Evolution of marketing - organisational concepts Marketing is so common a term in the business world of today that it would be easy to think

that marketing has always existed as a way for organisations 'to do business'. Although the majority of business organisations - and incidentally many other types of organisations including charities, public sector organisations and self-help groups can be said to use marketing, the actual emphasis of the particular organisation will be dependent on the organisational concept that they follow. When the Crystal Palace 'Great Exhibition' took place in England in the early years of this century, every product on display was sold. At the time, demand for all manner of products far exceeded supplies available. In more recent years, competition - within developed economies at least - has led organisations to look more closely at the marketing concept as a way of conducting their activities. Along the way though, there have been other organisational concepts adopted - with varying degrees of success. We will now look at each of these concepts in turn. The Production Concept This concept holds that consumers will favour products that are available and affordable, and therefore management should concentrate on improving production and distribution efficiency. This is fine where a company is faced with a situation where demand exceeds supply, or where the product cost is too high and efficiencies have to be gained in production in order to gain customers. When Henry Ford famously stated that 'you can have any colour as long as it is black', this emphasised the production orientation of the company. Imagine, in today's - highly competitive - automotive market, if customers were offered such limited choice! Today, any company that takes too narrow a focus, whereby they concentrate only on reducing production costs, run the risk of not meeting the requirements of consumers. There are exceptions to the rule though, as the TI Group demonstrate. Texas Instruments holds a large share of the calculator market based on the production concept. Their philosophy to keep improving production and reducing prices is unusual in that it is successful. Interestingly, when TI tried the same strategy in the watch market, they didn't produce the expected sales - largely due to customers for watches looking beyond functionality and at the attractiveness of the product. The Product Concept Companies adopting this concept or philosophy take the view that customers will favour products that offer the most innovation, performance and quality features. To succeed, they must then concentrate on delivering continuous product improvements. Again questions must be asked about this strategic stance. A product orientation can lead to an obsession with technology because the managers in the organisation believe that technical superiority is the key to business success. Continuous product improvements may not be what customers actually want - as is perhaps the case with one of the most recent innovations - the WAP phone. A further criticism of the product based philosophy is what as been referred to as 'marketing myopia'. (Leavitt 1960)
Read the following article and make notes accordingly. http://casadogalo.com/marketingmyopia.pdf

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Back Next The Selling Concept Companies that have overcapacity practice the selling concept. The key aim of such companies is to sell what they make rather than make what the market wants. Large-scale sales and promotion effort is the strategic stance adopted by this type of company. The aim is to get the sale and no concern is shown for consumer satisfaction after the sale. With a focus on short-term results - creating transactional sales - rather than on building long-term, profitable relationships with customers, the type of company following this type of concept will often lose out when more customer focused competition enters the market. Can you think of any examples of businesses that you have dealt with who exercise this philosophy? Share your ideas with fellow students by entering the Discussion Forum. The Marketing Concept

The marketing concept is based around the philosophy that the customer, and their needs and wants, is the number one priority. Achieving organisational goals depends on determining the needs and wants of particular target markets and delivering desired benefits and satisfactions of products and services better than the competition. Make a list of at least five companies that you believe are exponents of the marketing concept.
Some of the most successful companies follow the marketing concept very effectively. In the UK, Tesco (http:// www.tesco.com), Virgin (http://www.virgin.com), The Body Shop (http://www.thebodyshop.co.uk) and Cadbury's (http://www.cadbury.co.uk) are examples of companies who are truly marketing oriented. Internationally, IKEA (http://www.ikea.com), Proctor and Gamble (http://www.pg.com), Orange (http://www.orange. co.uk) and apple (http://www.apple.com) perhaps represent classic examples of excellent marketing-led companies.

"The marketing concept takes an outside-in perspective. It starts with a well-defined market, focuses on customer needs, co-ordinates all the marketing activities affecting customers and makes profits by creating long-term customer relationships based on customer value and satisfaction." Kotler et al (1996) There is often some confusion between the selling and the marketing concept. Figure 1.1 Kotler et al (1996) highlights the key difference in terms of inside-out and outside-in perspectives. Figure 1.1 - the selling and marketing concept contracted It is important to realise at this stage that selling, as an organisational concept, is different to the sales function within a company. Indeed, the role of the function is critical to a company - the main thing is to immediately dispel the popular misconception that marketing is actually 'posh' selling. Back Next Return to the top of page. Page 3 of 8

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Back Next What are the differences between the selling and the marketing functions in an organisation? How far do the two functions complement each other and how far do they stand alone? Make notes to illustrate your answer.
The table below represents a broad classification of the differences and the complementary features of sales and marketing. How close the sales and marketing functions work together will be dependent to a great extent on a number of factors: the orientation or concept being followed by the company, the perspective taken by senior management, and the particular market strategy being adopted by the company. These are some of the ways in which marketing and selling can be seen as both different from, and as complimenting, one another. Selling Prime responsibility is maximising business on today's product. Measured short-term on sales volume or value achieved. First-line customer management and support. Locked into day-to-day field battle with competition. Working between customer and company. Product and price main concerns, together with support being received from promotion and service, etc. Overall role tactical rather than strategic Marketing Monitor short-term results of tactical actions but more concerned with medium to long-term market performance and profitability as well as sales. Manage broader definition of customer needs and overall climate of customer satisfaction. They may be working through third parties in doing this. More concerned with overall competitiveness and competitor strategy. Facing out into the marketplace but also working in an integrating role back in the company. Concerned about total offering seen by the customer, and how the product is being taken to market. Overall role strategic rather than tactical.

As a final point on the complementary aspects of the selling and marketing concepts see figure 1.2 Figure 1.2 - the mutual dependency of selling and marketing Back Next Return to the top of page. Page 4 of 8

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Back Next The Societal Marketing Concept

In a world where there is unequal allocation of resources, there are environmental problems, and there are inadequate social services for some people, a fifth organisational concept has been developed. The societal marketing concept is based around a company still delivering the required needs and wants of a target market better than the competition, but in a way that improves both the consumer's wellbeing and the wellbeing of the rest of society. There are three considerations underlying the societal marketing concept. These are illustrated below in figure 1.3. Figure 1.3 - three considerations underlying the societal marketing concept McDonalds represents a very successful and truly marketing oriented organisation. The company has come though in for much criticism for its farming and packaging methods. Further criticism has been levelled at the actual nutritional values of its products. What other examples can you think of regarding companies that have 'fallen out with society' over their environmental or broader societal strategies?
Use the Internet to gather articles on three companies that have gathered negative publicity - because they haven't been seen to have a societal marketing approach. There are many companies that have been lambasted by the press and/ or consumer groups for their marketing approaches. Examples include Nike - using cheap third world labour, Coca-cola - for litter problems caused by nondisposable packaging, Nestle' - where its baby products have been criticised, particularly in third world countries as

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Back Next Adopting a marketing approach Adopting a true marketing approach requires an understanding of marketing at three levels: marketing as a philosophy, marketing as a process, marketing as a management function. Marketing as a philosophy At its highest level, marketing involves everyone in the organisation, since every business exists to service its customers - profitably. This means: Giving the customer a major say or influence in how the business is run. All functions and employees at all levels being genuinely customer-orientated and market-driven. Actively measuring customer satisfaction and loyalty as well as market share and profit. Figure 1.4 - marketing as a philosophy Marketing as a process Marketing is a matching process, instead of trying to force products into a market, it entails: Deciding which market segments you want to do business with. Understanding the total needs of those customers who you have decided to serve. Meeting those customer needs in creative, competitive and value-generating ways. Active feedback, and the necessary refinement of products and services, to maximise effectiveness. Marketing as a management function Everyone may be involved in the overall process, but for marketing to be successful, marketing activities must be handled professionally as someone's prime responsibility. The role of the marketing manager is to act as a specialist and as the pivot of the organisation's marketing activities.
Either: If you know someone who carries out a marketing role in an organisation, arrange to interview the person for 15 minutes to establish all of the elements of their marketing role and what is involved in marketing management. Make a list of the different elements that they inform you of. Or: Look in a quality daily newspaper at the sales and marketing recruitment pages (or you may be able to look instead at the recruitment sites on the Internet). Make a list of those elements that are mentioned regularly in the recruitment copy for a marketing manager. There are many elements involved in a marketing management role. These elements could include the following: research, advertising and promotion, overview, forward-thinking, communication, process, the marketing mix, strategic and tactical, the environment, marketing planning, the use of agencies, products, services, pricing, distribution, etc. The list is endless, and the main consideration at this point is to glean as much information as you can in order to begin to learn the 'language' of marketers.

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Back Next Marketing Principles There are a number of marketing principles that it is useful to have sight of at this stage of the module. These principles can be considered to be the foundation philosophies on which the whole of marketing is based. Customers buy benefits. Customers do not buy products or services, they buy what the product or service can do for them. The D-I-Y enthusiast does not want a 0.25 inch drill bit; he wants a 0.25 inch hole. The drill bit is merely a way of delivering that benefit (the hole) and will only be the solution to that basic need until a better method or solution is invented. Virtually all products and services will have a limited life until a new or better way of satisfying the underlying want or need is found. The fate of the slide rule, at the hands of the pocket calculator, is a classic example where the problem (the need for rapid and easy calculation) was better solved through a newer technology. The product life cycle (plc) concept and the development of product portfolio planning are two of the key ways in which companies have been able to manage 'dynamic' markets. There are three further key elements to remember whenever you are involved in marketing: Without customers you will not have a business. To attract and retain customers you need to understand your competition. You, your customers and your competition are all in what can broadly be described as the 'business environment'.
Visit the following websites to find out more about marketing concepts and make notes accordingly. www.referenceforbusiness.com/management/Mar-No/Marketing-Concept-and-Philosophy.html www.businesslink.gov.uk/bdotg/action/layer?r.l1=1073861169&topicId=1073858842&r.s=tl

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Back Next To complete these knowledge check activities, please log on to the Virtual Learning Environment. Back Next Return to the top of page. Page 8 of 8

Resource Library
Websites: www.dti.gov.uk/bestpractice www.marketingteacher.com www.BambooWeb.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing www.cardelmedia.co.uk/marketingmanagement.html http://tutor2u.net/marketing/default/html http://marketingscoop.com/articles.htm www.articleplanet.net/marketing www.bized.ac.uk www.marketing.haynet.com www.cim.co.uk www.ft.com www.marketingweek.co.uk www.ad-market-review.com References: Ansoff, H. I., (1987), Corporate Strategy (revised edition), Penguin Books, Harmondsworth. Baker, M.J., (1976), Marketing: Theory and Practice, Macmillan. Doyle, P., (1994), Marketing Management and Strategy, Prentice Hall International (UK). Engel, J. F., Blackwell, R. D., and Miniard, P. W., (1995), Consumer Behaviour, 8th International edn., The Dryden Press.

Fifield, P. and Gilligan, C., (1996), Strategic Marketing Management: Planning and Control, Analysis and Decision-making, Butterworth-Heinemann. Jobber, D., (1998), Principles and Practice of Marketing, McGraw-Hill. Kotler, P. et al, (1999), Principles of Marketing 2nd European edn, Prentice Hall, Europe. Leavitt, T., (1960), Marketing Myopia, Harvard Business Review, July-August 1960, pp. 148-149. Maslow, A. H., (1970), Motivation and Personality, 2nd edn., Harper and Row, New York. Needham, D. et al, (2002), Business for Higher Awards, Heinemann. Ogilvy, D., (1996), The Hutchinson Dictionary of Business Quotes, Helicon Publishing. Porter, M. E., (1980), Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors, New York Free Press. Stokes, P. et al, (1997), Marketing A Case Study Approach, 2nd edn., Letts Educational. Voss, C. A., (1987), Just-in Time Manufacture, IFS/ Springer-Verlag Supplementary Reading: Hill, Charles (2004), International Business: Competing in the Global Marketplace, McGraw Hill Education. Kotler, P. (2003). Marketing Management. Eleventh Edition. Prentice Hall. OConnor, J, et al, (2003), Electronic Marketing: Theory and Practice for the 21st Century, Financial Times Prentice Hall Peppers, D, Rogers, M (2004), Managing Customer Relationships: A Strategic Framework, John Wiley Piercy, Nigel (2001), Market-led Strategic Change: Transforming the Process of Going to Market, Butterworth Heinemann Peppers, D, Rogers, M (2004), Managing Customer Relationships: A Strategic Framework, John Wiley Needham, D. et al, (2002), Business for Higher Awards, Heinemann.

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Lesson - The Marketing Planning Process Overview

Back Next Introduction The marketing in an organisation needs to be specific to that organisation. No two businesses are the same in terms of their culture, organisational structure, management styles and strategies for the marketplace. By the same token, it would be unwise for a company to believe that it could approach a market in exactly the same way as the competition that it faces. In order to establish how to market it differently from the competition, and to 'win' the numbers of customers needed to make target levels of sales and profits, an organisation needs to set out its marketing plans. It is the marketing plan that identifies where the company intends itself to be in the future. A marketing plan is essentially a process of marketing and management actions. A staged approach is taken in order that the organisation is able to meet the overall objectives set by the company for the future. Marketing success depends on integrating all of the principles into one coherent customer, competitor and environment focused strategy - in essence a route map for the marketing stance and the subsequent marketing actions of the company. When looking at this marketing plan or marketing process for an organisation, a stage-based model can be used. This is illustrated in figure 1.6 below: Figure 1.6 - the marketing planning process
Go to the following website and make additional notes in relation to marketing planning and what it involves. http://www.tutor2u.net/business/marketing/planning_strategic_link.asp

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Back Next Determining organisational objectives The basis goals, or objectives, of the organisation are the starting points for marketing planning. These goals serve as signposts from which marketing plans are established. Goals will vary amongst organisations, but will generally focus on market shares, profitability, sales and shareholder value. In most cases the objectives will be quantifiable; for example, 'achieve an 8% profits increase over last year', 'attain a 15% increase in market share by 2004'. Non-quantifiable objectives can be included, but only if such objectives are in fact difficult to quantify. As an example, attaining the 'best image in the marketplace' could be considered to be an objective. It would be better,

however, if this could be measured in some way, perhaps through customer research, so that it can be clearly seen as a quantifiable objective. The marketing audit is very important for an organisation, as future strategies will take account of the information thrown up by the actual audit. The main points associated with an audit are: The current marketing situation of a company or department is compiled using a marketing audit. The marketing audit is the means by which information for planning is organised. The audit is the means by which a company can understand how it relates to the environment in which it operates. An audit is a systematic, critical and unbiased review and appraisal of the environment, and of the company's marketing and its operations. The marketing audit, in attempting to answer the question 'where are we now?', must take account of the fact that: A company is faced with two kinds of variables; those over which the company has no direct control environmental and market variables - and those over which it has complete control - the operational variables The audit is therefore split into two parts: external audit - concerned with the uncontrollable variables - and an internal audit - concerned with the controllable variables. What do you think are included in the internal and external audits? What are the variables? Make a list of those elements that you believe should be considered. (The external audit will be looked at in detail in the next main section of the module.)
A list of items that could be included in the internal audit: Marketing operation variables: Sales m Total m By location. m By customer type. m By product. Market share. Profit margins/cost profiles. Marketing procedures. Marketing organisation. Marketing information/research. Marketing mix variables: Product/service management Product range and quality Stock levels Pricing, discounts, credits Distribution characteristics Sales promotion Advertising Packaging Selling Point of sale materials Public relations Training

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Back Next Environmental analysis When conducting an examination of the external environment of a business, the main areas of investigation can be split into: The competition. Suppliers and intermediaries. The political environment. The economic environment. The legal environment. The social and cultural environment. The examination of the external environment will again be individual to a particular organisation, as the influences of the external environment will vary according to the company being considered. This process is usually called the PEST analysis.

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Back Next SWOT analysis Following on from the initial internal and external audit, a company with a marketing focus will then establish its key strengths and weaknesses (internal to the business) and the key opportunities and threats that the business needs to face up to (external to the business). The marketing audit can generate very detailed data and information. You need to concentrate on areas of analysis that determine which trends and developments will actually affect the company in the future. The goal of the audit is to indicate what a company's marketing objectives and strategies should be. The SWOT represents a way to organise the major audit findings. The SWOT analysis is a relatively short document, highlighting internal differential strengths and weaknesses vis-avis competitors and key external opportunities and threats. The internal strengths and weaknesses are related to the external opportunities and threats. The SWOT analysis should be interesting to read, contain concise statements, and include only relevant and important data. Below are some examples of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats that can be considered by an organisation. Example strengths Low costs/low overheads. Good location. Well-motivated staff. Good product expertise. Good market knowledge. Broad customer base. Sound finances. Example weaknesses High costs/high overheads. Poor location. Poor internal communications. Poorly motivated staff. Poorly skilled staff. Poor market knowledge. Small customer base. Example opportunities Weak competition (at least in some areas). Competitor going out of business or moving away. Expanding market. New legislation in pipeline that will be good for the market. Useful exhibition/promotional event coming up. Example threats Strong competition. Competitor giving special offers or discounts. Shrinking market. New legislation in pipeline that will be bad for the market. Supplier problems/raw material price rises
Using relevant sources, carry out a SWOT analysis for your own organisation or one that you are familiar with. Discuss your results with a fellow student or your line-manager.

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Back Next Objectives, Constraints and Strategic Options The Marketing Objectives The next step in the marketing planning process is to set the marketing objectives. These marketing objectives will mirror the corporate objectives that the organisation has set for itself

At this stage of the marketing planning process, realistic and achievable objectives should be set for the company's major products and / or services in each of its major markets. Unless the objective setting is done well, everything else that follows in the planning process will lack focus and cohesion.
For further information on setting marketing objectives, go to the following web site: www.websitemarketingplan.com/marketing_management/MarketingObjectivesArticle.htm

The specific marketing objectives are created in order to accomplish the broad objectives. The end result of the process should be objectives that are: Consistent with the strategic plan. Attainable within budget limitations. Compatible with the strengths, limitations and economics of other functions within the organisation. Strategic Options Marketing planning must be directed towards establishing marketing strategies that are efficient, effective, flexible and adaptable. The marketing strategy represents the overall company strategy and action for the seven elements of the 'marketing mix'. What do you think the 7Ps stand for?
The 7 Ps are price, promotion, place, product, process, physical and people.

In broad terms, a company will select a particular target market of customers and will then satisfy the customers in the particular segment through careful use of the elements of this marketing mix. In determining the strategy best suited to their marketplace, a company will need to fully understand the market, customers and competitors in order to come to a sound decision. This information is combined with the other audit information covering the resources of the company. The marketing audit section that was covered above outlined the key points to consider, and also introduced the SWOT analysis techniques that can be used to combine the company's resources with the opportunities in the marketplace. Having established where you are now through the marketing audit, and where you are going via the establishment of corporate and marketing objectives, the next step is deciding how to get there - your marketing strategy. Very often where a company wants to go (based on its objectives) and where it is actually going do not match up. 'Gap analysis' highlights the fact that if corporate sales and other financial objectives are greater than the current long-range forecasts, new strategies are needed to fill the gap. This is illustrated in figure 1.7 below: Figure 1.7 - gap analysis Back Next Return to the top of page. Page

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Back Next Ansoff (1987) suggests that the strategies gap can be filled through one of the following: Improved productivity m Reducing costs. m Improving the sales mix. m Increasing prices. Market penetration. Reducing the objectives. Market extension. Product development. Diversification. How some of these key strategies relate to each other in practice can be seen in figure 1.8 below: Figure 1.8 - The Ansoff strategies matrix Think about companies or particular brands of companies that have pursued the strategies given in the Ansoff matrix. Look at the descriptions given in each quadrant of the matrix and identify companies/ brands that fit the criteria.
Taking each quadrant in turn, examples are given for each below. Don't worry if your answers are different, the primary concern is to ensure your understanding of the principles. Examples include: Market penetration Kellogg's (http://www.kellogs.com) - advertising the fact that we can eat cornflakes at any time of the day! BT (http://www.bt.com) 'it's good to talk' Special offers through the post, in magazines - attempting to get you to buy something e.g. take out life

insurance and receive a store voucher, house insurance... 'we will pay the switching fee'. Special offers on the Sky Digital box (http://www.sky.com) to encourage non-users to subscribe to the monthly payment service. Product development '40 plus' toothpaste. Widescreen television. CD Rewriter on a computer. TNT 'guaranteed' overnight delivery. Market development Tesco home shopping (http://www.tesco.com) Amazon.com (http://www.amazon.co.uk) Morrisons supermarkets (http://www.morrisons.co.uk) (moving from their northern base in the UK to the midlands region.) Staples (http://www.staples.co.uk) (catering for the emerging 'home office' market.) Diversification Numerous examples of mergers and takeovers - Time Warner (http://www.timewarner.com), BHS (http:// www.bhs.co.uk) and Arcadian (http://www.arcadian.biz) etc. Joint ventures - the SMART car (http://www.smartcar.co.uk) - Mercedes (http://www2.mercedes-benz.co.uk) and Rolex (http://www.rolex.com)

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Back Next Constraints When an organisation determines it's corporate and marketing objectives it has to recognise the constraints under which it operates. Achieving profit objectives may seem to necessitate cutting the marketing budget, whilst achieving a sales targets may appear to mean lowering the price, which in turn reduces the profitability. In addition to the trade-off between sales expansion and profitability, there may well be other constraints. Consider other types of constraints and discuss these with fellow students by entering the Discussion Forum.
Examples may include, a company wishing to enter a new market and may not have a good understanding of what the market dynamics are. A further example would be a company wishing to introduce a new product or service, with question marks over whether the company as the necessary resources and skills to actually do this. Other limiting factors can range from a lack of money to finance a new investment, the wrong skills amongst the workforce, and a lack of understanding of a new market place. All of these constraints must be recognised and accounted for if the plan is to actually work in practice.

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Back Next Target markets and the marketing mix Figure 1.0.9 below shows the stages that an organisation will move through when constructing its corporate and marketing plans. Although the figure shows that objectives based on the marketing audit will be achieved through the marketing strategy, the role of the customer must be fully accounted for. The 7Ps used in the marketing strategy must always be focused on the particular needs and requirements of the target market. In this way, figure 1.9 should perhaps be read in terms of the target market taking priority and determining the plans and approaches used by the organisation. Figure 1.9 - putting the marketing plan together The elements of the marketing mix are the way to see this in action, as the most effective combination will be that which works in the target market. Even though a plan has been produced and based on a particular marketing mix, organisations will need to continually alter the marketing mix variables going forward. For now it is sufficient to understand that the mix elements are the main tools through which a company can differentiate itself from the competition. The first four Ps are generally considered in terms of marketing products, whilst the latter three Ps are generally of most significance when considering the marketing of service-based businesses. Following our examination of some of the key principles of marketing, and prior to looking in more depth at the application of these principles to business, we will complete this unit of the module by examining the costs and benefits of marketing.

Costs and benefits It should by now be apparent that a marketing focus, and particularly closeness to your customers, is a prerequisite for success in the modern marketplace. Any company, however, needs to weigh up the costs of their marketing and customer efforts against the benefits that ensue. A key question to ask therefore is: "what are the benefits of providing customer satisfaction?" For any company, the benefits of customer satisfaction should amount to retention of these customers and subsequent loyalty. In turn this means that less marketing spend is needed going forward, and these customers will support your business. Achieving this needs effort on behalf of the particular company: Some differentiation needs to be achieved that sets the company apart from its competitors. Real customer extras and benefits need to be identified. A company needs to receive feedback from its customers, and to be able to measure the results of its marketing and customer focus efforts. The delivery of the product and service needs to be constantly updated to meet the needs of customers - new services and products added consistently. The staff who deal with customers need to reflect the brand image and service delivery standards of the company - internal marketing is, therefore, as important as external promotion. All of the above can help to create the customer focus that is so important in the markets that companies face today. Companies, however, can develop this customer focus further by taking on the principles of relationship marketing. Back Next Return to the top of page. Page 8 of 9

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Back Next To complete these knowledge check activities, please log on to the Virtual Learning Environment. Back Next Return to the top of page. Page 9 of 9

Resource Library
Websites: www.dti.gov.uk/bestpractice www.marketingteacher.com www.BambooWeb.com http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing www.cardelmedia.co.uk/marketingmanagement.html http://tutor2u.net/marketing/default/html http://marketingscoop.com/articles.htm www.articleplanet.net/marketing www.bized.ac.uk www.marketing.haynet.com www.cim.co.uk www.ft.com www.marketingweek.co.uk www.ad-market-review.com References: Ansoff, H. I., (1987), Corporate Strategy (revised edition), Penguin Books, Harmondsworth. Baker, M.J., (1976), Marketing: Theory and Practice, Macmillan. Doyle, P., (1994), Marketing Management and Strategy, Prentice Hall International (UK). Engel, J. F., Blackwell, R. D., and Miniard, P. W., (1995), Consumer Behaviour, 8th International edn., The Dryden Press. Fifield, P. and Gilligan, C., (1996), Strategic Marketing Management: Planning and Control, Analysis and Decision-making, Butterworth-Heinemann. Jobber, D., (1998), Principles and Practice of Marketing, McGraw-Hill. Kotler, P. et al, (1999), Principles of Marketing 2nd European edn, Prentice Hall, Europe. Leavitt, T., (1960), Marketing Myopia, Harvard Business Review, July-August 1960, pp. 148-149. Maslow, A. H., (1970), Motivation and Personality, 2nd edn., Harper and Row, New York.

Needham, D. et al, (2002), Business for Higher Awards, Heinemann. Ogilvy, D., (1996), The Hutchinson Dictionary of Business Quotes, Helicon Publishing. Porter, M. E., (1980), Competitive Strategy: Techniques for Analysing Industries and Competitors, New York Free Press. Stokes, P. et al, (1997), Marketing A Case Study Approach, 2nd edn., Letts Educational. Voss, C. A., (1987), Just-in Time Manufacture, IFS/ Springer-Verlag Supplementary Reading: Hill, Charles (2004), International Business: Competing in the Global Marketplace, McGraw Hill Education. Kotler, P. (2003). Marketing Management. Eleventh Edition. Prentice Hall. OConnor, J, et al, (2003), Electronic Marketing: Theory and Practice for the 21st Century, Financial Times Prentice Hall Peppers, D, Rogers, M (2004), Managing Customer Relationships: A Strategic Framework, John Wiley Piercy, Nigel (2001), Market-led Strategic Change: Transforming the Process of Going to Market, Butterworth Heinemann Peppers, D, Rogers, M (2004), Managing Customer Relationships: A Strategic Framework, John Wiley Needham, D. et al, (2002), Business for Higher Awards, Heinemann.