BurmansAccuseonKachinsIssueasPayawgah: ASubalternhegemonicReading

ByTheKachinResearchGroup TheSocietyforPromotionofKingdomValueBurma(Myanmar) Myitkyina,Kachinland August12,2011 I.Introduction Theongoingcivilwarbetweenthemilitaryregimeandtheethnicarmedgroupshasbeenlabelled todayinvariouswaysfromsubjectivegrounds.Therootcausehasbeenobviousduetotheagenda behindtherulingregimesconstitutionallegitimizationofallethnicarmedgroupsunderthesingle administrationofthemilitarychiefoftherulingregimeinthenameoftheBorderguardForce(BGF). Yetontheaccountoftheissueofcivilwar,theethnicnationalitiesbotharmedandpoliticalgroupsalike haveobservedastheplotofethnicexclusionneglectingthefederalprincipleofequalsharingofpolitical powerbetweenthemajorityBurmansandtheethnicnationalities.Rather,theBurmansoffensivehas playedasamereroleoftherulingregimesagentforitshomogenizedBurmanizationwithpoliticaland militarypowerinstead. Meanwhile,theinternationalcommunitiessuchastheWest,theEuropeanUnion,andtheAsia,as individualsandgroups,haverenderedtheirrealisticandsuggestivepositionsonitbycallingtheruling regimetobetheinitiativeforthepoliticaltalkwiththeethnicnationalitiesfortheimplementationof principleandorderofthefederaldemocracyandnationalreconciliationinBurma. Thispaperatthisjuncturefocusesmuchattentionontheattitudeoftherulingregimesinceitratherhas condemnedalltheethnicgroupsexclusivelytotheKachinwithamereaccuseofpayawgah (instigation)thesedays.Indeed,thisequationorlabelontheKachinsissueonceagainreminds BurmansaccuseinthepasttoKachinsinitiationofthePanglongAgreementwiththefederalprinciple asthecolonialinfluence. Similarly,therulingBurmansdosowithoutconsideringitsrootandrealityforthesolutionofthe politicalproblemmadebytheBurmansoverandovertotheKachinanditsissueofstruggleforthe federalstateaspayawgah(instigation),revealingitssentimentuponthepositionofKachin IndependenceOrganization(KIO)anditsarmedwingKachinIndependenceArmy(KIA)ofdefensivewar ontheBurmanstroopswiththefederalpolicy. AtthispointitistimetoreidentifytheBurmansaccuseofthepayawgah(instigation)totheKachin. ItseemsthatitistherulingBurmanspsychologicalattacktotheKachins,accusingandcondemning themintoitslowerstatusordependentontheinfluenceofothersinsteadofsurrenderingitsattention andinputinsolvingthepoliticalproblemonthePanglongagreementbase.Asamatteroffact,there willbeasectionofanalysisonBurmansaccuseontheKachinsaspayawgah(instigation)todayand then,thealternativemeaningofthepayawgah(instigation)fromthemethodologyofsubaltern hegemonicreadingwillberedefinedafreshinthepaper. 1

 Moreover,therole,therepresentationandthepositionofthesubjugatedKachinsanditsaccusedpa yawgah(instigation)willbereconstructedwithinthepostcolonialframeworkagainsttheroleandthe functionofthedominantBurmansbymeansofpoliticalsolutionsinceBurmansemployofpayaw gah(instigation)hasbeenpoliticallyechoedtodayinBurma. II.Payawgah(instigation):ItsbeliefandPractice TheBurmesepayawgah(instigation),[1]isassociatedwiththebeliefandpracticeofdivination.In Buddhismitisverycommonconnectingwiththepracticeofdoingharmtosomeone,aswellas exorcism,castingoutevilspiritfromsomeonetoo.Thewordindicatesthestateofpossessingthe unseenpower,theevilspiritsandthespiritofthestrongerdeceased/natssothattheywouldcause detrimenttotheiropponent/enemyfromahigherpositioninordertowipethemouteasilyonceforall. Itcanalsobeunderstoodthattheonewhodependsonthesupernaturalspiritbehindhisplotagainst hisopponentsortheonewhoperformsnotbyhisownbeingbutbytheinfluenceorthestrengthof others. Therefore,inthecontextofBurma,payawgah(instigation)comprisesimplicitlyorexplicitlytwo meaningssuchasonespracticetoharmotherbypossessingademonandevilspirit,andexorcism.[2] Moreover,thepracticeofpayawgah(instigation)uncoversahiddenyetacertainintentionalscheme ofonewhodrivesoutdemonsbymagicalformulas.[3]Thisfurthercarriesonespracticebywhich theydestroytheirsupposedenemydependingnotontheirownstrengthbutcompletelyonothers instead.Ontheonehand,itissubjectiveandabsolutelyexposedonespositionasdependentand influencedbytheotherworldlyorthesupernaturalpowersofthealienstrongerinthesocialpolitical context.Therefore,thewordfurthermeansonesfakeprojectionofeffortsbeingperformedinpublic. III.TheSubalternhegemonicReading Subalternhegemonicreadingtakesapositionofresistanceagainstparticularformsofpolitical dominationoccurringinthetext.Thesubalterninthiscontextisidentifiedasthemarginalized,the subordinateandtheoppressedunderpoliticaldomination.Thus,subalternhegemoniccriticismhas beenabrilliantdiscourseofresistanceagainstpoliticaldominationinthisreadingenhancedfromthe hegemoniccriticismofAntonioGramsci.[4]Inhiscontextthehegemonycriticizestheruleofthe dominantbourgeoisieswhoenjoyedtheirdominantpositionsandcreatedcertainfunctionsof productionbywayofexploitingtheprofitandthelaboroftheworkingmasses. Thishegemonycreatesaspontaneousconsenttoitssubalternlegally:andthenthenormsofthe historicalnormativeareinstitutionalizedbythecoercivepowerwhenevernecessary.[5]This mechanismfunctionsonthebasisofdirectdominationandjudicialruleandthushegemonyandthe exerciseofpowerofthedominantgohandinhand.[6]Basedonsuchdominantideologyand exploitativeandoppressivefunction,thetheoryofsubalternhegemonicreadinggeneratesacounter hegemonicthought[7]andalternativeideologyofdominationbybecomingsubalternintellectuals. Inrelevancetothistheoreticalframework,therulingBurmansaccusationofpayawgah(instigation)to theKachinissuerelatedtotheKIO/Asdefensivepositioninthecivilwarherebyredefinesthemeaning andrepresentationofthesubalternissueandpositionagainsttheBurmanshegemony.Thisrereading ontheethnicissuealtersthedominantBurmansaccusationandcondemnationonitaspayawgah (instigation),complicated,padipetkha(conflict)andsoon.Becauseinaccuse,thereechoesthe hegemonicfunctionandagendawhencomingtotheissueoftheethnicnationalities,suppressingthem asthedegradedpositionandfunctionaspoliticalsubalternsunderBurmansthedominantinpolitics. 2

 Forinstance,theconsentofthesubalternethnicnationalitiesonBurmanpoliticalprinciplehasmadein andthroughtheforcedlegalizationof2008constitutionbythemilitarypoweranditsimplementationin theformofcivildressedgovernanceanditsfunctionofeliminationtheEthnicarmedgroupsbyits militarymighttoday;whichiswithouttheconsensusofeitherthepublicorinlinewiththefederal principleofthePanglongAgreement.Thus,theaccusationofthepayawgah(instigation)exclusively upontheKIO/AandtheKachinsduetohavingrejectedtheBurmanshegemonyofthelegitimacyofthe antifederalistconstitutionherebywillrenderthealternativemeaningofthepayawgah(instigate)and theroleofsubjugatedethicnationalitiesinthislightasameansforsolutionofthepoliticalproblem createdbytheBurmans. IV.Analysis:BurmansAccuseonKachinIssueaspayawgah(instigation) TheanalysisinthepaperismadeonthebasisoftheRadioFreeAsia(RFA)radiointerviewwithUKoKo Naing,theadvisortothePresidentTheinSein,aboutthecurrentissueofBurmansoffensivewaragainst armedgroupsofnationalitiesespeciallytheKachinsonthemorningofJuly18,2011.Thesubstantial datawillbesupportedonitfromdailyyetreliablesourcesandrealisticexperiencesoftheKachinsas politicaloutcastsintheirownlandsinceindependence. TheinterviewreacheditspeakwhenthecivilwarcametotheissueofKachinssaying,inKachins issue,therehas/involvespayawgah(instigation).Soitisverycomplicatedoneanditispayawgah (instigation)wecanwipetheKIO/Aoutinamonthcompletelyifweusemilitarymight.Butweought tosolveitwithcare.TheKIO/AspositionisaninevitabledefensivewaronTheinSeinstroopsafter rejectinganddenyingitsrepeatedappealanddemandsforpoliticaltalksduring17prolongyearsof ceasefire.Bycontrast,therejectionoftherulingregimewasveryoppressiveandtheprincipleof negotiationtotallycollapsedupontheimplementationoftheBGFtoallarmedgroupsprovidedby meansofauthorizationofthe2008constitution. Indeed,nosingledemandofarmedgroupssofarhadbeenconsideredthoughthegovernmenthas claimedtheworldofitspoliticalsystemofdisciplineddemocracy.Doalldemandsofarmedgroup outlawoftheprincipleoffederaldemocracy?Underthepolicyofrejection,surrenderingor homogenizationthereisnootherwayfortheKIO/Atohaveresumedthecurrentwarasapartof politicalsolutioninthetimeofdeadlockofpoliticaltalk. Meanwhile,theaccusationofpayawgah(instigation)againsttheKIO/AotherKachinsseemsthe infuriationofthecivildressedmilitarygovernmentledbyPresidentTheinSein.Theverywordsignifies thattheKIO/AdoesnothaveanyknowledgeofcertainrealisticpoliticsintheformationoftheUnionof Burmaasinnocentasfoolish.Secondly,theKIOsdemandfortheFederalDemocracyseemsnotitsown positionorcommitteemenbutoftheinfluenceofothersastheBurmansdidaccusetheKachinleaders whosignedatPanglongwiththefederalprincipleasinfluencebythecolonialBritishso.Third,theKIAs wageonwaragainsttheBurmanstroopisalsomeantaspayawgah(instigation)assumingthe influenceandthesupportofothers.Fourthly,theaccusingthecomplicatedtowardKachinissue revealstheBurmanscultureofdenial/concealmentnotacceptingtheirmistakethewayhowthey excludetheKachinsintheUnionsystemratherimposingtheKachinsintheUnitaryUnion,forinstance the2008constitution.Fifth,theKachinissuemainlybasedonthefundamentalpoliticalrightshasbeen alwaysneglectedratherentertainedasminor,unimportant,insignificantandsoonrathertheissueof BurmansforBurmanization.Six,thesescenariosindicatetheKachinissuehasbeenuncountedasthe onetobesolvedaccordingtotheUnionprinciple,becomingtheKachinsarethepoliticaloutcastintheir owncountry. 3

 Then,wouldtheKachinbestillfoolishinthestageofinnocentwhatplotdotheBurmansmakethusfar andinwhichpoliticalframeworktheKachinshastoformulatewhatevercircumstancemaybeinorder toimplementtheunionprincipleonthebasisofthePanglongaccord.TheKIO/AsstatementonAugust 30,2010onthefederalprincipleisveryclearthatwhotheKIOortheKachinsaretodayinBurma, statingtheKachinspoliticalstancesuchtruthandprincipleoughtnottobecontaminatedneitherby theWestnortheEastandtheBurmansnormaterials. RatheritisclearofselfcommitmentandtheKIO/AspatternoflifeasarmedandKachinnationasa whole.ThenaskedherewhoreallyarethecomplicatedinBurmawhenitcomestopowerandpolitics sincepostindependent?IsitclearthattheKIO/Aspositionistofightforthepolicymatterrathernot merelyformaterialsake;whichmeanstofightalltheantifederalists,theenemyoftheUnionofBurma whethertheBurmansormilitarytroops.Infact,theantifederalistsaretheoneswhoareexactlywhat KoKoNaingsaid,payawgah(instigation)byBurmanBuddhistnationalisminBurmainstead. Unfortunately,honoredastheIconofDemocracybyIndiancivilsocieties,asthePublicLeaderinBurma andsoon,bearerAungSanSuuKyitoopositstheissueofethnicnationalitiesinBurmainherspeech alwaysasamerepadipetkha(conflict).TheBurmesewordisinEnglishascontradictionforChit Thaung.ForthepartyofKarlMarxandLenin,thewordcontradictionismaterialisticintermsof classstruggle[8]inthosesocieties.Thus,thenworddepictsthematerialisticframeworkwhichlooks oneandarbitrateoneonaccountofmatterandappearancenotofideology/disappearance(policy matter). TheNationalLeagueforDemocracy(NLD)leaderAungSanSuuKyiswordhereinlinewithsuchthe materialisticframeworkupontheissueofEthnicitieswhetherarmedorpoliticalgroupsasfollows.This wordmeanstheissueofethnicnationalitieshasbeennotthemajorpoliticalissuebutasifsomething interpersonalconflictonaccountofmaterialprivilegeinBurma,andasifjustanissueofEthnicitiesas nottheirsbutours.ThenthequestionisaskedthatwhathasbeenthemajorissueintheUnionof Burmasincerightaftertheindependence? Thatmeanstheissueofdemocratizationisonlytheoneasbeingclaimedandwillitbepossiblewithout solvingtheissueofEthnicNationalitieswhichprovidedinthePanglongaccordandtheEthnicrightsin UNnorm?Doestheverylabellingcontradictiontoethnicnationalitiesmeantocontradictorstothe Burmans,themajor/dominantrace?Then,whendidallethnicnationalitiesbetray/disloyaltothe UnionofBurmaonthebasisofthePanglongagreementandtotherulingBurmanssofarinthehistory ofBurma?Ifthereiscontradictionthenwhatarethosecontradictionsethnicnationalitiesmadeto theUnionofBurma? BeingthepoliticalNobellaureateinpeace,therealisticcauseofexistenceofethnicarmedgroupsand rejectionofthe2008constitutionwiththenormoftheUnitaryUnionrejectingthenormoftheUnion systembytheethnicnationalitiesaretobehighlightedrathersimplydegradingtheEthnicissueasthe statusofinterpersonalsentimentalcontradictionratherbeingthematterofpolicyandsharingof powerinpoliticsinUnionofBurma.Infact,ethnicnationalitiesarenottheoneswhocontradicttothe politicalnormanchoredatthePanglongandtotheBurmansleaders,rathertheBurmansleadersare theoneswhocontradicttheFederalprincipleandtowardEthicleadersaswelldownthroughthepast decadestilltoday.Theverylabelsheredepictneitherthefederaldemocraticpolicyandcivilized ideologynorthePanglongprinciplerathertheattitudeoftheBurmanmaterialismandsentiment

reflectingitsdominantnationalismwhollyinawayofbeingtrivial,neglectingandcondemningthe politicalandnationalidentitiesoftheEthicnationalitiesinstead. V.Payawgah(instigate):SubalternhegemonicInterpretation Theredefinitionofpayawgah(instigate)ismadeinthissectiononthebasesoftheanalysesmade aboveasnotselfstanceandselfprojectionbutothersandinfluencedwhichistheproblematicand contradictiontotheBurmansdomination.TheBurmanscontrolinpoliticshasdestinedalltheethnic nationalitiestobesubjugatedasifintheBurmansEmpire.Thus,thisaccuse,payawgah(instigation) inKachinsissueinresponseKIO/Asdefensivewarontherulingregimeisechoedofpolitical dominationandmisjudgementovertheKachinsbypowerandconsentedconstitution. HerethecriticalrepresentationistobemadeupontheBurmanaccusationontheKachinsissueaspa yawgah(instigation)inturnreflectingtheBurmanspayawgah(instigation)insteadasfollowsinthis lightofalternativereading.OnaccountofthesentimentalandmaterialaccuseontheKachinsissuenot ontheideologymadebytherulingBurmans,ratheritisobviousprojectedtheBurmanspayawgah (instigation)today.Theirsare;first,theBurmanspayawgah(instigation)inpoweriscompletely influencedandconstructedonBuddhismashistoryprovesofUNusimplementationofBurmaas BuddhistNationsince1948onwards. Eventhe2008constitutionprovidesasBuddhismisthegunghtoowiqthaethaqnitpyiaesungthaw bartharaspecialcharacteristicandperfectandthemostcitizensdevotedreligion[9]inBurma.This indicationexpressesthebinaryoppositionbetweenBuddhismandtheotherreligions:whileBuddhism religionisthemostNobel,honored,powerfulandsoontheotherreligionssuchasChristianity,Muslim, Hinduism,andsoonaretheleastdevotedandnotspecialandimperfectreligion,notofficialandnot respectedreligionandsooninBurma. Second,theconsequentpayawgah(instigation)oftheBurmansregimeistheBurmeseNationalism whichconstructedonthemajorfourbasessuchasBurmeselanguage,Burmeseliterature,Burmese racismandBurmeseland.Thisplothasbeenprovedbywayofthemilitarizationandborderland developmentprojectsacrossBurmatreatingtheEthnicnationalitiesassalvage,undeveloped,minority, uneducated,uncivilized,illiterate,separatistsandsoon.Thecurrentconstitutionisrejectedmainlyby allcitizensforitsprovisionofBurmanizationbywayofhomogenizationintermsofblood,culture, literatureandlifestyleandsoontothenonBurmans. Third,themostthreateningpayawgah(instigation)oftherulingBurmansisthematerializationofthe unitarysystemmimickingandrevitalizationbacktotheBurmesemonarchybywayofestablishing monarchicsystemsintermsofliterature(Naypyidaw),constructionofpagodasandmonarchieswhere thereisnosingledevoteeinKachinland,education(imposingBuddhistwayoflife)clothing,theuniform ofthePresidentandsoonwhereasnotforthatofrespectiveethnicnationalitiesintheirownstate. Thispayawgah(instigation)rightlyindicatesthediscriminatebinarismbetweentheBurmanraceas alwaysruling,themostNobelandtheethnicnationalitiesarealwaysperipheriesandtheirsubordinates. ThissystemisexclusivelyframedintherecentimposedconstitutioninthenameoftheUnionofBurma withthedisciplineddemocracywhichtotallyrejectsallprincipleofthePanglongaccord.Thishasbeen themajorissueinBurmasinceprepostindependentinBurmahoweverthisissuehasbeenmisspelled, neglected,pretended,overlookedandhavingbeentrivialtilltoday.Instead,thesystemoflegitimization oftheunitarysystemhasbeenimplementedonewayortheothersincetherulingBurmansarein powerinuseofmilitarymight. 5

 Moreover,theabovepoliticalideologieshavebeenthepayawgah(instigation)oftherulingBurmans ratherwhichtotallyrejectandnegatetheUnionprincipleandtheeffortsofthenationalarchitect namelyGen.AungSan,Kachinleaders,Shanleaders,Chinleadersandsoon. Nevertheless,withthetheoryofaccusingEthnicnationalitiesaspayawgah(instigation),theruling regimehasbenefitedfromtheoutsideofthecountry:inthepastthesupportfromtheWestandthe Europe,thesupportfromAustraliatoday,fromJapanandAsiancountries.Thecurrentcivilwar betweentheBurmanstroopandtheEthnicarmedgroupsnamelyKachin,Shan,Karen,Karenniandso onunderthephysicalandpoliticalideologicalalliancefortheformationoftheFederalUnioninBurma, obviouslydepictsthepayawgah(instigation)oftheforeigninfluenceupontherulingBurmanstroops; forexampleeconomicandmilitarysupportandinfluencefromChinaparticularandIndiaandRussia. Thoughaccuseismadebytherulingregime,whereas,thepayawgah(instigation)oftheEthnic nationalitiesplayedverydecisiveinfluencebythepoliticaltruthinrestorationoftheUnioninBurma withthenormoftheFederalDemocraticprincipleatall.Thus,thepositionandthedefensivearmed reactionofallEthnicnationalitiesrepresenttheresistanceagainsttherulingregimespayawgah (instigation)forneglectingintowipingouttheKachinissueorethnicissueforformationofthefederal unionundertheunitarysystem.Thishasbeenbeingimplementedbybothconstitutionallyandmilitarily againsttheEthnicstruggleforpoliticalequalityandidentitiesunderitshomogenizedschema. Therefore,theKachinspayawgah(instigation)isconstructiveratherdestructiveasestablishedits publicpoliticalideologyandrightstodaynotonitsnationalbasisratheronthefundamentalfederal principleofexistenceconstructedontheequality,selfdetermination,freedomandhumanrightsand democracyonthebasisofthePanglongaccord.Thus,thereactionalwageofwarandpoliticalfunctions ofallethnicnationalitiesarereidentifiedandarerepresentedtodayastheformationofpoliticalrights, federaldemocracy,selfdeterminationandfundamentalrightsforequalexistenceintheUnionofBurma instead. Meanwhile,theKachinspayawgah(instigation)rathertodayisrepresentthepower,thestrength,the unity,thespirit,thesupportandsoonsinceallindividualsandgroupsfrombothinsideandoutsidethe countryandbotharmedandunarmedoneshaveunanimouslyjoinedinvariousformsfortheformation ofthecivilizedfederaldemocraticunioninBurma.Inthisreading,thesubalternhegemonicreading herebyrelocatestheresistanceagainstthefunction/accusationofdominantinpowerfortheirposition andthealternativefunctionsagainstallformsofhomogenization,suppressionanddomination. VI.GeneralConclusion HavinganalyzedtherulingBurmansaccusationonKachinsissue,thewarwiththerulingtroops, ostensiblythereabstractsthethreefindings:first,thepositionoftheKIO/AorKachins/isnotthemselves butoftotallyotheroroutsidesupport,second,themessageofKIO/Asstrugglehasbeennever communicatedtotherulingregimeastherealisticandconsiderableoneratheralwaysrejectedthinking thattheuseless,fedupandfoolishone,nothingmorethanmereproblematictothem,third,theruling regimenevereverhasadmittedoracceptedwhatmistakehastheydoneinformationoftheUnionof Burma. Instead,thereisobviousofthecharacteroftherulinghegemonyonaccuseofpayawgah(instigation) totheKachinsupontheKIO/AsinevitablyreactionofdefensivewarontheBurmanstroops.Inthis context,thesubalternhegemonicreadingprovidesenoughspaceinrelocatingthepositionofthe 6

subjugatedKachinsandreconstructingitsreadingofresistancetheroleandrepresentationoftheKIO/A andtheKachinsasantihegemonicmissionagainstallformofhegemonyoftherulingregime.Thereby, theKachinspayawgah(instigation)isidentifiedandrepresentedthemissionforwipingoutand uprootingoutallevilandenemyoffundamentalvalueofhumanrights,federaldemocracy,equal demarcationofpowerbetweentheBurmansandtheEthnicnationalities. Thus,thecurrentmissionoftheKIO/Aledarmedstrugglewillaltertherulingregimesactofdivideand rule,complicated,disunity,instability,unrest,povertyandsoonintounity,solidarityandpolitical stabilityandprosperityatthecauseofFederalPrincipalityintheformationoftheUnionofBurma.Not theleast,itisobviousthattheEthnicpayawgah(instigation)ratherplaysastheagentofthefederal principlewhichresistsagainsttherulingBurmanspayawgah(instigation)fortheunitarysystem. Footnotes: 1. TheBurmesewordpayawgah(instigation)isembeddedinthebeliefandpracticeofdivination relatedtoanexorcism.Itmeansthethirdperson:theunseenspirit,unseenpowerandtheevil poweractandoperateagainstitsopponentastheagentonhis/herbehalf.

2. ThemeaningisstatedinTharlunBurmeseEnglishdictionaryandNationalisminBritannica: ReadyReferenceEncyclopedia,Volume4IndianEdition,2004,10. 3. eVxorkizw,eVxorkisthjinWalterBauer:AGreekEnglishLexiconotheNewTestamentand OtherEarlyChristianLiteratureeditedbyWilliamF.ArndtandF.WilburGingrich,Chicagoand London:TheUniversityofChicago,1979.276. 4. AntonioGramsciwasanItalianintellectualandpoliticianandastudentofTheUniversityof Turin.HisinfluentialwritingsparticularlyLettersfromPrison,1947outlinesaversionof communismandhisworkhasinfluencedsociology,politicaltheoryandinternationalrelation. Britannica:ReadyReferenceEncyclopedia,Volume4IndianEdition,2004,195. 5. AntonioGramsciwasthemostoutstandingandoriginalMarxistthinkereverandhisworkhave beenrelevantasthesubalterhegemonictheoryinreadingcurrentpoliticalandeconomic globalizationwiththeframeworkofpostcolonialism.AntonioGramsci,Selectionsfromthe PrisonNotesbooks(Madras:OrientLongman,1996),1213. 6. CouzeVenn,ThePostcolonialChallenge:TowardsAlternativeWorlds(London:SagePublication, 2006),185. 7. JohnMcLeod,BeginningPostcolonialism,NewDelhi:VivaBooks,2010,48. 8. MaterialisminTheDictionaryofPoliticsbyCol.ChitThaung,624. 9. The2008ConstitutionoftheUnionofMyanmar,draft,151