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2.1 Introduction
The relationship between magnetism and electrical current was discovered and documented by Oerstad in 1819. He found that if an electric current was caused to flow through a conductor that a magnetic field was produced around that conductor. In 1831, Michael Faraday discovered that if a conductor is moved through a magnetic field, an electrical voltage is induced in the conductor. The magnitude of this generated voltage is directly proportional to the strength of the magnetic field and the rate at which the conductor crosses the magnetic field. The induced voltage has a polarity that will oppose the change causing the induction Lenzs law. This natural phenomenon is known as Generator Action and is described today by Faradays Law of Electro Magnetic Induction: Vind = /t, where Vind = induced voltage, = change in flux density, t = change in time All rotary generators built today use the basic principles of Generator Action.
The elementary ac generator consists of a conductor (or loop of wire) in a magnetic field (usually produced by an electromagnet). The two ends of the loop are connected to slip rings and they are in contact with two brushes. When the loop rotates it cuts magnetic lines of force, first in one direction and then the other. In the first half turn of rotation, a positive current is produced and in the second half of rotation produces a negative current. This completes one cycle of ac generation.
A rotating magnetic field induces voltage in the coils which when aggregated produce the familiar three phase voltage pattern.
Assuming a full load slip of 3%, a motor with a synchronous speed of 1200 rpm would have a full load speed of 1164 rpm. This unit could also be driven by an external prime mover at 1236 rpm for use as an induction generator. The induction generator requires one additional item before it can produce power it requires a source of leading VARs for excitation. The VARs may be supplied by capacitors (this requires complex control) or from the utility grid. Induction generators are inexpensive and simple machines, however, they offer little control over their output. The induction generator requires no separate DC excitation, regulator controls, frequency control or governor.
Since the frequency component of the power system is to be held constant, solid state voltage regulators or static exciters are commonly used to control the field current and thereby accurately control generator terminal voltage. The frequency of the voltage developed by the generator depends on the speed of the rotor and the number of field poles. For a 60 Hz system, Frequency = speed(rpm)*pole pairs/60.
Main Coupling: Is the connection to the drive shaft Generator Coolers: Remove heat from the generator cooling air Stator Core: Houses the stationary windings and forms a magnetic path necessary for induced voltages Air Gap: Is the radial clearance between the rotating field and the stator core Stator Coil End Turns: Formed when coils leave one slot in a stator core and are returned to a different slot Terminal Leads: Serve to conduct the three phase voltage and current flow from the generator stator to the external system
The excitation power is taken from generator output and fed through the excitation (rectifier) transformer which steps down to the required voltage, for the SCR bridge and then fed through the field breaker to the generator field. The rectifier transformer used in the SEE should have high reliability as failure of this will cause shutdown of nit/power station. Dry type cast coil transformer is suitable for static excitation applications. The transformer is selected such that it supplies rated excitation current at rated voltage continuously and is capable of supplying ceiling current at the ceiling excitation for a short period of ten seconds. Rectifier transformers directly connected to the generator terminals and feeding power to the field of the machine via thyristor converters, plays an important role in an excitation system and in turn power generation Reliability of this transformer has to be ensured in all respects. The selection of the secondary voltage of excitation transformer depends upon the field forcing voltage. The primary voltage is the same as that of generator terminal voltage.
Current rating is dependant on the maximum continuous current in the field winding. Generally the power rating of the Excitation transformer used in Static Excitation System is around 1 % of the rating of generator in MVA. These transformers are of class "F" insulation and indoor type. The cooling method of the autotransformer is Air Natural (AN).
Excitation transformer
ii.
The SCR output stage consists of a suitable number of bridges connected in parallel. Each thyristor bridge comprises of six thyristors, working as a six pulse fully controlled bridge. Current carrying capacity of each bridge depends on the rating of individual thyristor. Thyristors are designed such that their junction temperature rise is well within its specified rating. By changing the firing angle of the thyristors variable output is obtained. Each bridge is controlled by one final pulse stage and is cooled by a fan. These bridges are equipped with protection devices and failure of one bridge causes alarm. If there is a failure of one more thyristor bridges then the excitation current will be limited to a predetermined value lesser than the normal current. However, failure of the third, bridge results in tripping and rapid de-excitation of the generator. The above is applicable for 4 bridges thyristor with (n-1) principle operation.
iii.
For the initial build-up of the generator voltage, field-flashing equipment is required. The rating of this equipment depends on the no-load excitation requirement and field time constant of the generator. From the reliability point of view, provisions for both the AC & DC field flashing are provided. The field breaker is selected such that it carries the full load excitation current continuously and also it breaks the max. field current when the three phase short circuit occurs at the generator terminals. The field discharge resistor is normally of non-linear type for medium and large capacity machines i.e. voltage dependent resistor.
To protect the field winding of the generator against over voltages, an over voltage protection along with a current limiting resistor is used to limit the over voltage across the field winding. The OVP operates on the insulation break over Principle. The voltage level at which OVP should operate is selected based on insulation level of field winding of the generator. Field Discharge During load condition whenever the Field breaker, opens suddenly there will be a surge voltage in the rotor which will damage the rotor winding insulation. To avoid this rotor winding is connected to the earth through field discharge Resistor thereby by passing the surge voltage to earth and limiting the current to earth. Field discharge greatly helps to limit the damages. 'Non-linear field discharge resistance is used which helps in faster field suppression/discharge.
iv.
Regulator is the heart of the system. This regulates the generator voltage by controlling the firing pulses to the thyristors. Error detector & amplifier The Generator terminal voltage is stepped down by a three phase PT. and fed to the AVR. The a.c. input thus obtained is rectified, filtered and compared against a highly stabilized reference value and the difference is amplified in different stages of amplification. The AVR is designed with highly stable elements so that variation in ambient temperature does not cause any drift or change in the output level. Three CTs sensing the output current of the generator feed proportional current across variable resistors in the AVR. The voltage thus obtained across the resistors, can be added vectorially either for compounding or for transformer drop compensation. The percentage of compensation can be adjusted as the resistors are of variable type. Grid - control unit The output of the AVR is fed to a grid control unit, it gets its synchronous a.c. reference through a filter circuit and generates six double, pulses spaced 600 electrical apart whose position depends on the output of the AVR, i.e. the pulse position varies continuously as a function of the control voltage. Two relays are provided, by energizing which, the pulses can be either blocked completely or shifted to inverter mode of operation Pulse - amplifier The pulse output of the ""Grid control unit "' is amplified further at an intermediate stage amplification. This is also known as pulse intermediate stage. The unit has a d.c. power supply, which operates from a three phase 38OV supply and delivers +15V,1 l5V,+5V, and a coarse stabilized voltage VL. A built in relay is provided which can be used for blocking the 6 pulse channels. In a two channel system (like Auto and Manual), the change over is effected by energising/ de-energizing the relay. Pulse final stage This unit receives input pulses from the pulse amplifier and transmits them through pulse transformers to the gates of the thyristors. A built in power supply provides the required d.c. supply to the final pulse and amplifier. Each Thyristor bridge has its own
final pulse stage. Therefore, even if a thyristor bridge fails with its final pulse stage, the remaining thyristors bridges can continue to cater to full load requirement of the machine and thereby ensure (n-1) operation. Manual control channel A separate manual control channel is provided where the controlling d.c. signal in taken from a stabilized d.c. voltage through a motor operated potentiometer. The d.c. signal is fed to a separate grid control unit whose output pulses after being amplified at an intermediate stage can be fed to the final pulse stage. When one channel is working, generating the required pulses, the other remains blocked. Therefore a changeover from ""Auto" to "Manual' control or vice versa is effected by blocking or releasing the pulses of the corresponding intermediate stage. "A pulse supervision unit detects spurious pulses or loss of pulses at the pulses bus bar and transfers control from Automatic Channel to manual channel.
Follow-up unit
To ensure a smooth changeover from 'Auto"' to Manual" control, it is necessary that the position of the pulses on both channels should be identical. A pulse comparison unit detects any difference in the position of the pulses and with the help of a followup unit actuates the motor operated potentiometer on the "'Manual"' Channel to turn in a direction so as to eliminate the difference. However, while transferring control from "Manual"' to "Auto" mode any difference in the two control levels can be visually checked on a balance meter and adjusted to obtain null before change over. Limit controllers When a generator is running in parallel with the power network, it is essential to maintain it in sychronism without exceeding the rating of the machine and also without the protection system tripping. Only automatic Regulator cannot ensure this. It is necessary to influence the voltage regulator by suitable means to limit the over excitation and under excitation. This not only improves the security of the parallel operation but makes operation of the system easier. However limiters do not replace the protection system but only prevent the protection system from tripping unnecessarily under extreme transient conditions. The AVR also has a built-in frequency dependent circuit so that when the machine is running below the rated frequency from the regulated voltage should be proportional
to frequency. With the help of a potentiometer provided in the AVR, the circuit can be made to respond proportionally to voltage above a certain frequency and proportional to a voltage below the certain frequency. The range of adjustment of this cut off frequency lies between 40 and 60 Hz. The static excitation system is equipped with three limiters which act in conjunction with the AVR. These limiters are as under; -Rotor current limiter The unit basically comprises an actual value converter a limiter with adjustable PID characteristics a reference value; dv/dt sensor and a signalisation unit. The field current is measured on the a.c. input side of the thyristor converter and is converted into proportional d.c. voitages. The signal is compared with an adjustable reference value, amplified, and with necessary time lapse fed to the voltage regulator input. Rotor current limiter avoids thermal overloading of the rotor winding and is provided to protect the generator rotor against excessively long duration over loads. The ceiling excitation is limited to a predetermined limit and is allowed to flow for a time which is dependant upon the rate of rise of field current before being limited to the thermal limit value. -Rotor angle limiter This unit limits the angle between the voltage of the network centre and the rotor voltage or it limits the angle between the generator voltage and the rotor voltage. It comprises an actual value converter, a limiting amplifier with adjustable PID characteristics and a reference value unit. The limiting regulator operates as soon as the d.c. value exceeds the reference value. For its operation the Unit is given separate power supply from a d.c. power pack. It generates a d.c. signal proportional to the load or rotor angle from the stator current and voltage by means of a simple analog circuit. The device takes over as soon as the set limit angle is exceeded. By increasing the excitation and ignoring opposite control signals the unit is prevented from failing out of step. -Stator current limiter This unit functions in conjunction with an integrator unit which provides the necessary dead time and the gradient, which can be adjusted by potentiometers. The regulator consists essentially of a measuring converter, two comparators, two PID regulators and a d.c. power pack. A discriminator in the circuit differentiates between inductive and
capacitive current. The positive and negative signals processed by two separate amplifiers are brought to the output stage and only that output which has to take care of the limitation is made effective. Stator current limiter avoids thermal over loading of the stator windings. Stator current limiter is provided to protect the generator against long duration of large stator currents. For excessive inductive current it acts over the AVR after a certain time lag and decreases the excitation current to limit the inductive current to the limit value. But for excessive capacitive current it acts on the AVR without time delay to increase the Excitation and thereby reduce the capacitive loading. This is necessary as there is a risk for the machine failing out of step during under excited mode of operation. -Slip stabilizing units The slip stabilizing unit is used for the suppression of rotor oscillations of the alternator through the additional influence of excitation. The slip as well as acceleration signals needed for the stabilization are derived from active power delivered by the alternator. Both the signals, which are correspondingly amplified and summed up, influence the excitation of the synchronous machine through AVR in a manner as to suppress the Rotor oscillations.
3) Absence of rotating parts enables less maintenance 4) Lower SCR value for larger generators (Reduces weight/compact in size & cost) General 1) Up rating of the machine can be done by adding additional power circuits/adding more redundancies 2) Location of the equipment can be planned independent of the machine thereby increasing the flexibility in the plant layout 3) Retrofitting of Static Excitation Equipment for old slow acting exciter 4) Length of the machine shorter when compare to other excitation equipment
2.5.1.5 PROTECTIONS
The following protections are provided in the Static Excitation Equipment; 1) Rectifier transformer over current instantaneous and delayed. 2) Rectifier transformer over Temperature 3) Rotor Over-Voltage 4) Rotor earth fault. 5) Fuse failure monitoring circuit for thyristors 6) Loss of control voltage (48V & 24V) 7) dv/dt protection of SCR by snubber net works 8) Cooling System failure for thyristors