REAL POWER In a simple alternating current (AC) circuit consisting of a source and a linear load, both the current

and voltage are sinusoidal. If the load is purely resistive, the two quantities reverse their polarity at the same time. At every instant the product of voltage and current is positive, indicating that the direction of energy flow does not reverse. In this case, only real power is transferred.Practical loads have resistance, inductance, and capacitance, so both real and reactive power will flow to real loads APPARENT POWER Power engineers measure apparent power as the magnitude of the vector sum of real and reactive powerApparent power is the product of the root-mean-square of voltage and current. Engineers care about apparent power, because even though the current associated with reactive power does no work at the load, it heats the wires, wasting energy. Conductors, transformers and generators must be sized to carry the total current, not just the current that does useful work.Another consequence is that adding the apparent power for two loads will not accurately give the total apparent power unless they have the same displacement between current and voltage (the same power factor). REACTIVE POWER If the loads are purely reactive, then the voltage and current are 90 degrees out of phase. For half of each cycle, the product of voltage and current is positive, but on the other half of the cycle, the product is negative, indicating that on average, exactly as much energy flows toward the load as flows back. There is no net energy flow over one cycle. In this case, only reactive energy flows there is no net transfer of energy to the load. Transmission connected generators are generally required to support reactive power flow Requirements to supply their rated power between the limits of 0.85 power factor lagging and 0.95 power factor leading at the designated terminalsTo balance the equation some pre-fault reactive generator use will be required. Other sources of reactive power that will also be used include shunt capacitors, shunt reactors, Static VAR Compensators and voltage control circuits. y y y y Real power (P) or active power[1]: watt [W] Reactive power (Q): volt-ampere reactive [var] Complex power (S): volt-ampere [VA] Apparent Power (|S|), that is, the absolute value of complex power S: volt-ampere [VA]

POWER FACTOR The ratio between real power and apparent power in a circuit is called the power factor. It's a practical measure of the efficiency of a power distribution system. For two systems transmitting the same amount of real power, the system with the lower power factor will have higher circulating currents due to energy that returns to the source from energy storage in the load. These higher currents produce higher losses and reduce overall transmission efficiency. A lower power factor circuit will have a higher apparent power and higher losses for the same amount of real power RESISTIVE LOAD The load of a resistive load bank is created by the conversion of electrical energy to heat via high-current resistors such as grid resistors. This heat must be dissipated from the load bank, either by air or by water, by forced means or convection.

In a testing system, a resistive load simulates real-life resistive loads, such as incandescent lighting and heating loads as well as the resistive or unity power factor component of magnetic (motors, transformers) loads. The most common type uses wire resistance, usually with fan cooling, and this type is often portable and moved from generator to generator for test purposes. Sometimes a load of this type is built into a building, but this is unusual. INDUCTIVE LOAD BANK A inductive load includes inductive (lagging power factor) loads.An inductive load consists of an iron-core reactive element which, when used in conjunction with a resistive load bank, creates a lagging power factor load. Typically, the inductive load will be rated at a numeric value 75% that of the corresponding resistive load such that when applied together a resultant 0.8 power factor load is provided. That is to say, for each 100 kW of resistive load, 75 kVAr of inductive load is provided. Other ratios are possible to obtain other power factor ratings. An inductive load is used to simulate a real-life mixed commercial loads consisting of lighting, heating, motors, transformers, etc. With a resistive/inductive load bank, full power system testing is possible, because the provided impedance supplies currents out of phase with voltage and allows for performance evaluation of generators, voltage regulators, load tap changers, conductors, switchgear and other equipment. CAPACITIVE LOAD A capacitive load bank is similar to a inductive load bank in rating and purpose, except leading power factor loads are created, so reactive power is supplied from these loads to the system, hence improves the power factor. These loads simulate certain electronic or non-linear loads typical of telecommunications, computer or UPS industries. Static VAR Compensator A Static VAR Compensator (or SVC) is an electrical device for providing fast-acting reactive power on highvoltage electricity transmission networks.[1][2] SVCs are part of the Flexible AC transmission system device family, regulating voltage and stabilising the system. The term "static" refers to the fact that the SVC has no moving parts (other than circuit breakers and disconnects, which do not move under normal SVC operation). Prior to the invention of the SVC, power factor compensation was the preserve of large rotating machines such as synchronous condensers The SVC is an automated impedance matching device, designed to bring the system closer to unity power factor. If the power system's reactive load is capacitive (leading), the SVC will use reactors (usually in the form of ThyristorControlled Reactors) to consume VARs from the system, lowering the system voltage. Under inductive (lagging) conditions, the capacitor banks are automatically switched in, thus providing a higher system voltage. They also may be placed near high and rapidly varying loads, such as arc furnaces, where they can smooth flicker voltage flicker Power-line flicker is a visible change in brightness of a lamp due to rapid fluctuations in the voltage of the power supply. The source of this is the voltage drop generated over the source impedance of the grid by the changing load current of an equipment or facility. These fluctuations in time generate flicker. The effects can range from disturbance to epileptic attacks of photosensitive persons. Flicker may also affect sensitive electronic equipment such as television receivers or industrial processes relying on constant electrical power.[1] Flicker may be produced, for example, if a steel mill uses large electric motors or arc furnaces on a distribution network, or frequent starting of an elevator motor in an office building, or if a rural residence has a large water pump starting regularly on a long feeder system. The likelihood of flicker increase as the size of the changing load becomes larger with respect to the prospective short circuit current available at the point of common connection Voltage fluctuations (modulation reactive power) Voltage fluctuations are caused by resistance wielding, presses, punches, crans, wind energy plants or during the start-up of large motors lifts and other things. This is why voltage fluctuations due to high load alternation may appear in supply areas with low short-circuit capacity network.

The consequences of voltage fluctuations are, among other things, low productivity, low manufacturing quality caused by voltage fluctuations of welding machines, power cuts or cut-offs of devices during the start-up of motors. Voltage fluctuations violate Electricity Board requirements Slow voltage fluctuationFast voltage fluctuation Cause y y y y y y Effects y y y y Isolation problems at high voltage level Switch-on problems at low voltage level Technically: Breakdown of regulations and controls Medically: Flicker (can cause headache) Fluctuating consumer power Influence of the network capacity (lines, cables) Insufficient stepped compensation device in the network Motors, compensation installations Arcing burns, dynamic converter installations such as cogging mills with reversing operation or winding engines, crusher drives in quarries, welding machines Railways

Correctives y y y y y y y Transformers with on-load tap-changer and automatic control On and off switching of capacitor batteries and/or reactor coils at low load with possible stepping Synchronizing relay (transformers, compensation stages) Switch-on damping resistors (short-term) Thyristor switched capacitor batteries in an high-voltage network Flicker compensators based on thyristor modules or IGBT/IGCT converters In electrical engineering, a synchronous condenser (sometimes syncronous capacitor or synchronous compensator) is a device identical to a synchronous motor, whose shaft is not connected to anything but [1] spins freely. Its purpose is not to convert electric power to mechanical power or vice versa, but to adjust conditions on the electric power transmission grid. Its field is controlled by a voltage regulator to either generate or absorb reactive power as needed to adjust the grid's voltage, or to improve power factor. The condenser s installation and operation are identical to large electric motors.

Increasing the device's field excitation results in its furnishing magnetizing power (kilovars) to the system. Its principal advantage is the ease with which the amount of correction can be adjusted. The energy stored in the rotor of the machine can also help stabilize a power system during short circuits or rapidly fluctuating loads such as electric arc furnaces. Large installations of synchronous condensers are sometimes used in association with highvoltage direct current converter stations to supply reactive power. Unlike a capacitor bank, the value of reactive power from a synchronous condenser can be continuously adjusted. In addition, reactive power from a capacitor bank decreases with voltage decrease, while a synchronous condenser can increase current as voltage decreases. However, it does have higher losses than a static capacitor bank.[1] Most synchronous condensers connected to electrical grids are rated between 20 MVAR and 200 MVAR and many are hydrogen cooled.

POWER DIP A power dip is a very short drop in voltage in a system (generally home AC wiring). It is most commonly observed when a high-current device (such as a hair dryer, microwave, or table saw) is switched on and lights in the same system will dim momentarily. There are also other sources for voltage dips coming from places higher up in the distribution stream than an individual home. While most electrical devices are not adversely effected, devices that need a more reliable voltage can be protected with the use of an uninterruptible power supply. Transient stability simulation The goal of transient stability simulation of power systems is to analyse the stability of a power system in a time window of a few seconds to several tens of seconds. Stability in this aspect is the ability of the system to quickly return to a stable operating condition after being exposed to a disturbace such as for example a tree falling over an overhead line resulting in the automatic disconnection of that line by its protection systems. In engineering terms, a power system is deemed stable if the rotational speeds of motors and generators, and substation voltage levels must return to their normal values in a quick and stable manner
SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY Small signal stability causes small change in the generator that can cause instability in the power network. It is generally known that small signal stability are directly related to the generator and load properties. Eigenvaules and eigenvectors are used to examine the stability of the power system. The Small Signal Stability analysis of an electrical power

system is examined by the eigenvalues of the state matrix A. These eigenvalues may be either real or complex values