The Schaeffler-de-Long Diagram for estimating weldability

The Schaeffler-de-Long diagram An aid in determining which structural constituents can occur in a weld metal is the Schaeffler-de-Long diagram. With knowledge of the properties of different phases, it is possible to judge the extent to which they affect the service life of the weld. The diagram can be used for rough estimates of the weldability of different steel grades as well as when welding dissimilar steels to each other.

Click for large Schaeffler-de-Long diagram

Weldability of Martensitic Steels

The quantity of martensite and its hardness are the main causes of the weldability problems encountered with these steels. The fully martensitic steels are air hardening. The steels are therefore very susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. By welding at an elevated temperature (= the steel's Ms temperature), the HAZ can be kept austenitic and tough throughout the welding process. After cooling, the formed martensite must always be tempered at about 650-850 C, preferably as a concluding heat treatment. However, the weld must first have been allowed to cool to below about 150 C. Martensitic-austenitic steels, such as 13Cr/6Ni and 16Cr/5Ni/2Mo, can often be welded without preheating and without post-weld annealing. Steels of the 13Cr/4Ni type with low austenite content must, however, be preheated to a working temperature of about 100 C. If optimal strength properties are desired, they can be heat treated at 600 C after welding. The steels are welded with matching or austenitic filler metals.

Weldability of Ferritic Steels

These steels are generally more difficult to weld than austenitic steels. This is the main reason they are not used to the same extent as austenitic steels.

The older types, such as AISI 430, had greatly reduced ductility in the weld. This was mainly due to strong grain growth in the heat-affected zone (HAZ), but also due to precipitation of martensite in the HAZ. They were also susceptible to intergranular corrosion after welding. These steels are therefore often welded with preheating and post-weld annealing. Today's ferritic steels of type S44400 and
A typical macroscopic image of a weld bead. These steels are welded with matching or austenitic super-alloyed filler metal (such as AvestaPolarit P 5).

S44635 have considerably better weldability due to low carbon and nitrogen contents and stabilisation with titanium/niobium. However, there is always a risk of unfavourable grain enlargement if they are not welded under controlled conditions using a low heat input. They do not normally have to be annealed after welding.

Weldability of Ferritic-Austenitic Steels

Today's ferritic-austenitic steels have considerably better weldability than earlier grades. They can be welded more or less as common austenitic steels. Besides being susceptible to intergranular corrosion, the old steels were also susceptible to ferrite grain growth in the heat affected zone (HAZ) and poor ferrite to austenite transformation, resulting in reduced ductility. Today's steels, which have higher nickel content and are alloyed with nitrogen, exhibit austenite transformation in the HAZ that is sufficient in most cases. However, extremely rapid cooling after welding, for example in a tack or in a strike mark, can lead to unfavorably high ferrite content. Extremely high heat input can also lead to heavy ferrite grain growth in the HAZ. When welding UNS S31803 (AvestaPolarit 2205) in a conventional way (0.6-2.0 kJ/mm) and using filler metals at the same time, a satisfactory ferrite-austenite balance can be obtained. For the super duplex stainless steel (AvestaPolarit SAF 2507) a somewhat different heat input is recommended (0.2-1.5 kJ/mm). The reason for lowering the minimum value is that this steel has much higher nitrogen content than 2205. The nitrogen favours a fast reformation of austenite, which is important when welding with a low heat input. The maximum level is lowered in order to

minimize the risk of secondary phases. The steels are welded with ferritic-austenitic or austenitic filler metals. Welding without filler metal is not recommended without subsequent quench annealing. Nitrogen affects not only the microstructure, but also the weld pool penetration. Increased nitrogen content reduces the penetration into the parent metal. To avoid porosity in TIG welding it is recommended to produce thin beads. To achieve the highest possible pitting corrosion resistance at the root side in ordinary 2205 weld metals, the root gas should be Ar+ N2 or Ar+ N2 + H2. The use of H2 in the shielding gas is not recommended when welding super duplex steels. When welding 2205 with plasma, a shielding gas containing Ar+5% H2 is sometimes used in combination with filler metal and followed by quench annealing.

Weldability of Austenitic Steels

The steels of type ASTM 304, 316, 304L, and 316L have very good weldability. The old problem of intergranular corrosion after welding is very seldom encountered today. The steels suitable for wet corrosion either have carbon contents below 0.05% or are niobium or titanium stabilised. They are also very unsusceptible to hot cracking, mainly because they solidify with a high ferrite content. The higher-alloy steels such as 310S and N08904 solidify with a fully austenitic structure when welded. They should therefore be welded using a controlled heat input. Steel and weld metal with high chromium and molybdenum contents may undergo precipitation of brittle sigma phase in their microstructure if they are exposed to high temperatures for a certain length of time. The transformation from ferrite to sigma or directly from austenite to sigma proceeds most rapidly within the temperature range 750-850 C. Welding with a high heat input leads to slow cooling, especially in light-gauge welds. The weld's holding time between 750-850 C then increases, and along with it the risk of sigma phase formation.

Weldability of Martensitic Steels

The quantity of martensite and its hardness are the main causes of the

weldability problems encountered with these steels. The fully martensitic steels are air hardening. The steels are therefore very susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement. By welding at an elevated temperature (= the steel's Ms temperature), the HAZ can be kept austenitic and tough throughout the welding process. After cooling, the formed martensite must always be tempered at about 650-850 C, preferably as a concluding heat treatment. However, the weld must first have been allowed to cool to below about 150 C. Martensitic-austenitic steels, such as 13Cr/6Ni and 16Cr/5Ni/2Mo, can often be welded without preheating and without post-weld annealing. Steels of the 13Cr/4Ni type with low austenite content must, however, be preheated to a working temperature of about 100 C. If optimal strength properties are desired, they can be heat treated at 600 C after welding. The steels are welded with matching or austenitic filler metals.

Austenitic Stainless Steels

This type of stainless steel is dominant in the market. The group includes the very common AISI 304 and AISI 316 steels, but also the higher-alloy AISI 310S and ASTM N08904. Austenitic steels are characterized by their high content of austenite-formers, especially nickel. They are also alloyed with chromium, molybdenum and sometimes with copper, titanium, niobium and nitrogen. Alloying with nitrogen raises the yield strength of the steels. Austenitic stainless steels have a very wide range of applications, e.g. in the chemical industry and the food processing industry. The molybdenum-free steels also have very good high-temperature properties and are therefore used in furnaces and heat exchangers. Their good impact strength at low temperatures is often exploited in apparatus such as vessels for cryogenic liquids. Austenitic steels cannot be hardened by heat treatment. They are normally supplied in the quench-annealed state, which means that they are soft and highly formable.
The image shows the microstructure of an austenitic stainless steel, type ASTM 304L.

Cold working increases their hardness and strength. Certain steel grades are therefore supplied in the cold stretched or hard rolled condition.

Martensitic Stainless Steels

Martensitic steels have the highest strength but also the lowest corrosion resistance of the stainless steels.

Martensitic steels with high carbon contents are used for tool steels. Due to their high strength in combination with some corrosion resistance, martensitic steels are suitable for applications where the material is subjected to both corrosion and wear. An example is in hydroelectric turbines.

Microstructure image of a martensitic stainless steel

Mechanical Properties of Martensitic Steels

Room Temperature Martensitic and ferritic-martensitic steels are characterised by their high strength and the fact that the strength is strongly affected by heat treatment. Martensitic steels are usually used in a hardened and tempered condition. In this condition the strength of the steels increases with the carbon content. The ductility of martensitic steels is relatively low. Ferritic-martensitic steels have a high strength in the hardened and tempered condition in spite of their relatively low carbon contents, and good ductility. They also possess excellent hardenability: even thick sections can be fully hardened and these steels will thus retain their good mechanical properties even in applications where thick sections are used. Elevated Temperatures Martensitic and martensitic-austenitic steels in the hardened and tempered condition exhibit high strength at moderately elevated temperatures. However, the useful upper service temperature is limited by the risk of over-tempering and embrittlement. The creep strength is low and this type of stainless steel is normally not used above

300 C. However, certain martensitic grades are used at higher temperatures. The wide range of elevated temperature strength is due to the wide range of strength levels offered by different grades and heat treatments.

Mechanical Properties of Ferritic-Austenitic Steels

Room Temperature

Ferritic-austenitic steels have a high yield stress which increases with increasing carbon and nitrogen levels. Increased ferrite content will, within limits, also increase the strength of duplex steels. Their ductility is good and they exhibit strong work hardening.
Elevated Temperatures

Ferritic-austenitic steels have a high yield stress which increases with increasing carbon and nitrogen levels. Increased ferrite content will, within limits, also increase the strength of duplex steels. Their ductility is good and they exhibit strong work hardening.

Mechanical Properties of Ferritic Steels

Room Temperature Ferritic steels have relatively low yield strength and the work hardening of these steels is limited. Their strength increases with increasing carbon content, but the effect of chromium on strength is negligible. However, ductility is lower in steels with high chromium content and for optimum ductility, the levels of carbon and nitrogen must be kept to a minimum. Elevated Temperatures Ferritic steels have relatively high strength up to 500 C. The creep strength, which is usually the determining factor at temperatures above 500 C, is low. The normal upper service temperature limit is set by the risk of embrittlement at temperatures above 350 C. However, due to the good resistance of chromium steels to high temperature sulphidation and oxidation, a few high chromium-alloyed grades are used at higher temperatures.

Mechanical Properties of Austenitic Steels

Room Temperature

Austenitic steels generally have a relatively low yield stress and are characterised by strong work hardening. The strength of austenitic steels increases with increasing levels of carbon, nitrogen and, to a certain extent, also molybdenum. Austenitic steels exhibit very high ductility and toughness. Elevated Temperatures

Most austenitic steels have lower strength than other types of stainless steels when used at temperatures up to about 500 C. The highest elevated temperature strength among austenitic steels is exhibited by nitrogen-alloyed steels and those containing titanium or niobium. A few high alloyed and nitrogen alloyed austenitic steels have elevated temperature strengths that are almost as high as those of duplex steels. In terms of creep strength austenitic stainless steels are superior to all other types of stainless steel.

Toughness of Stainless Steels

The toughness of the different types of stainless steels shows considerable variation, ranging from excellent toughness at all temperatures for austenitic steels to the relatively brittle behaviour of martensitic steels. Toughness is dependent on temperature and generally improves with increasing temperatures.

One measure of toughness is the impact toughness, i.e. the toughness measured on rapid loading. The figure shows categories of stainless steel at temperatures from -200C to + 100C. It is apparent from the diagram that there is a fundamental difference at low temperatures between austenitic steels on the one hand and martensitic, ferritic and ferritic-austenitic steels on the other.
The figure shows categories of stainless steel at temperatures from -200C to + 100C

Martensitic, ferritic and ferritic-austenitic steels are characterised by a transition in toughness, from tough to brittle behaviour, at a certain temperature, the transition temperature. For ferritic steel the transition temperature increases with increasing carbon and nitrogen content, i.e. the steel becomes brittle at successively higher temperatures. For ferritic-austenitic steels, an increased ferrite content gives a higher transition temperature, i.e. more brittle behaviour. Martensitic stainless steels have transition temperatures around or slightly below room temperature, while those for ferritic and ferritic-austenitic steels are in the range 0 to - 50C, with ferritic steels in the upper part of this range. Austenitic steels do not exhibit a toughness transition as do the other steel types, but have excellent toughness at all temperatures, although the toughness decreases slightly with decreasing temperature.

Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Steels

Wet Corrosion These steels are mainly used in wet environments. With increasing chromium and molybdenum contents, the steels become increasingly resistant to aggressive solutions. The higher nickel content reduces the risk of stress corrosion cracking.

Austenitic steels are more or less resistant to general corrosion, crevice corrosion and pitting, depending on the quantity of alloying elements. Resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion is very important if the steel is to be used in chloride-containing environments. Resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion increases with increasing contents of chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen. The rich chloride content of seawater makes it a particularly harsh environment, which can attack stainless steel by causing pitting and crevice corrosion. However, two stainless steel grades designed to cope with this environment have been developed by AvestaPolarit - 254 SMO and 654 SMO. 254 SMO has a long record of successful installations for seawater handling within offshore, desalination, and coastal located process industries. Some crevice corrosion has still been reported and for more severe situations, i.e. severe crevice geometries and elevated temperatures, the natural selection should be 654 SMO. High Temperature Corrosion Most molybdenum-free steels can be used at high temperatures in contact with hot gases. An adhesive oxide layer then forms on the surface of the steel. It is important that the oxide is impervious so that further oxidation is prevented and the oxide film adheres tightly to the steel. At very high temperatures, the oxide begins to loosen (scaling temperature). This temperature increases with increasing chromium content. A common high-temperature steel is 310S. Another steel that has proved to be very good at high temperatures is AvestaPolarit 253 MA. Due to a balanced composition and the addition of cerium, among other elements, the steel can be used at temperatures of up to 1150-1200 C in air.

Corrosion Resistance of Ferritic Steels

Wet Corrosion

The modern molybdenum-alloyed ferritic steels have largely the same corrosion resistance as AISI 316 but are superior to most austenitic steels in terms of their resistance to stress corrosion cracking. A typical application example for these steels is hot-water heaters. For chlorine-containing environments, where there is a particular risk of pitting, for instance in seawater, the high-alloy steel S44635 (25Cr 4Ni 4Mo) can be used. High Temperature Corrosion Ferritic steels with high chromium contents have good high-temperature properties. As mentioned previously, the steels readily form a brittle sigma phase within the temperature range 550-950 C, but this is of minor importance as long as the product, such as a furnace, operates at its service temperature. AISI446 with 27% chromium has a scaling temperature in air of about 1070 C.

Corrosion Resistance of Austenitic Steels

Wet Corrosion These steels are mainly used in wet environments. With increasing chromium and molybdenum contents, the steels become increasingly resistant to aggressive solutions. The higher nickel content reduces the risk of stress corrosion cracking. Austenitic steels are more or less resistant to general corrosion, crevice corrosion and pitting, depending on the quantity of alloying elements. Resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion is very important if the steel is to be used in chloride-containing environments. Resistance to pitting and crevice corrosion increases with increasing contents of chromium, molybdenum and nitrogen. The rich chloride content of seawater makes it a particularly harsh environment, which can attack stainless steel by causing pitting and crevice corrosion. However, two stainless steel grades designed to cope with this environment have been developed by AvestaPolarit - 254 SMO and 654 SMO. 254 SMO has a long record of successful installations for seawater handling within offshore, desalination, and coastal located process industries.

Some crevice corrosion has still been reported and for more severe situations, i.e. severe crevice geometries and elevated temperatures, the natural selection should be 654 SMO. High Temperature Corrosion Most molybdenum-free steels can be used at high temperatures in contact with hot gases. An adhesive oxide layer then forms on the surface of the steel. It is important that the oxide is impervious so that further oxidation is prevented and the oxide film adheres tightly to the steel. At very high temperatures, the oxide begins to loosen (scaling temperature). This temperature increases with increasing chromium content. A common high-temperature steel is 310S. Another steel that has proved to be very good at high temperatures is AvestaPolarit 253 MA. Due to a balanced composition and the addition of cerium, among other elements, the steel can be used at temperatures of up to 1150-1200 C in air.

Considerable Work-Hardening
Work-hardening means that the hardness increases considerably as the material is deformed, e.g. during the process of producing chips. It also means that, after a first pass, the machined surface has become harder, changing the working conditions for the cutting edge during subsequent posses, as the edge then has to work in a hard surface layer. Austenitic and ferriticaustenitic steels have the greatest tendency to workharden, which results in both high cutting forces and a high hardness of the machined surface, see figure. This means that the cutting edge has to work in a material that is

much harder than is indicated by the hardness of the base material. This often results in problems during finishing, as the depth of cut is then often so small that the cutting edge is working entirely in the work-hardened layer. It is, of course, not only cutting that causes work-hardening, but also all other types of cold working. Shot or sand blasting, for example, or a straightening operation can all produce a hard surface layer that affects machinability. In such cases, the hardness gradient is similar in principle to that resulting from machining, but the increase in hardness can extend to a greater depth into the metal. After a substantial straightening operation the increase in hardness can extend to a depth of 2-4 mm below the surface.

Low Thermal Conductivity

Stainless steels are poor conductors of heat, and the thermal conductivity of all types of stainless steel falls off with increasing alloy, see table below. Austenitic steels have the lowest thermal conductivity, while ferritic and martensitic steels have better conductivity.
Steel Grade Carbon steel 420 444 304 316L 2205 904L Thermal conductivity at 400 C (W/m, K) 35 26.5 26.5 20.0 18.5 24.0 18.0

The low thermal conductivity means that, for a given machining operation, the cutting edge temperatures are higher in stainless steel than in carbon steel. This naturally imposes severe requirements on the high-temperature hardness of the cutting edge and on its ability to withstand high temperatures.

High Toughness
Austenitic stainless steels in particular have very high toughness which means that a considerable amount of energy is required to form each chip. This, in combination with work hardening, results in a high power requirement for machining stainless steels. This applies particularly for austenitic steels. The high cutting forces, in combination with the low thermal conductivity, impose very severe requirements on the strength of the cutting edge.

Tendency to Stickyness
This tendency is most marked in austenitic stainless steels, although both ferritic and ferritic-austenitic steels give rise to chip sticking and built-up edges on the cutting tool. The formation of a built-up edge results in a poor surface finish on the work piece and very high stresses on the cutting edge. The formation of a built-up edge can often result in failure of the cutting edge, resulting in tool failure. Formation of a built-up edge and chip sticking can also occur when machining ordinary structural steels and other carbon steels, although in such cases (as opposed to the stainless steels) it is often sufficient to increase the cutting speed in order to get out of the built-up edge range. When machining stainless steels it can, in certain cases, be difficult to find a cutting speed range where built-up edge formation does not occur.

Low Chip-breaking Characteristics

The high toughness of many stainless steels, and particularly of austenitic steels, means that it is very difficult to break the chips formed during machining. This often causes considerable problems in removing the chips from the tool area, or when a machining operation is to be automated. In the latter case, tangled chips around the work piece can mean that, say, portal loaders and/or measuring stations cannot be operated unmanned.

Some Rules of Thumb for Machining Stainless Steels

There are some general rules of thumb that can be applied when machining stainless steels, to avoid (to some extent) the problems described, or at least to minimise them. These rules are particularly important when machining austenitic and ferriticaustenitic stainless steels.

Always use rigid machine tools, as the machining of stainless steels

involves high cutting forces. Tools and work pieces must be firmly clamped, and the tool overhang must be as small as possible. (Long overhangs, or unstable machining conditions, increase the already substantial risk of vibration when machining stainless steels.) Do not use too great a nose radius, as this can cause vibration. Use tools with good edge sharpness and high edge strength. (Cemented carbide tools should have a positive cutting edge, with a protective negative land, although this must not be greater than necessary to ensure that the edge is

effectively sharp. At the same time, the edge must be strong, which means that it is necessary to find a compromise between strength and sharpness of the edge.) Use sufficient cutting depths, so that the cutting edge tip reaches below the work-hardened zone from the previous cut. Replace the insert more frequently than when machining carbon steel, as a dull edge produces greater work-hardening than does a sharp edge.

When using cutting fluid, ensure that it is always applied. (If possible use

oils and emulsions with EP additive.)

Defintions of Surface Finish

In considering the concept of surface finish, we will disregard any sporadic surface defects, which have mechanical or metallurgical causes. Instead, we will concentrate on the minute, evenly distributed irregularities in the surface layer, which are characteristic of the different
Y=Roughness, S=Lay, V=Waviness

means of production and finishing of the steel product. In terms of strict definition, the concept "surface finish" can be said to describe the deviation from the ideal flat surface. This deviation is normally expressed in terms such as roughness, lay and waviness, which in turn may be defined as:

Roughness represents the size of the finely distributed surface pattern

deviations from the smooth surface. Lay represents the dominant direction of the surface pattern, such as grinding scores. Waviness represents deviations, which are relatively far apart. Of these, waviness is the most difficult to detect with the naked eye.

Definition of Surface Roughness

Roughness is measured by special precision instruments that measure the vertical deviations when traversing the metal surface. The measurement is carried out in the direction that gives the greatest measured values, that is, at right angles to the ray. In accordance with the relevant international standard (ISO), the instrument measures and calculates the mean deviation from the average line over a given measured distance, the reference length (cut-off length), usually 0.8 or 0.25 mm. The measured value, abbreviated as Ra or CLA (centre line average), is expressed in m (thousands of a millimetre).
Definition of the mean deviation

Surface Finishes
Abbreviation2) Hot rolled 1U Type of process route Hot rolled, not heat treated, not descaled Hot rolled, heat treated, not descaled Hot rolled, heat treated, mechanically descaled Surface finish Covered with the rolling scale Covered with the rolling scale Notes Suitable for products which are to be further worked e.g. strip for re-rolling Suitable for parts which will be descaled or machined in subsequent production or for certain heat-resisting applications The type of mechanical descaling, e. g. coarse grinding or shot blasting, depends on the steel grade and the product and is left to the manufacturer's discretion, unless otherwise agreed Usually standard for most steel types to ensure good corrosion resistance; also common finish for further processing. It is permissible for grinding marks to be present. Not as smooth as 2D or 2B Cold worked to obtain higher strength level Suitable for parts which will be descaled or machined in subsequent production or for certain heat-resisting applications Usually applied to steels with a scale which is very resistant to pickling solutions. May be followed by pickling. Finish for good ductility, but not as smooth as 2B or 2R Most common finish for most steel types to ensure good corrosion resistance, smoothness and flatness. Also common finish for further processing. Skin passing may be by tension levelling Smoother and brighter than 2B. Also common finish for further processing Either hardened and tempered in a protective atmosphere or descaled after heat treatment Grade of grit or surface roughness can be specified. Unidirectional texture, not very reflective

1C

1E

Free of scale

1D

Hot rolled, heat treated, pickled

Free of scale

Cold rolled

2H

Work hardened Cold rolled, heat treated, not descaled Cold rolled, heat treated, mechanically descaled Cold rolled, heat treated, pickled Cold rolled, heat treated, pickled, skin passed

Bright Smooth with scale from heat treatment

2C

2E

Rough and dull

2D

Smooth

2B

Smoother than 2D

2R

Cold rolled, bright Smooth, bright, annealed2) reflective Cold rolled, hardened and tempered, scale free Ground4) Free of scale

2Q 1G or 2G 1J or 2J

Special finishes

See footnote 5

Brushed4) or dull polished4)

Grade of brush or polishing belt or Smoother than surface roughness can be specified. ground. See footnote Undirectional texture, not very 5 reflective Additional specific requirements to a "J" type finish, in order to achieve adequate corrosion resistance for marine and external architectural applications. Transverse Ra >0,5 m with clean cut surface finish

1K or 2K

Satin polish4)

See footnote 5

1P or 2P

Bright polished

4)

See footnote 5

Mechanical polishing. Process or surface roughness can be specified. Non-directional finish, reflective with high degree of image clarity Heat treatment by bright annealing or by annealing and pickling

2F

Cold rolled, heat treated, skin passed on roughened rolls Patterned Patterned Corrugated Coloured4) Surface coated4)

Uniform nonreflective matt surface

1M 2M 2W 2L 1S or 2S
4) First digit 1 = hot rolled 2= cold rolled 4) May be skin passed

Design to agreed; 2nd Chequer plates used for floors surface flat Design to agreed; 2nd A fine texture finish mainly used for surface flat architectural applications Design to be agreed Colour to be agreed Coated with e. g. tin, aluminium, titanium Used to increase strength and/or for cosmetic effect

4) Not all process routes and surface finishes are available for all steels

4) One surface only, unless specifically agreed at the time of enquiry or order 4) Within each finish description the surface characteristics can vary, and more specific requirements may need to be agreed between manufacturer and purchaser (e. g. grade of grit or surface roughness)

Hot Rolled Plate and Sheet

All steel plate and sheet is hot-rolled as a first rolling step, after which it is annealed in order to attain homogeneous material characteristics. Annealing produces an oxide coating on the steel, which is removed by shot blasting and by pickling in an acid bath. As a result of these manufacturing operations, the steel acquires a relatively coarse, matt grey surface with an Ra value in the order of 2-8 m; the thicker the plate the coarser the surface, and the higher the Ra value. Localised grinding marks may appear on the surface, but have no practical implications for the use of the steel. Hot rolled plate of this finish is mostly used for heavy process equipment and in thickness from around 5 mm and upward.

Cold Rolled Sheet and Coil

Finishes:

Annealed and pickled finish - 2D Skinpass rolled finish - 2B Bright annealed finish - BA Polished Brushed Patterned

Annealed and pickled finish - 2D By means of further rolling of the steel in a cold state, both its surface smoothness

and thickness accuracy are improved. Since stainless steel is cold hardened, that is, it is hardened by the cold-working process, it has to be annealed after the rolling so as to regain its softness and working characteristics. This is most often carried out in an ordinary air atmosphere, which results in a new coating of oxide that has to be removed by pickling in an acid bath. Steel sheet processed in this way has a semimatt silver-grey surface, which is known as finish 2D (D=dull), and has an Ra value in the order of 0.2-1.0 m. This value increases with greater sheet thicknesses. It is used mostly for industrial equipment and for the manufacture of pipes and tubes for the process industry. Skinpass rolled finish - 2B Cold-rolled and annealed sheet as described above may be given a smoother surface by means of a further light rolling between highly polished rollers. The result is a semi-bright grey surface which is termed skinpass-rolled or finish 2B (B=bright) and has an Ra value of between 0.1 and 0.5 m. Skinpass-rolled steel sheet is often used for process equipment within the food industry when a surface which is easy to keep clean is required. Bright annealed finish - BA If, after cold rolling, the sheet coil is annealed in a protective gas that prevents oxidisation of the surface (for example, hydrogen and nitrogen from cracked ammonia), pickling is not needed since a bright finish is directly acquired. This surface quality is termed bright annealed finish or BA. Since the surface has not come into contact with corrosive acids, it attains a brighter finish than either of the above examples, and an Ra value of 0.03-0.1 m. It is used for the manufacture of household equipment and appliances (dish washers, washing machines, etc.). Polished By polishing the cold rolled sheet steel with a grinding bell of a certain emery grain size (measured by mesh grit), a surface is obtained which has a silver-like metallic shine, which improves the decorative effect. The finer the grain of the grinding bell, the brighter and more even the finish. However, polishing often results in a surface finish that is poorer than that of the original material. Polishing with a coarse grinding bell of 80-100 mesh gives, for example, an Ra value of 1.0-2.0 m. The roughness of the surface in this case is still not up to that of finish 2B. Using successively finer grit bells, an almost mirror-like surface can be produced. This mirror-finish has an Ra value of 0.02-0.05 m. Surface roughness and structure can also be affected by different polishing techniques, even if no differences are detectable with the naked eye. Wet polishing, for example, produces a much finer surface than polishing with a dry bell. The Ra value could be less than 0.4 m. The mesh size of the grinding bell and the resultant surface roughness of the sheet (Ra), do not, therefore, have any fixed relation. Wet polishing also produces a cleaner surface than dry polishing, which can be compared to the ploughing of furrows in a field. This means that dirt, bacteria and corrosive

substances do not attach as easily to wet polished surfaces. The ground or polished surface has more or less clearly visible scoring, which also makes scratches from daily wear and tear less visible. A polished surface is also easy to re-create, for example after repairs or welding work, compared with a 2B or 20 surface. Polished sheet is used for purposes where quality of appearance and hygiene are very important, such as in commercial kitchens (work surfaces, cooking utensils, dishwashers, freezers) , in house- holds (cooking vessels), and in public places (sanitary facilities, hospital equipment, kick-plates). Brushed The use of brushing (with Scotch Brite, for example), usually on a 2B surface, provides a silky-matt finish without grinding scores. A brushed surface also has the advantage that it can easily be re-created. Brushed stainless steel sheet is used in situations where appearance is an important factor, such as in the building industry (sheet metal cladding and lift interiors), the vehicle industry (car hub caps, wall panels for express trains) and the home (sink units). The Ra value for brushed sheet can be around 0.2-0.4 m. Patterned Patterned sheet is produced by means of extra rolling of cold-rolled brushed sheet coils between special imprinted rolls. In this way, a waffle-type pattern can be obtained on both sides of the sheet. At the same time, the rigidity and strength of the material is increased by almost 50%. This means that it is possible to use a thinner sheet, and thus obtain a lower weight.

Cleaning of Stainless Steels

A stainless steel may be discoloured by rust

if it is exposed to a more aggressive environment than that is intended for

a particular grade of steel , e.g. highly polluted air, salt solutions or residues of cleaning agents containing chlorine if it has a rough surface finish that provides a foothold for corrosive substances and corrosion products from the surroundings if the design of the structure is inappropriate, with pockets and narrow gaps if the surface is contaminated by grinding swarf and other iron particles from tools used in the installation work if fasteners of ordinary steel are used for securing the material, or if the material comes into direct contact with adjacent components made of plain carbon steel in wet or humid conditions. The risk of corrosion in the first three situations is highest for the lower-alloy stainless steel grades and can be reduced substantially right from the start by specifying molybdenum alloyed stainless grades (such as type 1.4401). In the last two cases, the surface of the stainless steel will be discoloured by rust from the plain carbon steel.

Removal of stains and discolourations

Stain Type Fingerprints Oil and grease Cleaning agent and method Wash with alcohol, thinner, thrichlorethylene or acetone, rinse with clean cold water, and wipe dry. Wash with organic solvents, such as those mentioned above, then wash with soap or mild detergent and water, rinse with clean cold water, and wipe dry. Wash with a mild abrasive detergent, rub in the direction of the visible surface structure, rinse with clean cold water, and wipe dry. Or: Wash with a 10% phosphoric acid solution, rinse with ammonia solution, then with clean cold water, and wipe dry. Wash with an abrasive detergent as described above. Or: Rub with Scotch Brite sponge in the direction of the visible structure, rinse with clean cold water, and wipe dry. Wet the surface with oxalic acid solution, leave it for 15-20 minutes, rinse with clean cold water, and wipe dry. If necessary, repeat the washing procedure with an abrasive detergent as described above. Wash with paint solvent (use a soft nylon brush), and then rinse with clean cold water, and wipe dry.

More stubborn stains and discolourations

Temper colour and more serious stains

Rust stains Paint

Polish with a polishing wheel (using an iron-free abrasive) in the direction of the structure, Scratches on a ground wash with soap or mild detergent and water, rinse with clean cold water, and wipe dry. N.B. or brushed surface The method must not be used for material with a 2B or 2D finish, or on patterned or decorated surfaces.

Preventive Measures in Project Design, Production, and Installation

All stainless steels are clean and passivated when they are delivered by the steel manufacturer. In other words, the material has a natural corrosion resistant film over its entire surface. The following instructions should be taken into account from the moment of project design, through to the production and installation stages, particularly for building components installed outdoors, in order to maintain as much as possible of the original appearance and corrosion resistance of the stainless material.

Do not use steel brushes or steel tools made of plain carbon steel.

Do not carry out shot blasting using ordinary steel shot or sand that has used for shot blasting plain carbon steels Do not use hydrochloric acid to remove residues of cement or mortar on steel. Instead use water to wash off the mortar before it dries. Hydrochloric acid may not be used for cleaning of stainless steels.

Specify the correct grade of steel, taking into account the occurrence of

deposits and air pollutants such as soot, sulphur dioxide, salt water or road salt in the immediate surroundings.

Select the correct design that allows rainwater to rinse away all deposits of dust and dirt from the entire surface. Specify a grade of steel with a higher alloy content for parts that are inaccessible to rain water or for parts installed in geographical locations where rainfall seldom occurs. Use fasteners, such as nails, screws and bolts, made of stainless steel during installation. Avoid the risk of galvanic corrosion between components of stainless steels and those of plain carbon steels in areas exposed to moisture and water (e.g. by providing electrical insulation).

Use clean tools that are free from residues of plain carbon steel, such as

swarf and iron particles from earlier work.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding GTAW

In GTAW the arc is struck between the work-piece and a non-consumable tungsten electrode The tungsten electrode should be alloyed with thorium when welding stainless steel. The argon gas is supplied through the electrode holder. This shielding gas, which should be 99.9% argon, shields the weld zone from the atmosphere, thus ensuring an oxide-free weld. The filler wire is fed into the arc from the side. This may be done either manually or automatically. The welding of light-gauge stainless sheet in thicknesses of 0.5-1.5 mm, as well as the running of root welds, is sometimes carried out without using a filler and takes place by direct coalescence of the abutting faces. However, in the case of restrained fabrications, especially involving stabilised materials, there is a risk of crack formation if the bead is too light. When welding heavy-gauge plate, a GTAW filler wire of the same type as the parent metal or with a higher alloy is required. The core wire of a covered electrode or a piece of the plate must never be used for GTAW. The use of inner gas shield is generally necessary for the welding of pipe. Argon is usually used but cheaper gases such as nitrogen or formier gas can also be employed. This latter gas consists of a mixture of 92% nitrogen and 8% hydrogen. The additional gas shield is necessary for achieving a clean, oxide-free root surface. While manual GTAW is more expensive than metal-arc welding, especially for sheets of over 2 mm in thickness, the automatic processes are more economical than metal-arc

welding due to their speed and reliability. These are employed predominantly in batch production.

Electrodes - SMAW
Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW) with covered electrodes is the most common method of welding stainless steels. It is suited to all weldable grades, in thicknesses of 1 mm and upwards. In principle, there is no upper limit of thickness. However, for heavier material, the automatic wire processes are often more economical. When correctly carried out, the heat supply is concentrated and the heat affected zone (HAZ) on either side of the joint is relatively narrow.

Gas Metal-Arc Welding - GMAW

In GMAW the arc is struck between the filler wire and the workpiece The uncovered filler wire is automatically fed through the centre of the gun. The shielding gas is supplied through the gun and surrounds the arc pool during welding, thus protecting the weld from the atmosphere. The gas usually consists of argon with an added 1-2% oxygen or of pure argon. A distinction is drawn between spray-arc welding and short-arc welding. The latter method is suitable for welding light-gauge sheet as well as for welding root beads in heavier material. It is also suitable for position welding. This process takes place at a lower voltage and current than in the case of spray-arc welding. A thin filler wire (0.8 mm) is used. The arc is short, hence the name, and metal transfer is in the form of big drops shortcircuiting the arc. This provides rapid alternation between arc heating and resistance heating. By contrast, in spray-arc welding, the metal is transferred in the form of a fine mist of droplets which do not short-circuit the arc. The process, which derives its name from this feature, is suitable for material thicknesses of 3 mm and upwards. The GMAW process is either semi-automatic or fully automatic. In many cases, it is more economical than welding with covered electrodes. However, all gas-shielded

processes are sensitive to draughts. Thus, they are not suitable for outdoor work or for welding in open vessels in which a chimney effect may easily occur.

Pickling methods
In most workshops there will typically be the same sequence of operations even if the type of pickling process may vary: Pre-cleaning Pickling - Brush pickling with paste - Spray pickling with solution - Immersion pickling in a bath Rinsing Passivation, if necessary Neutralisation Drying Inspection

The choice of pickling method depends on:

The The The The The The The

steel grade and type of component to be pickled requirements of the specification requirements on the visual appearance of the surface functional requirements on the surface automation potential environmental and worker safety aspects costs