Journal of Management

http://jom.sagepub.com/ The Influence of Gender on the Performance of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Deborah L. Kidder Journal of Management 2002 28: 629 DOI: 10.1177/014920630202800504 The online version of this article can be found at: http://jom.sagepub.com/content/28/5/629

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Journal of Management 2002 28(5) 629648

The Inuence of Gender on the Performance of Organizational Citizenship Behaviors

Deborah L. Kidder
Department of Management, College of Business and Economics, Towson University, Towson MD 21252, USA Received 25 September 2000; received in revised form 5 June 2001; accepted 26 September 2001

This paper examines the relationship between gender and reports of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs). Drawing on gender role theory, I examine the effects of employee gender (male/female), gender orientation (masculine/feminine) and gender-dominated occupational choice (nurse/engineer) on OCBs. I hypothesize relationships between gender and the performance of gender-congruent OCBs, i.e., female-typed altruism and male-typed civic virtue. The results demonstrate signicant differences in line with traditional gender roles. Implications are discussed. 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.

In the past decade or so, the Management literature has increasingly focused on the performance of organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs) in the workplace (see Borman & Motowidlo, 1997 for a review). OCBs represent work behaviors that are discretionary and not directly linked to an organizations reward system (Organ, 1997). Researchers have come to realize that going beyond minimum job requirements, while always benecial, is an increasingly critical attribute in these days of heightened competition and the global marketplace. There is considerable evidence that the performance of OCBs is benecial and has a positive inuence on organizational performance (e.g., Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997). It has also been shown that managers consider the performance of OCBs in the performance appraisal process (Allen & Rush, 1998; Orr, Sackett & Mercer, 1989; Schnake & Dumler, 1997; Shore, Barksdale & Shore, 1995). Researchers have looked at attitudinal factors related to the performance of OCBs, such as organizational justice perceptions (Konovsky & Pugh, 1994; Moorman, 1991; Organ, 1988; Tansky, 1993), and organization-based self-esteem (Chattopadhyay, 1999; Pierce, Gardner, Cummings & Dunham, 1989), as well as personality
Tel.: +1-410-704-2934; fax: +1-410-704-3236. E-mail address: deb@sba.uconn.edu (D.L. Kidder). 0149-2063/02/$ see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 4 9 - 2 0 6 3 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 5 9 - 9
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factors (Organ & Lingl, 1995; Speier & Frese, 1997), and motives (Bolino, 1999; Eastman, 1994). However, there is still much to learn about what inuences the performance of OCBs (Penner, Midili & Kegelmeyer, 1997). While alluded to in previous conceptual articles (e.g., Kidder & McLean Parks, 1993; Van Dyne, Cummings & McLean Parks, 1995), no one has specically examined the relationship between gender and OCBs. Since gender has been linked to different attitudes, behaviors and outcomes in the workplace (Williams & OReilly, 1998), an examination of the relationship between the two may extend the existing research on OCBs in a promising direction. In this paper, I examine how gender inuences the performance of OCBs. Gender may inuence performance in three ways: (1) gender role prescriptions inuence expectations of differential behavior between males and females; (2) within each gender category, gender orientation (masculinity/femininity) leads to self-identifying with socially prescribed gender roles; and (3) occupational segregation and gender stereotyping result in gender-typed behavioral expectations for gender-typed occupations. In a conceptual article, Kidder and McLean Parks (1993) argued that OCB-altruism may include expected behaviors for females and stereotypically feminine occupations, of which nursing is an example (Drogosz & Levy, 1996). On the other hand, they argued that OCB-civic virtue behaviors are associated with the masculine stereotype, and thus may be more associated with males and masculinetype occupations such as engineering (Barnes-Farrell, LHeureux-Barrett & Conway, 1991). This may lead to different levels of performance based on traditional gender roles, affecting perceptions of employee performance and performance ratings. The purpose of my study is to examine whether gender, gender orientation, and gender-typed occupation each have a separate signicant effect on gendered OCBs. Gender roles are shared cultural expectations that apply to individuals solely on the basis of their socially-identied gender (Eagly & Karau, 1991). Gender role theory suggests that individuals internalize cultural expectations about their gender because social pressures external to the individual favor behavior consistent with their prescribed gender role (Eagly, Karau & Makajhani, 1995). People are drawn to categorizing themselves and others into social groups in order to establish their own identity (Tajfel & Turner, 1985). These social identities help individuals dene themselves, which in turn facilitates their understanding of what to do, think, and even feel (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999: 417). Individuals seek to enhance their self-esteem through their social identities, which leads them to choose identity-congruent behaviors as well as adhering to group values and norms (Ashforth & Mael, 1989, 1996). Social identities are often based on demographic categories (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). The more visible a difference between social categories, such as ones biological sex, the more likely that category is to be salient (Fiske & Taylor, 1991). While research shows the meaning that individuals attach to social identities may vary, it is clear that some level of consensus exists in our culture about socially prescribed gender roles (Deaux, 2000). Several traits have been associated with females in our culture, such as empathy, perspective taking, concern for others (e.g., Carey, Fox & Spraggins, 1988; Dobbins, 1985; Eagly & Karau, 1991; Fox, Gibbs & Auerbach, 1985; Hanson & Mullis, 1985; Rosnowska, 1985; Santilli & Hudson, 1992), and altruism and helping (Gilligan, Ward & Taylor, 1988; Held, 1990; Ridgeway, 1991). In contrast, males are seen as competitive, aggressive, and ambitious (Berger, Rosenholtz & Zelditch, 1980; Ely, 1994; Lockheed & Hall, 1976; Meeker &

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Weitzel-ONeill, 1977; Schein & Mueller, 1992). In a review of the literature on gender role attitudes and gender role behaviors, Spence and Helmreich (1980) concluded that these traits could be combined into a single trait dimension: expressivityinstrumentality. They suggested typical expressive female behaviors are characterized by a concern for others and an interpersonal orientation. In contrast, instrumental male behaviors include independence, proactivity, and self-condence. There is considerable evidence of the persistence of gender stereotypes (e.g., Brenner, Tomkiewicz & Schein, 1989; Eagly & Karau, 1991; Koenig, 1989; Norris & Wylie, 1993; Schein, Mueller & Jacobson, 1989; Steinberg, 1990; Swann, Langlois & Gilbert, 1999). For instance, in a recent follow-up study on the persistence of gender role prescriptions, the authors found that traditional gender roles still were held by a signicant number of subjects (Spence & Hahn, 1997).

Gender and OCBs OCBs have received a signicant amount of attention in the literature (e.g., Morrison, 1994; Organ, 1988; Podsakoff, MacKenzie, Moorman & Fetter, 1990; Smith, Organ & Near, 1983; Van Dyne, Graham & Dienesch, 1994). While several dimensions have been suggested and tested, much of the focus has been on two dimensions, altruism (e.g., Van Dyne & LePine, 1998; Shore et al., 1995) and civic virtue (e.g., LePine & Van Dyne, 1998; Robinson & Morrison, 1995). The dimension of altruism includes all discretionary behaviors that have the effect of helping a specic other person with an organizationally relevant task or problem (Organ, 1988: 8). Altruism is characterized as helping behavior, implying sensitivity, especially to ones social environment (Organ, 1988, p. 103). This other focus is typically associated with an understanding of the needs of others and with the female gender role (de Beauvoir, 1952; Flax, 1983). While it is inaccurate to suggest that males do not help others, research on gender stereotypes differentiates between categories of helping: females are expected to be nurturing and caring, while males are expected to be heroic and perform high-risk helping behaviors (Eagly & Crowley, 1986; Erdle, Sansom, Cole & Heapy, 1992). In addition, asking for help violates masculine gender role norms (Good, Dell & Mintz, 1989). If being helped makes males feel uncomfortable, they may also be less willing to help others as it may violate reciprocity norms (McLean Parks, 1997). Empirical research suggests both that females are perceived as more altruistic by observers (e.g., Seymour & Busherhof, 1991; Stockard, Van de Kragt & Dodge, 1988) and that females often are more likely to be altruistic and helpful than males (e.g., Anderson, 1993; Belansky & Boggiano, 1994; Eagly & Wood, 1991; George, Carroll, Kersnick & Calderon, 1998; Jha, Yadav & Kumari, 1997). Consequently, the behaviors associated with altruism are likely to be seen as more in keeping with the female gender role than the male gender role. The dimension of civic virtue implies a sense of involvement in what policies are adopted and which candidates are supported (Organ, 1988: 12). While the initial operationalization of this dimension was limited to behaviors such as reading memos, Graham and her colleagues (e.g., Graham, 1991; Van Dyne et al., 1994) helped expand and evolve the concept of civic virtue towards voice behaviors, which is more in keeping with the label for this

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dimension (LePine & Van Dyne, 1998). Voice represents speaking out and challenging the status quo (Krefting & Powers, 1998; LePine & Van Dyne, 1998; Van Dyne et al., 1995). In a recent construct validity study, Van Dyne and LePine (1998, p. 108) differentiated between helping and voice: Afliative [helping] behavior is interpersonal and cooperative . . . and is other-oriented. Challenging [voice] behavior emphasizes ideas and issues. It is change-oriented and can damage relationships(1998: 108). In an organizational context, civic virtue is inuenced by the political rights of employees (Tetrick, 1995). Strong empirical evidence suggests that males are perceived as more assertive and taskoriented rather than relationship-oriented (e.g., Carless, 1998; Eagly et al., 1995; Rojahn & Willemsen, 1994) as well as the fact that they often are more assertive. For instance, Walker, Ilardi, McMahon and Fennell (1996) found that males were ve times more likely than females to exercise opinion leadership in leaderless groups. In a study of mixed-gender groups with egalitarian gender role expectations, males were more likely to be selected as leaders and participated more in group discussion (Sapp, Harrod & Zhao, 1996). This suggests that the challenging voice behaviors, which exemplify civic virtue, may be seen as more consistent with male gender stereotypes than with female gender stereotypes. Given that individuals tend to conform to their culturally dened gender roles, research suggests that females are more likely to report performing OCB-altruism than males, and males are more likely to report performing OCB-civic virtue behaviors than females: Hypothesis 1: Gender will be related to the performance of gender-typed OCBs. Specically: a. Being female will be positively related to the performance of OCB-altruism. b. Being male will be positively related to the performance of OCB-civic virtue. Indeed, research on the performance of OCBs has found some evidence to support this hypothesis. Specically, Morrison (1994) and Van Dyne and Ang (1998) found that women were more likely to perform altruism/helping OCBs, while LePine and Van Dyne (1998) found being male was positively related to performing voice behaviors. Gender Orientation and OCBs Apart from belonging to a gender category, individuals also display personality differences in terms of gender orientation (Karakowsky & Siegel, 1999; McCall & Struthers, 1994; McCutcheon, 1996). Research on personality differences in gender orientation suggests that the degree to which individuals self-identify with the culturally dened characteristics associated with their biological sex varies (Frable & Bem, 1985; Holt & Ellis, 1998; Kent & Moss, 1994). That is to say, all individuals tend to vary along two dimensions, masculinity and femininity, with these dimensions capturing the cultural prescriptions for males and females (i.e., masculine individuals are assertive, ambitious, competitive, while feminine individuals are nurturing, sensitive and passive). While on average females are more likely to perform more feminine behaviors than males, for instance, within each gender category a range of behaviors exist. Therefore, while gender inuences an individuals behavior, the extent to which a person self-identies with gendered traits may have an additional inuence.

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Kent and Moss (1994) found that gender orientation, specically being high on the masculine dimension, was a stronger predictor of leadership emergence (a role traditionally associated with males) than was biological sex. Moore (1999), in a study of female police ofcers, found that these women retained a strong female identity while also self-attributing masculine traits. If an individual self-identies with masculine gender characteristics (i.e., has high masculine identity), Kidder and McLean Parks (1993) argument suggests that this individual would be more likely to see civic virtue behaviors as part of their self-identity. The parallel process would occur among individuals with high feminine identity for altruistic OCBs. Individuals tend to choose activities congruent with salient aspects of their identities (Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Borman and Motowidlo (1997) argued that OCB performance was associated with personality variables, supporting the importance of examining the effect of gender orientation in addition to gender. Hypothesis 2: Gender orientation will be related to the performance of gender-typed OCBs. Specically: a. Being feminine will be positively related to the performance of OCB-altruism. b. Being masculine will be positively related to the performance of OCB-civic virtue.

Gender-Typed Occupation and OCBs A major component of an individuals self-denition often comes from her/his occupational identity (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999; Ashforth & Mael, 1989). Occupations differ along several dimensions, such as prestige (Ashforth & Kreiner, 1999) or task requirements (Borman & Motowidlo, 1997), which inuence an employees occupational identity. For this study, I am interested in how the choice of a gender-typed occupation inuences the performance of OCBs. Women and men are often considered to be differentially qualied for various types of jobs, based on their socialized gender roles (Cockburn, 1991; Hall, 1993). Behavioral traits that are appropriate for an occupation may seem independent of the gender of the job incumbent, yet they are often inextricably linked with the dominant (in terms of numerical superiority) gender in that occupation. For instance, successful behaviors in male-dominated occupations include aggressiveness and competitiveness, traits commonly associated with masculine gender roles, while stereotypically feminine traits (i.e., devoted to others, gentle and soothing) are considered important for female-dominated occupations, such as nursing (Yount, 1986). The nursing profession is clearly a stereotypically female occupation. Nursing is 96% female (Fagin & Maraldo, 1988). Caring is an essential component of a nurses job, and strongly associated with helping (Held, 1990). Caring and helping are also commonly associated with the feminine gender role (Folbre, 1995). Research on male nurses has shown that they perform more of the impersonal caring tasks in comparison to their female counterparts, suggesting that these male nurses follow their gender roles, even within a female-dominated occupation (Williams, 1993). Because caring is an integral part of a

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nurses job, it is likely that nurses will view helping as part of their occupational identity, thus increasing their propensity to perform helping behaviors. In contrast to nursing, engineering has been traditionally associated with masculine stereotypes (Lobel & Shavit, 1997; Powell, 1993). Engineers are expected to be analytical and have strong quantitative and abstract reasoning skills. Less than 10% of all engineers are women (Powell, 1993). In keeping with traditional masculine stereotypes, engineers are expected to be very task-focused as well as condent in their abilities and opinions. This suggests that they are more likely to view voicing their opinions and being active in organizational life (i.e., civic virtue behaviors) as part of their occupational identity, thus increasing their self-reported performance of civic virtue behaviors. Hypothesis 3: Gendered occupation will be related to the performance of gender-typed OCBs. Specically: a. Being a nurse will be positively related to the performance of OCB-altruism. b. Being an engineer will be positively related to the performance of OCB-civic virtue.

Methods Data The data on nurses used in this study were drawn from a cross-sectional survey of a random sample of currently employed registered nurses. Mailing labels were obtained from the nurses association of an upper midwest state for 1000 registered nurses. The number of completed questionnaires returned totaled 310, for a response rate of 31%. After removing nurses who listed their status as temporary, the nal sample size was 218 women and 33 men, for a total of 251 nursing respondents. The data on engineers came from a survey of a random sample of a northeastern universitys engineering school alumni. One thousand surveys were mailed to a random sample of alumni whose mailing address was in the United States. The response rate was approximately 20%, of which 54 were women and 141 were men, for a total of 195 engineering respondents. Measures OCBs. The eight items used to measure OCBs were drawn from previous literature (e.g., Morrison, 1994; Podsakoff et al., 1990; Van Dyne & LePine, 1998). An example of an altruism item was: Helping others who have heavy workloads, while an example of a civic virtue item was Making suggestions to improve the effectiveness of your area. A principal axis factor analysis extracted two factors with eigenvalues over 1, with the four civic virtue items ( = .72) loading on the rst factor and the four altruism items ( = .79) loading on the second factor. OCB performance was measured with a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from never to always. The two dependent variables were calculated by averaging responses to the four items for each category.

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Gender and occupation. Gender of the subject was coded 1 for females, and 0 for males. Occupation was coded 1 for nurses, 0 for engineers. Gender orientation. A subset of the gender scale developed by Bem (1981) was used in this study. This scale is made up of a series of items that are classied as either masculine or feminine. These items were rated with a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. One of the four masculine items used in this study was: I defend my own beliefs ( = .70). An example of one of the four feminine items used was: I am sensitive to the needs of others ( = .81). Respondents were instructed to base their responses on their experience at work. A principal axis factor analysis extracted two factors with eigenvalues over 1, with all four feminine items loading on the rst factor, and all four masculine items loading on the second factor. The responses to these items were averaged to create two variables, one for masculine orientation and one for feminine orientation. Control variables. A review of the OCB literature suggested three important variables to control for in the analysis. The rst two have shown evidence of being linked with gender, so it was considered important to control for these factors. The OCB literature has identied organizational justice perceptions to be positively related to OCBs (Organ & Ryan, 1995; Podsakoff, Mackenzie, Paine & Bachrach, 2000). Also, gender differences in the inuence of justice perceptions on outcome variables have been found (Sweeney & McFarlin, 1997). In order to test the additional explanatory power of gender, it was necessary to control for perceived organizational justice. The multi-dimensional justice scale was drawn from Moorman (1991). There were 11 items used in this study (four for distributive justice, = .92, three for procedural justice, = .82, four for interactional justice, = .87). It was also deemed necessary to control for self-esteem. There is a signicant amount of research demonstrating gender differences in self-esteem (e.g., Kendler, Gardner & Prescott, 1998; Kling, Hyde, Showers & Buswell, 1999). In addition, research has linked perceptions of organizational justice and self-esteem, which is considered one of the driving factors behind social categorizations (Lind & Tyler, 1988; Tyler, 1994). Recent studies of OCBs have demonstrated that deriving self-esteem from organizational identity may inuence propensity to perform OCBs (Pierce et al., 1989; Chattopadhyay, 1999), which may confound the results when examining gendered identities. The four-item organization-based self-esteem scale ( = .81) used was adapted to t the sample occupations. These items were rated with a 5-point Likert-type scale, ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree. An example of this scale was: I am a valuable part of this hospital/company. The nal control variable concerned perceived job breadth, i.e., whether or not an employee perceives the OCB to be an expected part of the job. There has been quite a discussion in the literature over whether or not employees and/or supervisors view OCBs as in-role or extra-role (e.g., Kidder & McLean Parks, 1993; Kidder & Reed, 1997; Kiker & Motowidlo, 1999; Lam, Hui & Law, 1999; Morrison, 1994). For instance, Morrison (1994) found support for her contention that OCBs are positively correlated with perceptions of what is expected on the job. In a recent review of the OCB literature, Podsakoff et al. (2000) called for future research to take this into consideration when examining OCBs. Therefore, it was necessary to control for whether or not respondents viewed OCBs as expected of them. Respondents were asked to classify each of the eight OCB items as either in-role

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(a formal or informal job expectation for them), extra-role (above and beyond expectations) or out-of-role (not appropriate). The perceived job breadth variables were calculated by summing the number of items that were classied as in-role. For example, the altruism perceived job breadth variable is the sum of the number of altruism items the respondent considered to be an expected part of the job, thus ranging from 0 to 4 for each respondent. Given that common method bias is a potential concern, Harmans single-factor test was conducted (see Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). In this procedure, items used to create the independent variable measures (i.e., procedural, distributive, and interactional justice, organization-based self-esteem, Bems masculinity, and Bems femininity items) were subjected to an unrotated factor analysis to determine the number of factors necessary to account for the variance. If no general factor emerges, then there is some evidence that common method bias is less of a concern (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986). This principal axis analysis showed six distinct factors (one for each variable) with eigenvalues of greater than one that collectively accounted for 69.25% of the variance. The rst factor in the unrotated structure had an eigenvalue of 6.277 and only accounted for 27.2% of the variance while the other ve factors accounted for an additional 42.05%. Because several factors were identied and the rst factor did not account for the majority of the variance, there was no general factor, thus, common method bias does not appear to be a major concern (Podsakoff & Organ, 1986).

Results Table 1 contains the means, standard deviations, and correlations among the study variables. As is common in the literature, the three organizational justice control variables were signicantly correlated, ranging from .40 to .53. Being female, having a high feminine gender orientation, and being a nurse were all signicantly correlated, while being masculine was positively correlated with organization-based self-esteem. Females in the sample were less likely to view civic virtue as in-role, while masculine respondents were more likely to view civic virtue as in-role. Nurses and engineers did not differ in their level of organizationbased self-esteem. The two dependent variables were moderately correlated at .11. The hypotheses were tested using hierarchical multiple regression analyses.1,2 The results are reported in Table 2. The results from the hierarchical regression on altruism suggest that gendered social identities have an inuence on self-reports of OCB-altruism. The adjusted R2 after step 1 of the analysis equaled .18, and equaled .24 in step 2. The introduction of the four gender variables accounted for a signicant amount of additional variance in the analysis (R2 increment = .06, F-change = 8.99, p < .000). The results from the hierarchical regression on civic virtue also demonstrate a signicant link between gendered social identities and self-reported performance of civic virtue OCBs. The adjusted R2 after step 1 of the analysis equaled .33, and equaled .45 in step 2. The introduction of the four gender variables accounted for a signicant additional amount of (R2 increment = .14, F-change = 28.35, p < .000). Hypothesis 1 suggested that gender would be related to gender-congruent OCBs. This hypothesis was partially supported. Although the correlations between gender and the dependent variables shown in Table 1 were signicant, the multiple regression analysis showed

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Table 2 OLS hierarchical multiple regressions on performance of OCBsa Variable Step 1 Organizational justice Distributive Interactional Procedural Organization self-esteem Perceived job breadth Step 2 Gender (1 = female) Feminine orientation Masculine orientation Occupation (1 = nurse) Step 3 Sex X occupation Adj-R2 F F-change
a

OCB-altruism

OCB-civic virtue

.08 .11 .15 25 .32

.04 .04 .07 .18 .28 0

.02 0 .07 .24 .48

.04 .08 .03 .23 .38 .14 .01 .12 .27

.09 .06 .22 .05 .24 .18

.18 20.68

.24 8.99

.33 43.81

.46 28.35

.35 .47 11.16

N = 251 for nurses, N = 195 for engineers. Standardized coefcients are reported. p < .05. p < .01. p < .001.

no signicant difference between males and females in the performance of OCB-altruism, once the other identities were controlled for. However, females were signicantly less likely to report performing civic virtue behaviors than males, thus supporting Hypothesis 1b. Hypothesis 2 suggested that gender orientation would be related to gender-typed OCBs. This hypothesis was supported by the data. Having a feminine identity was positively related to the performance of OCB-altruism, while a masculine identity was positively related to OCB-civic virtue. It should be noted, however, that incongruent gendered identities were not signicant, i.e., feminine identity was not negatively related to self-reports of OCB-civic virtue, nor was masculine identity negatively related to OCB-altruism. Finally, Hypothesis 3 was strongly supported for both OCB dimensions. This hypothesis suggested that gendered occupational identity would be related to reports of gender-congruent OCBs. Nurses were more likely to report performing OCB-altruism and less likely to report performing OCB-civic virtue, while the opposite was true for engineers (i.e., engineers were more likely to report performing civic virtue behaviors than nurses and less likely to report altruism behaviors). Interaction of Gender and Occupation The results of the regression analyses reported suggest that gender and occupation each have a signicant effect on the performance of OCB-civic virtue. However, it is possible that there may exist an interaction between the role expectations for gendered-occupations and

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the gender of the job incumbent. Specically, male nurses are likely to report performing more gender-congruent behaviors (OCB-civic virtue) than female nurses. Following this same logic, female engineers are likely to report performing fewer gender-incongruent behaviors (OCB-civic virtue) than male engineers. In order to test for possible interactions, the analyses were re-run including the interaction term of gender by occupation. The interaction for OCB-altruism was not signicant (see Figure 1). The results showed, however, that there was a signicant interaction for OCB-civic virtue (see Table 2, step 3). The interaction plot (see Figure 2) indicates that male nurses were more likely to report performing OCB-civic virtue behaviors than were female nurses. However, there was no signicant difference between reports of OCB-civic virtue between female and male engineers.

Discussion The results of this study provide positive evidence regarding the inuence of gendered identities on self-reported performance of OCBs. Gendered occupation was a signicant predictor of the performance of OCBs. Nurses were more inclined to perform (female-typed) altruism behaviors and less inclined to perform (male-typed) civic virtue behaviors than engineers, even after controlling for whether the respondents believed that the OCBs were part of their job. Similarly, individuals with high feminine identity were more likely to report performing altruism OCBs, while highly masculine individuals were more likely to report performing civic virtue OCBs. Finally, females were signicantly less likely to perform civic virtue behaviors than males, however, there were no gender differences in reported performance of altruism behaviors after the other identities were controlled for. The one hypothesis that was not fully supported by the data involved the relationship between gender and the performance of gender-congruent OCBs. While females reported performing fewer masculine-type civic virtue behaviors than males, there were no gender differences in the reported performance of altruism or helping behaviors, once the other gendered identities were controlled for. This suggests the inuence of gender roles may be stronger for male-typed behaviors, such as civic virtue, than for female-typed behaviors, such as altruism. It is possible, however, that sample distribution may be the cause of the insignicant ndings for gender. The analyses run for this study represent a conservative test of the hypotheses, given the relatively small proportion of male nurses and female engineers (Cohen & Cohen, 1983). Post hoc analyses of possible interactions between gender and occupation were significant for OCB-civic virtue but not for OCB-altruism. The results show that male nurses report performing more OCB-civic virtue behaviors than female nurses, while female engineers report performing the same level of OCB-civic virtue behaviors as male engineers. This suggests that role requirements for the engineering profession may dominate performance expectations. An examination of the direct effects masked the information that among engineers, there were no reported differences in performance between males and females. Results of this study present important implications for management practice as well as research on the performance of OCBs. They suggest that how individuals identify themselves

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may inuence their performance of OCBs and hence their expectations about their job. Individuals may incorporate the performance of OCBs into their self-concept (Penner et al., 1997). Research has demonstrated that managers do include contextual behaviors in their performance ratings of employees (Allen & Rush, 1998; Orr et al., 1989; Schnake & Dumler, 1997; Shore et al., 1995). If individual employees in the same job differ in their performance of OCBs due to their gender, it may affect their performance ratings. Further, given that there is social consensus about appropriate gender role behaviors, managers may have their own expectations about the performance of OCBs (Kidder & McLean Parks, 1993). An analysis of the respondents classication of OCBs as in-role or extra-role demonstrated that male nurses and female engineers were more likely to view both altruism and civic virtue as more in-role than their gender-congruent counterparts. This suggests that individuals in gender-incongruent jobs may face either higher expectations of performance (performing both types of OCBs) or increased role conict when the gender of the citizenship behavior is incongruent with the gender of the job or person (Kidder & McLean Parks, 1993). Alternatively, it has been suggested that males and females may face different expectations in the workplace regarding gendered behaviors (Kidder & McLean Parks, 2001). Kidder and McLean Parks (2001) argue that females may face potential social sanctions for performing higher-status masculine behaviors, while males may not face the same sanctions for performing lower-status feminine behaviors. Managers of employees in female-dominated occupations, who strongly identify with traditional gender norms, may punish females for performing masculine behaviors. Managers need to be aware of this tendency, in order to avoid unfair differences in job requirements. In terms of research, this paper adds to our knowledge about factors that help explain employees performance of OCBs. Social identity theory suggests that individuals self-identity helps drive their attitudes and behaviors at work. My results suggest that gender is an important variable to consider in relation to OCBs, and further that the performance of citizenship behaviors depends on multiple gender identities. According to these results, each gendered identity (gender, gender orientation, and occupational) had a separate and signicant impact on reports of OCB performance. Future studies should at the minimum include gender as an explanatory variable, although gender may be an imperfect proxy for gender orientation and occupational identities. While the present results are signicant both theoretically and analytically, there are some methodological limitations. All of the variables consisted of self-reports, raising the possibility of common methods bias. However, the Harmans single-factor test results did not indicate a substantial bias. Research on self-reported performance suggests that it is comparable to ratings from other sources (Facteau & Craig, 2001), and that self-report data are useful in measuring employees perceptions (Spector, 1994), but it still may be the case that an employees OCB self-report may not be accurate measure of performance. In addition, variables were measured at one time, so causality is only inferred. It is possible that other factors not measured may help explain the ndings. Since lling out a survey to help a doctoral student can be considered a form of altruism, this may provide an alternative explanation for the lack of gender differences in the performance of OCB-altruism. Another concern involves the relative lack of signicant correlations between the self-reported OCB performance and the justice control variables. Previous research has linked OCB

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performance and justice. The relatively small correlations in my sample may demonstrate that justice is less important than gender and organization-based self-esteem, or that these self-reports may not be comparable to similar data in previous studies. It is not possible to determine the reason for this difference with this dataset. Finally, the results should not be generalized beyond the occupations studied in this analysis, specically nurses and engineers. Conclusion OCBs are benecial to the organization and have been shown to have a positive impact on rm performance (Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1997; Podsakoff et al., 2000). While several antecedents of OCBs have been identied in the literature, (e.g., perceptions of organizational justice, Tansky, 1993), we still have much to learn about what inuences an employees performance of citizenship behaviors. This study demonstrates that gendered social identities are related to citizenship behaviors. Belonging to a gender category due to predetermined biological fate, due to stable personality differences, as well as due to choosing a gender-typed occupation all inuence reports of the performance of gender-congruent OCBs. Gender role theory and social identity theory thus represent additional theoretical frameworks helpful in understanding the performance of contextual behaviors. Future research is needed to examine the relationship between identity and OCB performance, on different samples and with different occupations and organizational levels. In addition, research that integrates the ndings of previous research, drawing on multiple theoretical frameworks, will add to our understanding of the phenomena, by providing a more complete or thick theory (Folger & Turillo, 1999). Notes 1. Because the sample reected a slightly larger proportion of female engineers than the average, the equations were weighted to correct for this. 2. These results infer the inuence of gender stereotypes on OCBs. As a test to see if OCBs are consciously viewed in stereotypic terms, 62 business professionals, enrolled in an evening MBA program, were asked to evaluate whether the items used in this analysis were stereotypically masculine or feminine. A 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from strongly feminine to strongly masculine was used. Responses for the altruism items were averaged, as were the civic virtue items. Results from one-sample t-tests showed that OCB-altruism was rated as feminine (t61 = 7.98, p < .001), and OCB-civic virtue was considered masculine (t61 = 3.05, p < .01). Acknowledgments I would like to thank Blake Ashforth, John Mathieu, Judi McLean Parks, Dave Palmer, Gary Powell, Lynda St. Clair, and Linn Van Dyne for their insightful comments and suggestions.

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Deborah L. Kidder is currently an Associate Professor at Towson University, USA. Her Ph.D. is from the Industrial Relations Center at the University of Minnesota. Her current research interests include perceptions of fairness and consequences of (un)fair treatment in the workplace, social exchange and social identities.

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