x 1 z X

Z (c) Arbitrarily Orientated Straight Element

7.2 Beam Elements

where submatrices are defined:

OP PP PP PP PP PP b4 + gEI PP Lb1 + g d4 + iEI PP 0 Ld1 + i P Q

OP PP 6 EI 0 L d1 + i P PP 6 EI 0 PP L b1 + g PP 0 0 PP b2 gEI 0 Lb1 + g P d2 iEI PP 0 Ld1 + i P Q

bending axis. Element mass matrix

where submatrices are defined

13 6I z + 35 5AL2 0 0 0 11L I + z 210 10 AL

6I y 13 + 35 5AL2 0 Iy 11L 210 10 AL 0

13 6I z + 35 5AL2 0 0 0 11L I z 210 10 AL

6I y 13 + 35 5AL2 0 Iy 11L + 210 10 AL 0

0 9 6I z 70 5AL2 0 0 0 13L I + z 420 10 AL

0 0 6I y 9 70 5AL2 0 Iy 13L 420 10 AL 0

0 0 Iy 13L + 420 10 AL 0 Iy L 140 30 A 0

OP I P 13L P 420 10 AL P PP 0 PP 0 PP 0 PP L I P 140 30 A P Q

7.2.1 2-D Straight Beam (BEAM)

in the local Cartesian system.

Fig.7.2.1-1 Nodal Freedoms For BEAM Element

Fig.7.2.1-2 Examples Illustrating Use Of Beam Elements

Fig.7.2.1-3 Local Cartesian System For BEAM Element

7.2.2 2-D Straight Grillage (GRIL)

Fig.7.2.2-1 Nodal Freedoms For GRIL Element

X Problem Defintion Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.2.2-2 Example Illustrating Use Of GRIL Elements

Fig.7.2.2-3 Local Cartesian System For GRIL Element

7.2.3 2-D Ribbed Plate Beam (BRP2)

Fig.7.2.3-1 Nodal Freedoms For BRP2 Element

BRP2 elements X Problem Definition Finite Element Mesh

Fig.7.2.3-2 Ribbed Plate Illustrating Use Of BRP2 Element

Fig.7.2.3-3 Local Cartesian System For BRP2 Element

7.2.4 3-D Straight Beam (BMS3)

R | EAaTf U | R F U | L T O | |M | = |EI | S V S MN dz PQ V |M | | T W | L T O | |EI MN dy PQ | | | | T W

Forces in the local Cartesian system.

M x , M y , M z Moments in the local Cartesian system.

Fig.7.2.4-1 Nodal Freedoms For BMS3 Element

Fig.7.2.4-2 Local Cartesian System For BMS3 Element

(a) 3-D Frame Structure

(a) 3-D Frame Structure

Fig.7.2.4-3 Examples Illustrating The Use Of BMS3 Elements

7.2.5 2-D Curved Thin Beam (BM3, BMX3)

at the end nodes,

at the mid-length node