UNIT 1 COPLANAR AND NON-COPLANAR FORCES

Structure
1.1 1.2 1.3
I

Introduction
Objectives

System of Forces Coplanar Forces

1.3.1 Law of Parallelogram of Forces 1.3.2 Law of Polygon of Forces 1.3.3 Resolutionand Composition

1.4 1.5

Non-coplanar Forces Resultant of Concurrent Forces

1.5.1 Resultant of Coplanar Concurrent Forces 1.5.2 Resultant of Non-coplanar Concurrent Forces

1.6

Moment of a Force
1.6.1 Moment of Coplanar Force 1.6.2 Moment of Force about a Point and an Axis 1.6.3 Couples and then Properties

1.7

Resultant of Non-concurrent Forces

1.7.'1 Resultant of Coplanar Non-concurrent Forces 1.7.2 Resultant of Non-coplanar Non-concurrentForces

1.8 Summary 1.9 Key Words 1.10 Answers to SAQs

1.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit seeks to introduce to you the different systems of forces. The prerequisite for this is the concept of a force and the various forms of forces occurring in nature. In addition to this, you should have the basic knowledge of algebra, co-ordinate geometry, trigonometry and a little bit of calculus. The study of this unit will enable you to understand the effect of forces on different types of structures.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to identify the different systems of forces, add concurrent forces vectorially, resolve forces into components, add forces by components, find the moment of a force, and find the resultant of non-concurrent forces.

1.2 SYSTEM OF FORCES

You will recall Newton's First Law of Mation which helps us to define a force as an external agency which tends to change the state of rest or of uniform motion of a body. Force tends to produce motion in a body, changes the motion of a body or checks the motion of a body. In simple words, the action of one body on any other body can be called a force. These actions niay be of various forms : pull or push on a body, gravitational force known as weight of a body, force exerted by an elastic spring, force :xerted by a locomotive on the train, resistance offered by the track.

To specify a force, you need to know its magnitude, direction and the point of application The magnitude is expressed in Newton in SI unit. Graphically a force is represented by &awing a line to scale, showing the magnitude and the arrowhead indicating direction. Such a straight line is called a vector. A combination of several forces acting on a body is called a system of forces or a force system.
Example 1.1

Consider a sphere of mass m suspended by means of a string resting against a smooth wall, as shown in Figure 1.1 (a). What are the forces acting on it ?
Solution

Let us identify the forces acting on the sphere. These are as follows : (1) Weight of the sphere W = mg acting vertically downwards from the centre of gravity of the sphere. Tension in the string (3) Reaction offered by the wall. Thus, the spheqe is subjected to a system of three forces as shown in Figure 1.1 (b). (2)

Figure 1.1 (a)

Figure 1.1 (b)

Example 1.2

Consider a dam retaining water as shown in Figure 1.2 (a). What are the forces acting on it ?
Solution

The forces acting on dam are as follows : (1) Weight of the nlasonry acting vertically downwards through the centroid of the cross-section, and The horizontal water pressure which goes-onincreasing as the depth increases. Thus, the structure shown is subjected to a system of forces as indicated in Figure 1.2 (b).

(2)

Figure 1.2 (a)

Figure 1.2 (b)

T t s);Steniof forces can be classified according to the arrangement of the lines of action h.
ot
the

forces of the system.

Coplanar and Nonsoplanar Forces

E'igure 1.3 (a)

Figure 1.3 (b)

Figure 1.3 (c)

The forces may be classified as (1) coplanar or non-coplanar,

(2) concurrent or non-concurrent, and

(3) parallel or non-parallel.

All these system of forces have been explained in subsequent paragraphs.
Coplanar Forces

Forces acting in the same plane are called coplanar forces. In Figure 1.3 (a), forces a and 6 are acting in vertical plane ABCD. They are called coplanar forces. Forces and 2 are also called coplanar forces as they are acting in one plane. But forces a and care not coplanar forces as they are acting in two different planes. If all the forces acting on a body meet at a point, they are called concurrent forces. Forces a, 6 and 2 shown in - Figure 1.3 (b) are concurrent forces as they are meeting at point 0 whereas forces d , e and fare called as non-concurrent forces because all the three forces are not meeting at a point.

~oblanar forces can also be classified as parallel forces and non-parallel forces. If the lines of action of forces are parallel then the forces are called parallel forces. If the forces point the same direction they are called like parallel forces and if they point in opposite directions, they are called unlike parallel forces. Forces p and are like parallel forces, whereas and r or p and are unlike parallel forces as shown in Figure 1.3 (c). Forces s, i and are non-parallel forces. Concurrent forces are non-parallel forces. But non-parallel forces may be concurrent or non-concurrent.

Non-coplanar Forces

If the lines of action of forces do not lie in the same plane then the forces are called non-coplanar forces. These forces may be concurrent or parallel as shown in the --Figures 1.4 (a) and 1.4 (b) respectively. Forces I, m, n and are noneplanar concurrent forces and forces 2 5 and are non-coplanar parallel forces.

Figre 1.4 (a)

'

Figure 1.4 (b)

SAQ 1
Identify the system of forces in Figures 1.5 (a), (b), (c) & (d) and classify them.

Shing

Beam

Shing

FSgure 1.5 (a)

FSgum 1.5 (b)

Figure 1.5 (c)

Figure 15 (d) .

1.3 COPLANAR FORCES

If a system of coplanar forces is acting on a body, its total effect is usually expressed in terms of its resultant. Force being a vector quantity the resultant of the system of forces can bc found out by using vector algebra, e.g. if the resultant of two forces is to be found out then the law of parallelogram of forces is used.

1.3.1 Law of Parallelogram of Forces

If the two coplanar forces meet at a point, their resultant may be found by the law of parallelogram of forces, which states that, "If two forces acting at a point are such that they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the two adjacent sides of parallelogram, the diagonal of the parallelogram passing through their point of intersection gives the resultant in magnitude and direction". Consider two forces P and Q acting at point 0 in the body as shown in Figure 1.6 (a). Their combined effect can be found out by constructing a parallelogram using vector P and vector Q as two adjacent sides of the parallelogram as shown in Figure 1.6 (b). The diagonal passing through 0 represents their resultant in magnitude and direction. You can

Figure 16 (a) .

Figure 16 (b) .

prove by :fie geometry of the figure that the magnitude R of the resultant and the angle it makes with P are given by

Qsina.. m t a n p = ,QPsinm s a P + Qcosa + Pco where a is the angle between F and 0 m0= 0 is the angle betw'een R and P

I
'

p is the angle between ? and Q . i

The above two forces can dso be combined by using the law of triangle of forces which states that if the second force is drawn from the end of fhe flrst force then the line joining the starting point of fnrst force to the end of the second force represents their resultant.

i !

Figure 1 (c) . 6

From the friangle of forces, by using trigonometric relations, you can fmd thn(

and

sin~=fsina,

s i n $ = R& a -

132 Law of Polygon of Forces ..

If more than two forces are acting on a body, then their resultant can be f d by repeated applications of the parallelogram law or the triangle law. You may start with any f W 0 forces and fmd their resultant ficst and then add vectorially to this resultant the remaining forces taking one at a time. In the final form a polygon would be completed. In other words, if more than two coplanar forces meet at a point, their teedltMt m y be found by the law of polygon of forces, which states that, "If a number of fmwe acting at a point are such that they can be represented in magnitude and direction by the sides of open polygon taken in order, then their resultant is represented in magnitude and direction by the closing side of the polygon but taken in the opposite order". ,
Example 1.3

Consider five forces each of 80 N acting at 0in a body, Draw forces of polygon and show the resultant of d l the forces.

E T p n 17 (a) .

Efpre 17 (b) .

Solution

---Let us construct a polygon such that the forces A, B, C, D and E represent the sides of a polygon taken in order, each force being drawn from the end of earlier force then_ their resultant is represented by the line joining the starting point of the first force A to the end of the last force E.

SAQ 2
Determine the resultant in nlagnitucle and direction of two forces shown in Figures 1.8 (a) and (b) using the parallelogram law and the triangle law.

Figure 1.8 (a)

Figure 1.8 @)

SAQ 3
Four forces are acting at 0 as shown in the Figure 1.9. Find the resultant in magnitude and direction by using polygon law.

1.33 Resolution-and Composition

In many engineering problems, it is desirable to resolve a force into rectangular components. ?his process of splitting the force into components is called the resolution of a force whereas the process of finding the resultant of any number of forces is called the composition of forces. 'Ihe resolution of forces helps in determining the resultant of a number of forces acting on a body as it reduces vectorial addition to algebraic addition.
A force making an angle 0 with respect to x axis as shown in Figure 1.10 can be resolved into two components F, and F, acting along x and y axes respectively. If 7 and

j are the unit vectors acting along x and y axes respectively then the force ji? can be expressed as
&

F=F,i+

F~T

where F, and Fy are the magnitudes of the components along x and y axes. Refer Figure ,I.10, F and Fyare determined as ,

F = Fcos0 ,

F Y Fy = F sin 0 and tan 0 = Fx

Note : 0 is measured in anticlockwise direction with respect to positive x axis.

The magnitude of the force can also be expressed as

i
t

b
I

Example 1.4 A force of 120 N is exerted on a hook in the ceiling as shown in Figure 1.11. Determine the horizontal and vertical components of the force.

/////
. + x axis

Solution

As 0 is to be measured inanticlockwise direction from positive x axis, then 0 = 30 . 0' Fx=Fcos0=120cos 300"=+60N. FY=Fsin8=120sin300"=-103.92N. The vector components of force are

Ij; = (+ 60 N )? and Therefore F can be expressed as

F=+607-103.92/'
Example 1.5

= (-103.92 N ) j

A force of 80 N is acting on a bolt as shown in Figure 1.12. Find the horizontal and vertical components of the force.
/ 8 0 ~

Solution By principle of transmissibility of a force, the force can be considered acting at any point on the line of action of the force. : 0 = 68" + 180" = 240" . with respect to positive x axis measured in anticlockwise direction

: F,=Fcos .

0=80cos240=-40N

Fy = F sin 0 = 80 sin 240" = - 69.28 N.

: F = ( - 4 0 ~ 1 5+ (-69.28~); .
= -407 - 69.28

1.4 NON-COPLANAR FORCES

In engineering practice, we come across situations where the fo&s acting on a body may not be in one plane, e.g. a crate supported by three cables in space, a precast concrete wall section temporarily held by four cables or a tower guy wire anchored by means of bolts. To solve problems of statics in space of three dimensions, a lot of visualisation is needed; as we have to draw three dimensional sketches on the familiar two dimensional plane of sheet of paper. Vector notation will be useful in solving such problems by extending the , principles developed in two dimensions to three dimensional space.

Rectangular Components
Consider a force F acting at 0. Assume a system of rectangular co-ordinates'n,y and z with ' ' the origin. To determine the direction of the force, let us construct a 0as parallelepiped (say 'box') as shown in Figure 1.13 (a).

Figure 1.13 (a)

Figurn 1.13 (b)

If 8,, 8, and 0, are the angles made by F with respect to x, y and z axes respectively. then we get : F = F cos Ox,,

Fy = FcosO,, and F = F cos 0, ,

The three angles 8,. 8, and 8, defrne the direction of the force F and cos Ox,cos 8, and cos 8, are called the direction cosines of the forces which are also represented by I, m and n respectively. If Z J and E are the unit vectors acting along x, y and z axes as shown in Figure 1.13 (b), then force F can be expressed in vector form as under : F = F, i + F,; + F, k and the magnitude of F is given by

Example 1.6

A force of 400N forms angles of 4, 6' and 10 respectively with the x, y and z 5 5 ' 2' axes. Express the force in vector form.
Solution

SubstitutingF = 400 N , 8, = 4 5 ' .

Oy = 60' and 0, = 120,we get

Fx = F cos 8, = 400 cos 4 = 282.84 N 5 ' Fy = F cos 8, = 400 cos 60' = 200.00 N

= 282.847 + 200.007 - 200.00 k

where ? , j and
Example 1.7

k are the unit vectors along x, y-and z axes respectively.

Determine the magnitude and direction of the force F = (320N) 5 + (450N)7 - (600N)
Solution

The magnitude of the force F is given by

Thus, the fotce of 815.41 N is making an angle of 6' 53 ' 3' with x axis, 6 6 ' 5' 3' 1 " with y axis and 172" with z axis. 6 0 6 3'2

1.5 RESULTANT OF CONCU

NT FORCES

The resultant of a concurrent force system can be defined as the simplest single force which can replace the original system without changing its external effect on a rigid body. For the nonconcment force system, the resultant will not necessarily be a single force but a force system comprising a force or a couple or a force and a couple. The types of force systems as classified in Section 1.2 alongwitb their possible resultants are given in Table 1 1 ..

Table 1.1 Type of Force System Pcwsible Resultant

Concurrent Coplanar, nm-concurrent

Force Force or a couple

Force or a couple Parallel, noncoplanar noncmcurrent Force or a couple or Non-parallel, noncoplanar a force and a couple noncmcurrent We will study the determination of resultant of nonconcurrent force systems in Section 1.7, after knowing about moment, couple and their praperties.

1.5.1 Resultant of Coplanar Concurrent Forces

The technique of resolution of a force can be used to determine the resultant of coplanar ! , concurrent forces. If 'n' concurrent forces F , F2 , F3, ... ,F are acting at a point in a body then each force can be resolved into two mutually perpendicular directions. Thus, we get '2n' components. Each set of 2n components acts in one direction only. Therefore, we can algebraically add all these components to get the components of the resultant.

Finally, combining these components R, and Ryvectorially, we get the resultant E.

where, 8 is the angle of inclination of the resultant

Example 1.8

with respect to positive x axis.

Four forces act on a body as shown in Figure 1.14. Determine the resultant of the system of forces.

Solution

Resolving all faces along x axis, we get R = x

C Fx
+ 50cos 315' + 30 ms 180 + 20 CQS 240'

= F l ~ 8 + F 2 ~ O+2F3c0s03 + F4cos04 1 = 4Ocos 300

Note :The angle made by 50 N force is measured in anticlockwise direction from positive x axis after making the force act away from 0 by principle of

Coplsoar and
Noa-eoplnanr Fomes

transmissibility of the force. ... R , = 4 0 ~ 0 ~ 3 0 ' + 5 0 ~ ~ 4 5 ~ - 3 0 ~ 0 ~ 0 ~ - U ) ~ ~ 6 0 ~ 4 1 90' may be chosen in appropriate quadrant with proper signs as indicated above.

Rx = 30N Similarly, resolving all forces along y axis, we get,

(1.1)

R,.= Z F y
= F1 sin Q1 =

+ F2 sin Q2 + F3 sin 43 + F4sin 44 ' 40 sin 30' + 50 sin 315' + 30 sin 180+ 20 sin 240'

= 20.00 - 35.36 + 0.00 - 17.32

Ry = - 32.68 N Thus, ihe resultant in vector form may be expressed as

j? = (30 N)?

+ (- 32.68'~)j

The magnitude of the resultant is given by

R =

J P X

1 '

(4)2

= 4(3oI2 + (- 32.68)'

The diction 4 can be worked out from

The resultant has a magnitude of 44.36 N and is acting in IVth quadrant making an angle of 312' 33' 6'' in anticlockwise direction from positivex axis.

1.5.2 Resultant of Non-coplanar Concurrent Forces In case of non-wplanar force system also, the technique of resolution of forces can be used to determine the resultant. If three non-coplanar forces F,, F2 & F3 are acting at a point 0 in a body, the resultant R12of the two forces F,and F2 can be determined by law of parallelogram of forces. The force R,, can next be combined with F3 by means of the parallelogram, giving the resultant of three forces F,, F2 and F3 as R. If there are more forces in the system, the same process can be continued until all the forces have been covered. Here, note that the resultant of non-coplanar force system must pass through the point of concurrence. T e resultant of concurrent force system can also be determined as the vector sum of the h f m s of the system The vector sum of the forces can be obtained very easily if each force is resolved into rectangular components. Thus, the vector sum of a noncaplanar system of concurrent forces F,, F2 and F3 is

which can be written in rectangular component fbnn as

R, i

+ R, j + R, k

F,,T + F,,? + F1, k + F F3* i + ~ 3 + ~F-J~ 7k

~ + FZY7+ F~~ ?

=
Therefore,

(zF,)? +

(C ~

, ) + (C F,) k j

+ Fb = (CFJ Ry = Fly + F2,, + F-3, = (C FYI R, = F,, + F2, + = (C Fz)

R x = FIX+ Fz*

Finally, combining these comnents R,, R, and R, vectorially, we get the resultant R . Thus, and

R = ~~7+ R,? + R, k
IR I =

d ( ~+ (R,)' ) +~( ~

~ 3 ~

where 0. , 0, and 0 , m the angles which the resultaut ~ ' h k e with x, y and z axes s respectively.

SAQ 4
(1)
(2)

A hoist trolley is subjected to three forces as shown in Figure 1.15. Determine

the magnitude and direction of the resultant. Solve SAQ 3 by the method of resolution of forces.

Figure 1.15

1.6 MOMENT OF A FORCE

If a force F is acting on a body resting at 0 and the line of action of f a does not pass ahTough G,the centre of gravity of the M y , it will not give the body a straight line triotiom, called the Qanslatory motion. but will t y to rotate the body about 0 as shown in r FiSd;le 1 15. The measure of this property of a force by virtue of which it tends to rotate U: f.a dy OR which it acts is called the mohen.nliof a force, The rotation of the body may I ' -\iae?&out a point or a line. k

Figure 1.16

Figam 1.17

Referring the Figure 1.17, if F is the force (in N) acting on the body dong AB and x is the perpendimla distance (in m) of 0 from AB, then, MomentoftheforceFaboutO = M = F x x = F x O C Here, point 0 is known as moment centre or fulcrum and distane X is termed as moment

arm.
Moment of force = Force x perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the point or the axis about which moment is required Moment is a vector quantity and the vector direction is along the axis about which the moment is taken. In terms of vector algebra, moment can be defined as, 'We moment @ of a force F with respect to point o is the cross product to the point C ) at any p i n t P on the line of action of the force I?" If the moment of the force about a point is zero, it means either the force itself is zero 01' the perpendicular distance between the line of action of the force and the point about which moment is to be calculated is zero i.e the force passes through that point.
Varignon's Theorem

. :

It states that the moment of a force about any point is equal to the sum of the moments of its components about the same point. This principle is also known as principle of moments. Varignon's theorem need not be restricted to the case of only two components but applies equally well to a system of forces and its resultant. For this it can be slightly modified as, "the algebraic sum of the moments of a given system of forces about a point is equal to the moment of their resultant about the same point". This principle of moment may be extended to any force system

1.6.1 Moment of Coplanar Forces

Let FI,F2and F3be the three coplanar forces acting on a body and let , e2and O3 be the angles which these forces make with positive x axis as shown in Figure 1.18 (a).
- --

Now, the magnitude and direction of resultant R can be found out very easily by resolving all the forces horizontally and vertically as discussed in Section 1.5.1, Let the resultant R makes an angle 0 with positiva axisAs shown in Figure 1.18 (b). Now by computation of moment of forces, the position of resultant force R can be ascertained.

To determine the point of application of the resultant, let it cut the horizontal axis XOX' at A at a perpendicular distance d from D as shown in Figure 1.18 (b). For point 0 in Figure 1.18 (a), let the algebraic sum of the moments of the given forces about 0 is given by 2 Mo anticlockwise. Then,

2 M = Fl dl ,

+ F2d2 + F3d3

Now, by applying Varignon's theorem, the position of resultant R will be such that the moment of R about point 0 , R.d is equal to C Mo, and the direction of the moment due to R about moment centre 0 must be the same as C Mo due to given system of forces. The distance d is computed from the above relation and R , whosemagnitude and direction have already been detennined earlier, is now completely located.

1.6.2 Moment of a Force about a Point and an Axis

The moment of a force can be determined with respect to (about) a point and also with respect to a line or axis. The moment of a force'F with respect to a point A is defined as a vector with a magnitude equal to the product of the perpendicular distance from A to F and the magnitude of the force and with a direction perpendicular to the plane containing A and Fe The sense of the moment vector is given by the direction a right-hand screw would advance if turned about A in the direction indicated by F as shown in Figure 1.19.

The moment of a force about a line or axis perpendicular to a plane containing the force is defined as a vector with a magnitude equal to the product of the magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance from the line to the force and with a direction along the line. Thus, it is the same as the moment of the force about the point of intersection of the plane and the moment axis. Since the moment of a force about an axis is a measure of its tendency to turn or rotate a body about the axis, the force parallel to an axis has no moment with respect to the axis, because it has no tendency to rotate the body about the axis. The moment of a force about various points and axes is illustrated in Figure 1.20. The moment of the horizontal force F about point A has a magnitude of Fd, in the direction

Figure 1.U)

shown by MA (Figure 1.20 (a)). Similarly, M E ,the moment about point B, has a magnitude of Fd2 and is perpendicular to the plane determined by B and the force F. The moment of force F about the line AB is the same as MA (as shown in Figure 1.20 (a)) or MAE(as shown in Figure 1.20 @)).,The moment of force F about line BC can be obtained by resolving force F into components F1and F2.Since F1 is parallel to line BC, it has no moment about BC. The resultant F2 is in a plane perpendicular to BC and its moment is F2d3in the direction shown. Similarly, the moment about line BD is F,d3 as indicated. MBc and MBDare the orthogonal components of M E . Here, you can note that MAE,
Example 19 .

The side of a square ABCD is 1.60 m long. Four forces equal to 6 , 5 , 4 and 8 N act along the line CB, BA, DA and DB respectively. Find the moment of these forces about 0,the point of intersection of the diagonals of the square.

Figure 12 .1

Solution

Taking moments about 0, Resultant moment M, = - 6 x2 - 5 x3 + 4 x1

+ 8x0

where x,, x, and x3 are the perpendicular distances of the forces of 4 . 6 and 5 N respectively from 0 and force of 8 N has zero moment about 0 as its line of action passes through this point. 1.6 Here, xl = x, = x3 = - = 0.8 m. 2

= - 5.6 N-m or 5.6 N-m (clockwise)

SAQ 5
The side of a regular hexagon ABCDEF is 0.6 m. Forces l , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 and 6 N are acting along the sides AB, CB, DC, DE, EF and FA respectively. Find the algebraic sum of the moments about A .

1.6.3 Couples ax! their Properties

A couple is a force system consisting of two equal, coplanar, parallel forces acting in opposite direction. Since a couple constitutes two equal and parallel forces, their resultant is zero and hence a couple has no tendency to produce translatory motion but produces rotation in the body on which it acts.

Figure 1.23 shows two equal and opposite forces, each equal to P and acting at A and B along parallel lines, thus constituting a couple. The perpendicular distance AB is called the arm of the couple and is denoted by p.
Moment of a Couple

The moment of a couple about any point in the plane containing the forces is constant ansa is measured by the product of any one of the forces and the perpendicular distance between the lines of action of the forces, i.e., M = P x p .
Properties of Couples

The properties which distinguish one couple from every other couple are called its characteristics. A couple whether positive or negative, has the following properties/characteristics.

(1) (2)

(3)
(4)

The algebraic sum of the forces constituting a couple is zero. The algebraic sum of the moment, of the forces forming a couple is the same about any point in their plane. The couple can be balanced only by another couple of the same moment but.of the opposite sense. The net effect of a number of coplanar couple is equivalent to the algebraic sum of the effect, of each of the couples.

A couple is frequently indicated by a clockwise or counterclockwise arrow when coplanar force systems are involved instead of showing two separate forces.
Replacement of a Force by a Force and Couple

Cohsider a force F acting at point O1. Imagine two equal and opposite forces F parallel to given force acting at O2 as shown in Figure 1.24.

These two additional forces do not alter the system The new system is equivhlent to a force F acting at O,, plus a couple of moment M = F.d.
Replacement of a Couple by two Forces

Consider a couple of moment M,where the axis of the couple is through 0 perpendicular to the plane of paper as shown -inFigure 1.25.

This couple is equivalent to any two parallel forces of magnitude F acting at a distance d apart such that F.d = M and the directions of the forces so chosen as to give the correct direction of M.

Goplauu nod Non-coplnnnr Forces

3 . RESULTANT OF NON-CONCURRENT FORCES 1 7

-

As stated earlier, the resultant of a system of forces is the simplest force system which can replace the original forces without altering their external effect on a rigid body. The equilibrium of a body is the condition wherein the resultant of all the forces, is zero. The properties of force, moment and couple discussed in the preceding sections will now be used to determine the resultants of nonconcurrent force systems.

1.7.1 Resultant of Coplanar Non-concurrent Forces

The resultant of a system of coplanar nonconcurrent forces may be obtained by adding two forces at a time and then combining their sums. The three forces Fl, F2and F3 shown in Figure 1.26 may be combined by first adding any two forces such as F2 an$ F3. They may be moved along their lines of action to their point of concurrency A by the principle of liransmissibility.
9

Their sum R1is formed by the law of parallelogram of forces. The force R1may then be combined with F1by the parallelogram law at their point of concurrency B to obtain the resultant R of the three given forces. Here, the order of combination of the forces is immaterial as may be verified by combining them in a different sequence. Now, the force R may be applied at any point on its established line of action. Algebraically, the same result may be obtained by forming the rectangular components of the forces in any two convenient perpendicular directions. In Figure 1.26 (b), the x and y components of R are seen to be the algebraic sums of the respective components of the three forms. Thus, in general, the rectangular components of the resultant R of a coplanar system of forces may be expressed as

R, = m, and IS, = my
where, The angle made by R with the x-axis is
8 = tan
-1

m y -

=F* '

The location of the line of action of R may be computed with the help of Varignon's theorem-Themoment of R , Figure 1.26 (a), about some point must equal to the sum of the moments of its two components F, and R1about the s m point. The moment of Rl, ae however, must equal to the sum of the moments of its components F2 and F3about the same point. It follows that the moment of R about any point equals the sum of the moments of F,, F2 and F3about this same point. Application of this principle of moments shown in Figure 1.27, gives the equation about the point 0,

For this system of forces where the clockwise direction has been taken as positive, the distance d is computed from this relation, and R , whose magnitude and direction have already been determined earlier, may now be completely located. In general, then, the r moment a m d of the resultant R is given by

where CMostands for the algebraic sum of the moments of the forces of the system about any point 0. For a system of parallel forces, the magnitude of the resultant is the algebraic sum of the several forces, and the position of its line of action may be obtained from the principle of moments. Now, consider a force system such as shown in Figure 1.28, where the polygon of forces closes and consequently there is no resultant force R . Direct combination by the law of parallelogram shows that for the case illustrated, the resultant is a couple of magnitude F3d. The value of the couple is equal to the moment sum about any pint. Thus, it is seen that the resultant of a non-concurrent coplanar system of forces may be either a force or a couple.

1.7.2 Resultant of Non-coplanar Non-concurrent Forces

As mentioned earlier, there are many engineering problems which require analysis of noncoplanar nonconcurrent system of forces which is three dimensional in nature. Such analysis calls for representation of the system by a pictorial drawing or by means of two or more orthographic projections. The resultant of a non-parallel, non-coplanar, non-concurrent force system can be a single force or a couple, but in general it is a force and a couple. When all the forces of the system are parallel, the resultant will be a single force (parallel to the given forces) or a couple in the plane of the system or in parallel plane or the resultant may be zero. The resultant is a force when X F is different from zero and a couple when X F is equal to zero unless W0is also zero in which case the system is in equilibrium and the resultant is xro. The resultant of any general force system can be obtained by resolving each force into a parallel force through some common mint and a couple in the manner described in Section 1.6.3. The general system is thus reduced to a set of concurrent forces and a set of couples. The resultant of concurrent forces is obtained as the vector sum of the component forces, R = IFi , as explained in Section 1.5.2. The couples are combined vectorially to get a resultant couple M. The vector sum of the moment of the resultant of the set of the couples can be obtained if the moment of each of the couples is resolved into the rectangular components. The three rectangular components of the resultant couple are C , , CMy and CM, which are t h dgebraic sums of the moments of the couples of the M ~ system about n, y and z axes respectively. Now, the resultant couple is given by

= d(ZM,j2+ (CMYl2 ( m a 2 +

and

the direction of the resultant couple may be specified by its direction cosines, which are cos a, =
m x -,

cos a, =

m
M

Coplanar d Non-coplanar Forces

and cos 4 =

m,

M .

and a, are the angles, the vector representing the couple M Here, the angles a,, makes with x, y and z axes respectively.

1 3 SUMMARY
In this unit, you have learnt to identify the different systems of forces. You have also learnt the various techniques of adding the forces to get the resultant of the system of forces, e.g. use of law of parallelogram of forces or triangle of forces or polygon law of forces. The important equations to remember are :

sin a
= PfQcosa

tanp = where

P sin a Q+Pcosa

is the resultant of

and

a = angle between
8 = angle between

F R

and and

0, 0,
i.

P , and

= angle between Q and

The resultant of a system of forces is the simplest force system which can replace the original forces without altering their'external effect on a rigid body. Following table gives the possible resultant force system for the various system of forces :
Type of Force System Possible Resultant

Concurrent Coplanar, non-concurrent Parallel, noncoplanar non-concurrent Non-Parallel noncoplanar nonconcurrent

Resultant of Concurrent Force System

Force Force or a couple Force or a couple Force or a couple or a force and a couple

The resolution of forces helps in determining the resultant of a number of forces acting on a body as it reduces vectorial addition to algebraic addition. If more than two coplanar, concurrent forces are acting on a body, the analytical method of fmding resultant is quicker. Each force is resolved into two mutually perpendicular axes say x and y. All components along the respective axes are added algebraically to get the components of the resultant R along x and y axes. Thus, we get,

where 8, = angle which the resultant R makes with the x axis.

In case of noncoplanar forces, the given force is resolved into three mutually perpendicular axes system, e.g. n, y and z axes. Thus, we get

cos4 = where

-,

C F Z

cos e,, =

C ,
FY

FZ , cos ez = -

s y and z axes respectively, The angles 8, , 8, and 0 , are the angles which the resultant R makes with s y and z axes respectively.
The measure of the property of a force by virtue of which it tends to rotate the body on which it acts is called the moment of a force.
A couple is a force system consisting of two equal, coplanar, parallel forces acting in opposite direction.

C F, , 1Fy and

Fz are the algebraic sums of the components of all the forces along

Resultant of Non-concurrent Force System

The resultant of a system of coplanar forces may be obtained by adding two forces through law of parallelogram at a time and then combining their sums. Analytically, the same result may be obtained by forming the reclangular components of the forces at any two convenient perpendicular directions. The magnitude and the direction of the resultant are found in the same way as that given for the concurrent forces. i.e.

The location of the line of action of R may be computed with the help of Varignon's theorem

In case of noncoplanar forces, there may be parallel or non-parallel system of forces. In case of parallel forces, the resultant may be (i) a single force R parallel to the system of forces, (ii) a couple in the plane of the system or in parallel plane, or (iii) zero.
R =

1F and is parallel to the line of action of forces.

then the position of the line of action of the forces can be found out by

: .

*0

R.d =

CA3,

where d = perpendicular distance from the moment centre to the resultadt R

C M , = algebraic sum of the moments of all the forces with respect to the
moment centre.

. :

F = 0, the resultant may consist of a couple of magnitude

C M,.

= 0 and

DO0 ,then the resultant is zem. =

For nonparallel forces, the resultant may be (i) a single force R (ii) a couple M, or (iii) a single force R and a couple M. Generally, it is a combination of a force and a couple.

T t :ei;alOant of any general force system cm he obtained by resolving each force into a k. pardlci farce through some common points and a couple. Thus, the systcm is reduced to a set of r ~ ~ ~ ~ uforces and a set of couples. The resuitant of concurrent force system can nent

be obtained by resolvirig the farces into three mutually perpendicular axes system, x, y and z axis. Thus, we get,

COS

8 = ,

F X

, cos 8 = ,

FY

, cos 8, =

~z R

where

F, , Fyand F, are the algebraic sums of the components of all the farces along x, y and z axes tespectively. The angles 8, , 0, and 8,are the angles which the resultant R makes with x, y and z axes respectively. For non-parallel forces also the position of the line of action 0f resultant can be determined by using R . d = M, .
The magnitude of the resultant couple is given by

x x

c o s a x = ~ c o s ? = ----r: , cos a, = , where

MX

EM

C MZ M

, Myand 2 M,ace the algebraic sums of the moments of the couples of the , system about x, y and z axes respectively. The angles a, , a and a, are the angles, the vector representing the couple M makes with x, y and z axes respectively. In case of concurrent forces M = 0.

xM, x

1.9 KEY WORDS

Coplanar Forces Noncoplanar Forces Concurrent Forces Parallel Forces Resolution of a Force
:
:

Forces acting in one plane Forces acting in different planes. Lines of action of forces pass through a commctn pobk Lines of action of forces are parallel to each other. Splitting a force into its components. Generally the force are risolved along two mutually perpendicular axes e.g. x and y axes. Addition of forces. A single force which has the same effect on the body as all the forces acting together are having. A resultant is equivalent to the system of forces. Components of a force along x and y axes. Any two axes which are perpendicular to each other may be termed as x and y axes.
a

Composition of Forces Resultant

Redangular.Components :

Moment of a force

The moment M of a force with respect to a point 0 is the cross-product to point 0 at any point P on the line of action of the force F. A couple consists of two forces equal in magnitude, parallel but oppositely directed.

Couple

Moment of a Couple

Varignon's Theorem

The moment M of a couple with respect to any point 0 is the sum of the moments with respect to 0 of the two forces that constilute the couple. It is the product of the magnitude of one of the forces forming couple and ann of the couple. The moment of a force about any point is equal to the algebraic sum of the moments of the components of the force about that point.

1.10 ANSWERS TO SAOs

SAQ 1

Consider forces acting at A. The gravity force acting on the mass of the body will cause stretching of the tie member and shortening of the jib member. Therefore, there are three forces acting at A : (1) Weight of the body acting vertically downwards, (2) Tension in the tie member, and (3) Compression in the jib member. These three forces pass through the common point A. This is the system of concurrent forces. (2) Consider forces acting on the beam. If the string at P is cut, point P will move downwards. Thus, the string is offering a force acting upwards to keep P in position shown. Similarly, the string at Q is also offering an upward force. There are five forces acting on tbc.. beam acting vertically downwards on the beam, (1) Weight W l
(1) (2) (3)

Weight W2acting vertically downwards,

Tension in string at P acting vertically upward, (4) Tension in string at Q acting vertically upward, and ( 5 ) Weight of the beam acting vertically downwards. The lines of action of these forces are parallel to each other. This is the system of parallel forces. (3) Consider forces acting at C . There are four forces acting at C. (1) Weight W acting vertically downwards, (2) Tension in the tie. (3) Compression in left leg, and (4) Compression in right leg. The system is of concurrent forces as all the forces pass through the common point C, (4) If forces acting on the roof truss are considered, the lines of all forces do not pass through any common point. Neither the lines of action of all forces are parallel. This is a system of non-concurrent non-parallel forces.

' .

SAQ 2

(a) Parallelogram Law

LetP= 60NandQ= 8 0 N Represent the forces P and Q in magnitude and direction by drawing lines OA and OB to scale and parallel to the lines of action of forces P and Q respectively. Complete the parallelogram of forces. Join OC which is the diagonal of the of parallelogram passing through the point of concurrence ' O D P and Q. 'Ihe diagonal

OC, therefore, represents their resultant in magnitude and direction. Measure the length OC and get the magnitude of the resultant. Measure angle COA and get the direction of the resultant with respect to force P. Using t&onornetrical relations, we get
P = 6ON arid Q = 8 0 N

where

and

a = angle between

and

80 sin 1 0 5 ~ 60 + 80 cos 105"

Also tan p =

Psina Q+Pcosa

60 sin 105' 80+60cos 105'

Flgurefor Answer to SAQ 2 (a) :P d e l o g l y n Law

Triangle Law

LetP= 60NandQ= 80N Represent the force P in magnitude arid direction by drawing line OA to scale and parallel tu the line of action of force P. From point A, represent force Q in magnitude and direction by drawing line AB to scale and parallel to the line of action of force Q. Then line OB joining the starting point to the end point B represents theu resultant ih magnitude and direction. Length OB gives the magnitude and angle BOA &tennines the direction of the resultant with respect to force P. The resultant can also be found by drawing @as the first vector and P as the second

as shown in the adjoining diagram.

Using trigonometric relations, we get,

sine =

sina

- go sin 105' -86.691

Also

sin

= - sin a

P R

- a sin 105" -86.691

Rmre for Amwer bSAQ 2 (a) :Triangle Law

(b) Padlelogram Law

LetP= l00N and Q = 120N Represent forces P and Q in magnitude and direction by drawing lines OA and OB to scale and parallel to the lines of action of forces P and Q respectively. Complete the parallelogram OABC and join OC. As per the law of parallelogram of forces, OC represents their resultant in magnitude and direction. Measure the length to get the magnitude and angle COA to get the direction of the resultant with respect to F. Using trigonometrical relations, we get,

R =J$+&+2~~cosa
where and P=100N and Q=120N

a = angle bewtween

and

tan 0 =

Q sin a P+Qcosa

Also tan

P sin a Q+Pcosa
1.

loo sin 80" 12o+100<x>s8o0

.'. 8 = 35.638" = 35" 35' 16" w.r.t. force Q.

Figure for h w e r to SAQ 2 (b):Parallelogram Law

Triangle Law

Represent the force P in magnitude and direction by drawing line OA to scale and parallel to the line of action of force P. From point A, represent force Q in magnitude and direction by drawing line AB to scale and parallel to the line of action of force Q. Then line OR joining the starting point to the end point B represents their resultant in magnitude and direction as per triangle law of forces. Length OB gives the magnitude and angle BOA determines the direction of the resultant with respect to P. Tbe resultant can also be found by drawing Q as the fmt vector and P as the second vector as shown in the above Figure for Answer to SAQ 2 (b). Using trigonometric relations, we get,

= =

40' 10

+ 1202+2 x 100 x 120 cos 80"

169.019 N
R

sin 8 =

sin a

(sine Rule)

-- 120 sin 80" 169.019

. :

8 = 44.362" = 44" 2 ' 3 w.r.t. force P 14"

Also sin B =

P - sin a R
loo sin 8 " 0 169.019

= 0.5827

: .

f3 = 35.638" = 35"38' 1 " w.r.t. force Q 6

(Note: 0 - t B = a = 809

Ffpre for h m r to SAQ 2 (b) :Trlrrpdc JAW

SAQ 3

Fipm for Answer to SAQ 3

We construct a polygon such that the forces O N ,80 N, 40 N and 50 N represent the sides of a polygon taken in order, each force being drawn from the end of earlier force as shown in Figure for Answer to SAQ 3 (b). Here, the scale to construct the polygon has been taken as 1 cm = 30 N. Now, the resultant is represented by the line joining the starting point of the first force i.e. 0 to the end of the last force i.e. D. This line OD measures 3.35 c n Magnitude of resultant = ( linear measurement of OD) x (Scale of drawing)
= 3.35 cm x 30 N/cm = 100.50 N.

To determine the direction of resultant, draw a co-ordinate system at point D. We find that line OD makes 80" angle with positive x axis measured in clockwise direction whereas 0 is measured in anticlockwise direction from positive x axis. So, the direction of resultant 0 = 280" (measured in anticlockwise from positive x axis).
SAQ 4

(1) Resolving all the forces along x axis, we get,

Rx =

C Fx
cos 81

= Fl

+ F2 cos 4 + F3 COS O3

Similarly,resolving all forces along y axis, we get,

RY =

C FY
+ F2 sin
+ F3 sin o3 + 90 sin 210' + 80 sin 315'
= - 101.57 N

= F1 sin = 60 sin O0 =0

- 45 - 56.57

Thus, the resultant in vector form may be expressed as 101.57 N) j The magnitude of the resultant is given by

= (38.63 N)i

+ (-

The direction 0 can be worked out as

CoplPaar and Non-eoplmar Forces

0 = 290' 49' 24" (ahticlockwise)

The resultant has a magnitude of 108.67 N and is acting in IVth quadrant making an angle of 290 49' 24" in anticlockwise direction from positive x axis. (2) Resolving all the forces along x axis, we get,
= 60 cos 45' = 42.42 = - 17.22 N

+ 80 cos 90' + 40 ws 150 + 50 ws 240

+ 0 - 34.64 - 25 +' 80 sin 90' + 40 sin 1500 + 50 sin 240'

Similarly, resolving all forces along y axis, we get,

= 60 sin 45'

Thus, the resultant in vector form may be expressed as

R = (-17.22 N) i + ( 99.12 N) j
The magnitude of the resultant is given by

The diction 0 can be worked out as 0 = tan-$)

= tan-'

(-)

- 800 8 . 4 (clockwise) ~

0 = 379' 51' 20" (anticlockwise) The resultant has a magnitude of 100.60 N and is acting in IVth quadrant making an angle of 279' 51' 20" in anticlockwise diction from positive x axis.
SAQ 5

Plgure tor A m w u t SAQ 5 o

In the hexagon ABCDEF shown in Figure for Answers to SAQ 5, the forces 1,2,3, 4,5 and 6 N are acting along the sides AB, CB, DC, DE, EF and FA respectively. Let xl , x2 , x3 and x4 be the respective distance of the f o m of 2,3,4 and 5 N along the sides CB, DC, DE and EF respectively.

Taldng moment about A,

1CI, = 1 x 0 . - 2 5 - 3%

+ 4x3 + 5x4 + 6 x 0

As the forces of 1 N and 6 N acting alopg AB and FA pass through A, their moment about this point is zero.

Also x, = x4 = AB sin 6 0 '

-- 6 - 0.6
2

= 0.3 fi = 0.52 m

Considering the &C

and using cosine formula

.rz = x 3 = d& + B e - 2 A B . B ~ c o s l ~ = 4 0 . 6 ~+ 0.6~- 2 x 0.6 x 0.6 x (-0.5)

= 1.04 m

: .

MA = - (2 x 0.52)
=

- (3 x 1.04) + (4 x 1.04) + (5 x 0.52)

- 1.04 - 3.12 + 4.16 + 2.6

= 2.6 N-m (anticlockwise)