1.

Metal Casting - Overview

In this chapter, we will briefly review the history of metal casting, followed by major
casting processes, important cast metals and their applications, worldwide production and
types of foundries. We will finally touch upon key steps in developing a new casting and
how computers can help reduce the time involved.

1.1 An Ancient Art

Casting is a 6000-year young process. It has been mentioned in several Sanskrit works
such as Shilpashastra derived from Sthapatyaveda containing the principles of realizing
all kinds of man-made structures, in turn derived from Atharvaveda, one of the four
principal Vedas. The original authors are said to be Viswakarma and Maya, the ‘chief
engineers’ of gods and demons, respectively. The Rigveda mentions equipment used in
casting, such as dhamatri (cupola), gharma aranmaya (crucible) and bhastri (blower).
The major application was in creating the idols used for worship; and very strict rules
were laid down to achieve perfection in terms of talmana (proportions), mudra (stance)
and bhava (expression). In particular, dhyana slokas defined the spiritual quality of each
deity and the lakshanas described the form. Other products included lamps, doors,
frames, cooking and agricultural implements.

Earliest castings include the 11 cm high bronze dancing girl found at Mohen-jo-daro
(dated about 3000 BC). The remains of the Harappan civilization contain kilns for
smelting copper ingots, casting tools, stone moulds, cast ornaments, figurines and other
items of copper, gold, silver and lead. Iron has been mentioned in Vedas as ayas, and iron
pillars, arrows, hooks, nails, bowls and daggers dated 2000 BC or earlier have been found
in Delhi, Roopar, Nashik and other places. Large scale state-owned mints and jewelry
units, and processes of metal extraction and alloying have been mentioned in Kautilya’s
Arthashastra (about 500 BC). Later Sanskrit texts talk about assessing and achieving
metal purity. The Ras Ratnakar written by Nagarjuna in 50 BC mentions the distillation
of Zinc, proved through recent excavations in Zawar, Rajasthan.

The Iron Pillar of Delhi, standing 23 feet, weighing 6 tonnes and containing 99.72% iron
without any signs of rust, is a remarkable example of metallurgical science in 5th century
AD. The first cast crucible steel was also produced around this period. The Nataraja and
Vishnu statues of Chola dynasty (9th century) stand testimony to the fine practice of
intricate castings in mediaeval India. Most of these were made in pancha dhatu (copper,
zinc, tin, gold and silver) using the madhuchista vidhana (lost wax) process.

Outside India, the oldest casting in existence is a copper frog dated 3200 BC discovered
in Mesopotamia. One of the first cast iron objects, a 270 kg tripod, was cast by Chinese in
600 BC. A colossal statue of the Great Buddha in tin lead bronze was completed in 1252
AD at Kamakura in Japan. The casting technology was transferred from India and Middle

© 2004 Prof. B. Ravi, IIT Bombay

East to Europe through Portugese explorers in 14th century, where it blossomed as a fine
art. Vannocio Biringuccio, head of Papal Foundry in Rome (around 1500 AD) is
considered as the father of foundry industry in the West. He has been quoted as saying:
“The art of casting… is closely related to sculpture, … it is highly esteemed… it is a
profitable and skillful art and in large part delightful.” Indeed, the bronze sculptures
represent the craftsman’s artistry as well as the capability of the casting process.

The ancient art is preserved to this date in places such as Swamimalai in Tamil Nadu,
where over 200 units are engaged in bronze art casting. The process starts with
sculpturing the wax models by sthapathies (artisans), claimed to hail from the clan of
Viswakarma. A mixture of bees wax, vriksa rasa (natural resin from trees) and a little
cooking oil is heated and poured into sheets, to facilitate cutting and adding to the
models. Each model is unique. In some cases, when multiple (ten or more) orders for the
same model are placed, then a cement/plaster mould is made for making a rough shape of
the wax models. The carving of each wax model takes 1-4 weeks depending on the size
and intricacy. The rules laid down in shilpa shastras and agamas are strictly followed for
making the wax models (Fig. 1.1).

Fig. 1.1 Ancient lost wax casting method: wax model sculpting, clay covering,
wire clasped mould for dewaxing, as-cast Ganesha, and finishing

After carving, the wax model is carefully pasted over and covered with natural clay
obtained from river banks, after wetting with water. For hollow castings, cores are used,

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made of sand plus charcoal, sesame oil, cow dung and natural (tree) resin. The clay-
covered models are placed in the sun to dry for 3-4 weeks. After this, the clay moulds are
tied with metal wire (to prevent expansion and breakage during wax removal). For this
purpose, cow dung cakes are used as fuel, and the liquid wax comes out from a hole
created for this purpose. For making decorative castings, an alloy of copper (84%), zinc
(14%) and tin (2%) is used (Chola bronze). If the sculpture is to be used for worship, then
small amounts of gold and silver are also added (making it a pancha dhatu). The metal is
melted in a crucible furnace using wood charcoal and coal as fuel. Hand-operated bellows
are used to blow air into the burning furnace. The mould is preheated to the metal
temperature before pouring. After cooling, the mould is broken to reveal the casting. The
gates and risers are removed, followed by the painstaking job of chiseling, filing,
finishing and polishing. This takes 4-10 weeks depending on the idol size and details. The
large labour component reflects in the final cost, which can be 4-8 times the material
cost. Very large idols (weighing several tones) can also be made by this process, though
melting and pouring can be a problem because of small crucible size.

1.2 Major Casting Processes

Today, there are a large number of industrial casting processes (see Fig. 1.2). These can
be classified based on the mould material, method of producing the mould and the
pressure on molten metal during filling (gravity, centrifugal force, vacuum, low pressure,
high pressure). Permanent or metal moulds are used in gravity and pressure die casting
processes, suitable for producing a large number of components. In expendable mould
processes (sand, shell and investment), a new mould is required for every casting or a
bunch of castings with a common gating and feeding system produced in the same
mould. Expendable moulds can be made using either permanent pattern or expendable
pattern. Permanent pattern can be made from wood, metal or plastic. In expendable
pattern processes (also called investment processes), each pattern produces only one
casting. Such patterns are made of wax, expandable polystyrene (EPS) or other polymer
materials. The four most popular processes are briefly described below, followed by a
comparison of their capabilities (Table 1.3). The first two employ dispensable moulds,
whereas the last two employ permanent moulds.

Sand Casting: In this process, sand mixed with binders and water is compacted around
wood or metal pattern halves to produce a mould. The mould is removed from the
pattern, assembled with cores, if necessary, and metal is poured into the resultant cavities.
After cooling, moulds are broken to remove the castings. This process is suitable for a
wide range of metals (both ferrous and non-ferrous), sizes and shape complexity.

Investment Casting: Wax is injected into a metal mould to make patterns, which are
connected to a common sprue to form a tree. The tree is repeatedly dipped in ceramic
slurry and dried, followed by heating to remove the wax. The ceramic shell is preheated,
filled with molten metal and broken after cooling to get the castings. This is suitable for
castings in any metal with small and intricate shape and thin walls.

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 CASTING PROCESSES

EXPENDABLE MOLD PERMANENT MOLD SPECIAL PROCESSES

LOW PRESSURE GRAVITY CENTRIFUGAL VACUUM

PRESSURE DIE DIE

HOT COLD TRUE SEMI

CHAMBER CHAMBER CENTRIFUGAL CENTRIFUGAL

CENTRIFUGING

PERMANENT EXPENDABLE SLUSH SQUEEZE CHILLED

CORE CORE CASTING CASTING CASTING

CONTINUOUS

PERMANENT PATTERN EXPENDABLE PATTERN

WATER & RESIN PLASTER SILICATE NO INVESTMENT FULL MOLD

CLAY BOND BOND BOND BOND BOND (WAX) (LOST FOAM)
CASTING CASTING

SHELL HOT COLD VACUUM

MOLDING BOX BOX "V” PROCESS

CO2 CERAMIC SHAW

PROCESS MOLDING PROCESS

GREEN SKIN DRY DRY CORE FLOOR LOAM HIGH

SAND SAND SAND SAND AND PIT MOLDING PRESSURE
MOLDING MOLDING MOLDING MOLDING MOLDING MOLDING

Fig.1.2 Hierarchical classification of various casting processes.

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Gravity Die Casting (also called permanent mould process): Molten metal is poured
under gravity into a cast iron mould coated with a ceramic mould wash. Cores can be
made of metal or sand. After solidification, the mould is parted and casting is removed.
This process is mainly suitable for non-ferrous metal castings having medium size,
complexity and thickness.

Pressure Die Casting: Molten metal is injected under pressure into a hardened steel die,
often water-cooled. Metal cores are used to produce cavities and undercuts. After
solidification, one half of the die is moved and the casting is pushed out by ejector pins.
This process is suitable for non-ferrous castings of small to medium size, varying
complexity and thin walls.

Table 1.3: Capabilities of major casting processes

Attribute \ Process Sand Investment Gravity Die Pressure Die

Maximum size several tons up to 20 kg up to 50 kg up to 8 kg
Dimensional tolerance > 0.6 mm > 0.1 mm > 0.4 mm > 0.05 mm
Surface finish > 200 RMS > 60 RMS > 150 RMS > 30 RMS
Minimum thickness > 6 mm > 1.5 mm > 4.5 mm > 0.8 mm
Economic quantity any number > 100 > 500 > 2500
Sample lead time 2-10 weeks 8-10 weeks 8-20 weeks 12-24 weeks

Other important processes include: centrifugal casting, in which molten metal is poured
into a rotating mould and centrifugal force pushes the metal against the mould; lost foam
or EPS or full mould process, in which sand is packed around an expendable
polystyrene pattern and the molten metal burns out the pattern as it fills the mould;
vacuum casting, in which molten metal is forced into the mould under vacuum; and
squeeze casting, in which semi-solid metal is forced under pressure into the mould,
useful for composites.

The major casting processes are described in detail next.

1.3 Sand Casting

Sand casting is the most widely used process for both ferrous and non-ferrous metals.
Depending on the moulding method, it may be classified as green sand, dry sand or shell
mould process. A typical green sand foundry involves three groups of activities (Fig.
1.5). Pre-casting includes sand preparation, core making, moulding and mould assembly.
The casting stage involves furnace charging, melting, holding, melt treatment (such as
inoculation) and pouring into moulds, which are then left to cool. Post-casting involves
shakeout, cleaning, fettling, shot-blasting and inspection. Further operations may include
heat treatment and machining. The major steps are briefly described here.

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 PATTERN-MAKING

MELTING

CORE MAKING

POURING MOLDING

Fig.1.3 Key activities in sand casting (courtesy: Kirloskar Ferrous India Ltd.)

Sand Preparation: Moulding sand should have good flowability (for better reproduction
of pattern details), adequate green strength (to prevent its collapse during moulding), dry
strength (to prevent its collapse during mould filling), sufficient refractoriness (to
withstand molten metal temperature), enough permeability (to allow entrapped air and
gases generated inside the mould to escape) and collapsibility (for ease of shakeout).
These are achieved by a suitable composition of sand, binders, additives and moisture.
Silica sand is the most widely available and economical. Special sands include zircon

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sand (lower thermal expansion, higher refractoriness and higher thermal conductivity, but
more expensive), olivine sand (with properties in between silica and zircon sand) and
chromite/magnesite sand (high thermal conductivity). The most widely used binder is
bentonite clay (sodium or calcium bentonite), which imparts strength and plasticity to
silica sand with the addition of water. Additives include coal dust (to improve surface
finish by gas evolution at metal-mould interface), iron oxide (for high temperature
resistance), dextrin (for improved toughness and collapsibility) and molasses (for high
strength and collapsibility). Modern sand plants automatically carry out mulling, mixing,
aeration and testing of the sand. They also reclaim used sand through magnetic separation
(to remove metal particles), crushing of lumps and finally removal of excess fines and
bond (usually by washing in hot water or by mechanical impact).

Core Making: Cores are surrounded by molten metal, and have higher requirement
compared to mould sand in terms of strength (to support their own weight and the
buoyancy force of metal), permeability and collapsibility (especially for curved holes,
otherwise they will be difficult to clean out). The most widely used binder for core sands
is vegetable oil (linseed and corn oil, sometimes mixed with mineral oils), which is
economical, but requires heating in an oven to about 240 C for 2-3 hours to develop
sufficient strength. Another widely used process uses sodium silicate binder mixed in dry
sand free of clay; the sand mixture hardens immediately when CO2 gas is passed through
it. The process is highly productive. The core develops high compressive strength but has
poor collapsibility. Other processes are based on organic binders; mainly thermosetting
resins such as phenol, urea and furan. This includes hot box and cold box processes. The
core sand mixed with binder is filled into a core box either manually or using a sand
slinger. For higher productivity core blowing machines are used, in which core boxes are
mounted in the machine and sand is forced and pressed into the core box under a stream
of high velocity air. This is followed by appropriate heating of the core box to impart the
desired properties to the core.

Moulding: This involves packing the moulding sand uniformly around a pattern placed
in a moulding box (or flask). Most foundries are equipped with jolt-squeeze machines
operated by compressed air. The combination of jolting and squeezing action gives good
compaction of sand near the pattern (by jolting the sand into crevices) as well as the top
where the squeeze plate comes in contact with the mould. Many modern foundries have
high pressure moulding equipment, which use air impulse or gas injection to impact the
sand on the pattern. These machines produce relatively less noise and dust compared to
jolt and squeeze machines and have much higher productivity (several moulds per
minute). A special type of high pressure moulding machine is the flaskless moulding
machine pioneered by Disamatic, in which the parting plane is vertical and the mould
cavity is formed between consecutive blocks of mould.

Melting: Most widely used melting equipment include cupula, oil/gas fired furnaces
(including crucible and rotary furnaces), direct arc furnace and induction furnace. The
cupola is the simplest and the most economical, and most suited for grey iron. Layers of
pig iron, coke and flux (limestone) are charged into the cupola; air for combustion is
blown through several openings (tuyeres). Use of hot air blast and double row tuyeres

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improves cupola efficiency. Oil or gas fired crucible furnaces are suitable for melting
small quantities of metal, usually non-ferrous. The crucible is usually made of graphite
and clay. Rotary furnaces are made of steel shells lined with refractory, turning at a rate
of 1-2 rpm. The charge is placed through a door in the middle; one end of the furnace is
heated (by firing oil or gas) and the melt is taken out through the other end. Electric
furnaces include direct arc and induction furnaces, which are more widely preferred by
newer foundries owing to ease of control over temperature and composition, and high
melting rate. In arc furnace, the heat is generated between the electrodes and transferred
to the metal. In induction furnace, the heat is generated in the metal itself by eddy
currents. Induction furnaces can be classified depending on the location of the induction
coil (cored and coreless), and frequency of current (high or medium).

1.4 Investment Casting

Derived from the ancient lost wax process, and adapted by dental and jewelry
manufacturers in the West, the modern investment casting process was rediscovered
during World War II. It can produce near net shape parts (requiring only finish
machining) in any metal in low to medium order quantities. It is especially suitable for
small intricate parts of expensive or difficult-to-machine alloys. The expendable patterns
are produced by injecting wax in a die made of aluminium or steel. Die design and
manufacture determines the complexity and accuracy of the pattern and casting, and the
die cost affects the economic order quantity. With the advent of Rapid Prototyping or
Free Form Fabrication technologies, investment casting has gained further attention,
since expendable RP patterns can be used to produce a single casting within days starting
from the digital definition.

Fig. 1.4 Industrial investment casting process (courtesy: Uni Deritend Ltd.)

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The three major steps in the process: wax pattern injection and assembly, ceramic shell
construction, and finally dewaxing and pouring are briefly described here.

Wax pattern injection and assembly: The pattern material is usually petroleum-based
paraffin wax with some blends (like polymers and resins), mainly for higher dimensional
stability and strength. It is recyclable (can be used for feeders and gating system) and
environment-friendly. It is injected into the die at around 50 C under a pressure of 5-25
kg/cm2 depending on part size and section thickness. Simple dies contain a single cavity
and are manually operated, economical for small order quantities. For large order
quantities and intricate parts, fully automated multi-cavity dies are developed. The dies
require a parting surface (leading to flash), draft or taper for easy removal of the wax
pattern (though minimal) and sometimes cores (for holes and undercuts). But it is
possible to make a wax pattern in pieces and join them together, thus providing additional
freedom to produce complex castings to the desired appearance. The die cavity is made
slightly larger to compensate for volumetric shrinkage of the wax pattern during injection
and also of the molten metal during casting solidification. The wax patterns are removed
from the die, hand finished to remove flash and welded using a simple gas flame torch
around a sprue to form a cluster or tree. The sprue is designed to lead molten metal into
the individual cavities as well as provide liquid metal for compensating volumetric
shrinkage during solidification.

Ceramic shell construction: The wax pattern tree is dipped into an agitated slurry of fine
refractory material (typically zircon sand) and binder in a rotating drum, immediately
followed by stuccoing or showering with dry sand (see Figure 2). It is important to get
the slurry coating on the entire surface, including the inside surface of holes. The shell is
left to dry for a few hours in an air-conditioned room. The process is repeated 8-15 times
to finally produce a ceramic shell 6-10 mm thick depending on the part size and wall
thickness. Initial layers are built with fine sand to obtain good surface finish, whereas
subsequent layers are built with coarse sand to obtain high permeability. The control of
time, temperature and moisture during drying is critical for obtaining a shell of sufficient
strength in the shortest possible time.

Dewaxing and pouring: The wax is removed from the shell by heating it to about 120 C
in a pressurized steam autoclave to prevent shell cracking, followed by heating to over
1000 C to vaporize any residual wax, impart strength to the shell and make it ready for
receiving the metal. The metal is melted (usually in an induction furnace) and poured into
the red-hot shell (usually heated to the same temperature as the molten metal). After the
metal has cooled sufficiently, the ceramic shell is removed by mechanical vibration and
chemical cleaning, leaving a metal cluster identical to the wax pattern assembly. The
parts are then separated from the cluster, the gates are eliminated and castings are
prepared for secondary operations such as heat-treating, machining or applied finishes as
needed.

The process requires a combination of manual skill, technical expertise and shop-floor
discipline. Several technological improvements have been made in the last few years,
such as wax additives to improve its fluidity and strength, the use of fibre materials to

9
improve the strength of ceramic shells, new core materials (including water solvable),
vacuum assisted counter gravity casting (CLA) to improve mould filling, and controlled
solidification to achieve the desired structure such as long columnar grains.

1.5 Die Casting

The three major die casting processes are named based on the mould filling pressure as:
gravity die casting (GDC), low pressure die casting (LPDC) and high pressure die casting
(HPDC). Dies for GDC are usually made of cast iron and are simpler in construction. The
dies for HPDC are made of hardened tool steel to withstand the high pressures involved
and have many more elements. The die casting processes are obviously not suitable for
ferrous metals owing to their high melting temperature.

1.6 Casting Applications

Castings can range in size: from a few grams (for example, watch case) to several tones
(marine diesel engines), shape complexity: from simple (manhole cover) to intricate (6-
cylinder engine block) and order size: one-off (paper mill crusher) to mass production
(automobile pistons). The desired dimensional accuracy and surface finish can be
achieved by the choice of process and its control. Castings enable many pieces to be
combined into a single part, eliminating assembly and inventory and reducing costs by
50% or more compared to machined parts. Unlike plastics, castings can be completely
recycled. Today, castings are used in virtually all walks of life. Major areas of
applications are given below (see Fig. 1.3). The transport sector and heavy equipment
(for construction, farming and mining) take up over 50% of castings produced.

Transport: automobile, aerospace, railways and shipping

Heavy equipment: construction, farming and mining
Machine tools: machining, casting, plastics moulding, forging, extrusion and forming
Plant machinery: chemical, petroleum, paper, sugar, textile, steel and thermal plants
Defense: vehicles, artillery, munitions, storage and supporting equipment
Electrical machines: motors, generators, pumps and compressors
Municipal castings: pipes, joints, valves and fittings
Household: appliances, kitchen and gardening equipment, furniture and fittings
Art objects: sculptures, idols, furniture, lamp stands and decorative items

Virtually any metal or alloy that can be melted can be cast. The most common ferrous
metals include grey iron, ductile iron, malleable iron and steel. Alloys of iron and steel
are used for high performance applications, such as temperature, wear and corrosion
resistance. The most common non-ferrous metals include aluminum, copper, zinc and
magnesium based alloys. The production and application of ductile iron and aluminum
castings are steadily increasing. Aluminum has overtaken steel in terms of production by
weight. The consumption of magnesium alloys is rapidly increasing in automobile and
other sectors, owing its high strength to weight ratio. Another important and emerging
metal titanium is stronger than steel, but has found limited applications owing to the

10
difficulty in casting and machining. Table 1.2 lists the major metals in use today (by
weight) along with their main characteristics and typical applications.

Table 1.2: Major cast metals

METAL USE CHARACTERISTICS APPLICATIONS

Grey Iron 54% Heat resistance, damping, Automobile cylinder block,
low cost, high fluidity, clutch plate, brake drum,
low shrinkage. machine tool beds, housings
Ductile Iron 20% Strength, wear and shock Crank shafts, cam shafts,
resistance, dimensional differential housing, valves,
stability, machinability. brackets, rollers.
Aluminum 12% Strength to weight ratio, Automobile pistons, oil and fuel
corrosion resistance. pumps, connecting rod, clutch
housings.
Steel 9% Strength, machinability, Machine parts, gears, valves
weldability
Copper base 2% High ductility, corrosion Marine impellers, valves,
resistance. hydraulic pump parts.
Zinc base 1%

In the following two sections, we will take a closer look at various ferrous and non-
ferrous metals, their characteristics and industrial applications.

1.7 Ferrous Castings

Ferrous castings include those of grey cast irons, ductile (spheroidal graphite) irons and
steels, briefly described here.

Grey cast irons: These are alloys of iron, carbon and silicon, containing more than 2%
carbon (as flake graphite), up to 3% silicon and less than total 1% of alloying elements
(mainly chromium, copper, magnesium, molybdenum, nickel, phosphorous, silicon,
sulphur, titanium and vanadium). Grey cast irons exhibit low to moderate strength, low
ductility and toughness, low modulus of elasticity, low notch sensitivity, high resistance
to wear and seizure, excellent vibration damping capacity, excellent machinability, high
thermal conductivity, moderate resistance to thermal shock and most important, excellent
fluidity. These properties mainly depend on the distribution, size and amount of graphite
flakes and the matrix structure. These factors are in turn influenced by manufacturing
conditions, chemical composition, solidification time and cooling rate.

The grey irons are graded on the basis of their minimum tensile strength in MPa of a test
piece machined from a 30 mm diameter test bar cast separately. Major grades include
FG150, FG200, FG220, FG260, FG300, FG350 and FG400, with the corresponding
tensile strength increasing from 150 Mpa to 400 MPa. The Brinell hardness also increases
from 150 HB for FG150 to 250 HB for FG400. The corresponding density is in the range

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7050-7300 kg/m3 and specific heat is 490-605 J/(kg K) at 700 C. Thermal conductivity
decreases from 49.5 W/(m K) for FG150 to 40 W/(m K) for FG400 at 500 C. Coefficient
of thermal expansion is about 12.5 µm/(m K). The modulus of elasticity and wear
resistance increase with tensile strength, while machinability, resistance to thermal shock,
damping capacity and metal fluidity decrease with increasing tensile strength.

Typical applications of various grades of grey cast iron are as follows. FG150: Exhaust
manifolds, grates, housings, machine bases, manhole covers and traffic signals. FG200
and FG220: Air-cooled cylinders, clutch housings, clutch plates, compressor frames,
cylinder heads, flywheels, gearboxes, impellers, oil pumps, pipes and fittings, light duty
brake drums, pistons, rams and transmission casings. FG260: Anvils, diesel cylinder
blocks, medium duty brake drums, face plates, heavy-duty flywheels, heavy machine
beds, steams pressure castings, valves and wheels. FG300: Heavy-duty brake drums and
clutches, differential carrier castings, heavy gearboxes, tractor transmission cases, truck
and tractor cylinder blocks and compressors. FG350: Camshafts, compressors, cylinder
liners, heavy machine beds, light crankshafts, pumps and rams. FG400: Connecting rods,
camshafts, crusher frames, high-pressure well pumps, hydraulic cylinders, pressure
castings in chemical industries and sluice gate valves.

High alloy cast irons are used for special purpose applications requiring resistance to
abrasion, corrosion and heat.

Ductile or spheroidal graphite irons: These irons have higher mechanical properties
than a comparable grey cast iron with the same composition, because the carbon is in the
shape of spheroidal graphite. This is achieved by inoculating low-sulphur molten iron
having low silicon content with magnesium or cerium or both, followed by addition of
silicon. Subsequent cooling can produce a variety of matrix structures with ferrite and
pearlite being the most common. Compared to grey cast iron, spheroidal graphite irons
have higher ductility, tensile strength, modulus of elasticity and resistance to elevated
temperature oxidation. Machinability and corrosion resistance are comparable to grey
cast iron, though damping capacity is lower. Fluidity is lower than grey cast iron but
better than steel.

Spheroidal graphite irons are designated based on the specified minimum tensile strength
in MPa and the minimum elongation (in percentage) after fracture of a test piece. This
includes SG350/22, SG400/18, SG400/15, SG450/10, SG500/7, SG600/3, SG700/2,
SG800/2 and SG900/2. The corresponding tensile strength varies from 350 MPa to 900
MPa, while the Brinell hardness varies from 150 to 320. Density and specific heat of the
various grades remain nearly constant at about 7100 kg/m3 and 600 J/(KgK) (between 20
and 700 C) respectively. Coefficient of thermal expansion between 20 and 400 C also
remains constant at 12.5µm/(m K). Thermal conductivity of the various grades falls from
around 36 W/(m K) for SG350/22 to around 33 W/(m K) for SG900/2.

The SG irons are widely used in automobile and farming industry: axle housings, brake
calipers, brake cylinders, camshafts, connecting rods, crankshafts, gears, pistons and
yokes. They are also used to make bulldozer parts, conveyor frames, couplers, crawler

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sprockets, elevator buckets, railway wheels and hoist drums. Other general engineering
applications include boiler segments, coal crushers, hammers, die blocks, frames and jigs,
nuclear fuel containers, tank covers, tunnels segments and turret heads.

Cast steels: Steels have less than 2% carbon, and some alloying elements such as
manganese, silicon, lead, copper and chromium. The properties are controlled by carbon
content and heat treatment procedures. In general, the strength and hardness increase with
the carbon content, but at the expense of ductility and toughness. Steels with more than
1.6% manganese, 0.6% silicon and 0.6% copper are usually designated as alloy steels.
Depending on the total amount of alloying elements, alloy steels are classified as low-
alloy (less than 5% alloying elements), medium-alloy (5-10%) and high alloy (over 10%)
steels. These possess higher strength, toughness, abrasion resistance and corrosion
resistance.

There are also four types of special purpose cast steels. Abrasion resistant cast steels are
usually austenitic manganese steels. Cast steel for low temperature service (ex. containers
for liquefied gases) are generally ferrite hardenable steels and austentic non-hardenable
steels. Corrosion resistant cast steels are iron chromium and iron-chromium-nickel alloys
used for pumps, valves and piping for corrosive chemicals. Cast steel for high
temperature service (ex. gas turbine components) includes high-alloy ferrite and austentic
steels.

Steels exhibit varying values of tensile strength depending on the alloying elements and
heat treating techniques. It ranges from 500 MPa for general purpose steels to 1250 Mpa
for high tensile strength steels. Typical physical properties are: density around 7200
kg/m3, specific heat 0.8 J/(kg K), thermal conductivity 23.2 W/(m K) and coefficient of
thermal expansion around 11 µm/(m K).

1.8 Non-Ferrous Castings

This includes alloys of aluminium, copper, magnesium, zinc and other metals. Most of
them have lower mechanical properties (compared to ferrous metals) including strength,
modulus of elasticity and stiffness, but exhibit superior properties in terms of light
weight, resistance to corrosion, electrical and thermal conductivity. Major non-ferrous
metals and their alloys are briefly described here.

Aluminium: It is a soft silvery white metal with about one third of density of ferrous
metals and low tensile strength of around 50 MPa in its pure form. It is an excellent
conductor of heat and electricity and has corrosion resistance in most environments
including seawater, oils and many chemicals. It is non-toxic, non-ferromagnetic and it
also has non-sparking characteristics. To improve its strength, hardness and fluidity,
silicon, copper, magnesium and zinc are added. Aluminium-copper alloys have medium
strength and fair fluidity. Addition of nickel and magnesium further increases their
maximum strength and hardness. Aluminium-silicon alloys show excellent fluidity and
good pressure tightness, but are difficult to machine in comparison to aluminium-copper
alloys. Aluminium-magnesium alloys have high strength, good corrosion resistance and

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good machinability, relatively poor castability. This can be improved by adding a small
amount of silicon. Aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloys have high strength, good
machinability, good corrosion resistance and good finishing characteristics, but lower
castability and not suited for use at elevated temperatures. Addition of copper and small
amounts of chromium and manganese to aluminium-zinc-magnesium alloys helps
achieve the highest strength aluminium casting alloys.

The tensile strength of aluminium-silicon alloys ranges between 140-270 MPa.

Aluminium-copper and aluminium-magnesium alloys have a slightly higher range of
tensile strength up to 300 Mpa. The density of all aluminium alloys ranges between 2550
to 2950 kg/m3. There is very little variation in the coefficient of thermal expansion, which
is around 22µm/(m K). Thermal conductivity however varies: aluminium-silicon alloys
have higher values typically 125W/(m K) than aluminium-magnesium alloys, which have
an average value of 100W/(m K).

Aluminium-silicon alloys are widely used for air-compressors, automobile transmission

components, aircraft pump parts, automotive and compressor pistons, escalator steps,
thin-walled and intricate instrument casing and aircraft supercharger covers. Aluminium-
copper alloys are used in the production of air-cooled cylinder heads, artificial limbs,
aircraft pistons, castings for hydraulic equipment and valve tappet guides. Aluminium-
magnesium alloys are used for producing castings for marine, food processing and
decorative applications. They are also used for rail-road and passenger car frames and
other parts requiring strength and shock resistance.

Copper: Copper has been in use for more than 6000 years and continues to be an
important metal. Its applications are driven by high electrical and thermal conductivity,
moderate strength coupled with ductility and high corrosion resistance. Its tensile strength
can be increased from 200 MPa to 450 MPa by cold working. It is however, heavier than
iron and has a strength/weight ratio lower than aluminium alloys. It cannot be used at
elevated temperatures.

Major alloys of copper include brasses and bronzes. Brasses are copper-zinc alloys with
or without small amounts of other elements like lead, aluminium, iron manganese, nickel
and tin. Brasses have moderate to high strength, good casting characteristics, good
corrosion resistance and attractive colour. Addition of lead (LCB alloys) improves
machinability. Addition of tin improves corrosion resistance. Aluminium is added to
achieve increased fluidity and smooth surface finish. High tensile brasses (HTB) have a
higher percentage of aluminium, iron, tin and nickel. Silicon brasses are copper-zinc-
silicon alloys having good bearing characteristics, higher corrosion resistance and good
casting characteristics. Leaded tin bronzes (LTB) are copper-tin-lead alloys used for
bearing applications where both wear resistance and good anti friction characteristics are
desired. Phosphor bronzes are copper-tin-phosphorus alloys characterized by high
hardness, good wear resistance, good toughness, good bearing properties and good
corrosion resistance. Aluminium bronzes (AB) are copper-aluminium alloys containing
iron, often with nickel and manganese. They have good ductility, good resistance to
cavitation erosion and wear, excellent resistance to corrosion and oxidation, good bearing

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properties and good casting and welding characteristics. They are also useful at elevated
temperatures. Gunmetals are characterized by good casting characteristics, moderate
strength, good corrosion resistance and low coefficient of friction.

Mechanical properties of copper alloy castings vary widely depending on composition.

High tensile brass (HTB2) has the highest tensile strength of 740 MPa followed by
aluminium bronze (AB2) at 640 MPa. On the other hand, leaded tin bronzes have the
lowest tensile strengths around 200 MPa, though they have the highest density (9000
kg/m3). On a descending scale, the density of bronzes is around 8800 kg/m3 followed by
brasses (8500 kg/m3) and finally aluminium bronzes (7600 kg/m3). The coefficient of
thermal expansion of pure copper is very high 372 W/(m K), but brasses and bronzes
have a much lower value around 20 µm/(m K). The thermal conductivity also changes
with the extent and type of alloying: leaded brass is 81 W/(m K), lead bronzes is 47-71
W/(m K), aluminium bronzes is around 50 W/(m K) and silicon brass is 28 W/(m K).
Casting temperatures range from 980 C for high tensile strength brass (HTB) to 1250 C
for aluminium bronze.

High conductivity copper is used for making electrode clamps for arc furnaces, cooling
rings for blast furnaces and lance nozzles. Leaded brass finds its use in making
ornamental castings, plumbing fittings and fixtures and switchgear brush holders. High
tensile brass is used for gun mountings, rolling mill castings, hydraulic equipment,
locomotive axle bones, marine propeller and cones, pump casing and rudder and rudder
posts. Silicon brass and tin bronze are used for bearings, bushings, gears, rocker arms,
nuts, valves brackets and brush holders. Lead tin bronze is used to produce engine
components, low pressure valves, plumbing hardware and applications requiring
corrosion resistance. Phosphor bronze is used in connecting rod small-end bushings,
locomotive slide valves, bushings for heavy duty loads, gears, pump parts used in marine
work, and worm wheels that are required to be shock resistant. Aluminium bronze is used
to manufacture acid resistant pumps, bearings, bushings, non sparking hardware, valve
seats, propeller blades and hubs for fresh and saline water service, structural applications
and marine fittings.

Zinc: Pure zinc is a bluish white metal, brittle at room temperatures and soft and ductile
at temperatures over 100 C. It has very good corrosion resistance properties and used in
the galvanizing of iron and steel. Because of its low melting point, good fluidity,
dimensional stability and no adverse effect on die steel, zinc is widely used in die casting.
Zinc-aluminium-copper alloys (like AC41A or ZnAl4Cu1) have moderate strength, high
resistance to surface corrosion, good impact resistance and damping characteristics.
Addition of aluminium (ZA8, ZA12, ZA27 with 8, 12 and 27% aluminium respectively)
improves strength, hardness, bearing and damping properties.

Tensile strength of zinc alloys ranges between 285 MPa for ZA4 alloy to about 425 MPa
for ZA27 alloy. The corresponding hardness varies from 83 HB to 120 HB. The specific
heat is about 460 J/(kg K), thermal conductivity is 117 W/(m K) and coefficient of
thermal expansion is 27µm/(m K). The density varies from 6700 kg/m3 to 5800 kg/m3 for
zinc-aluminium alloys. Casting temperatures are around 400 C.

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Typical applications of zinc alloys include bathroom fittings, bodies for fuel pumps, body
mouldings, car door handles, car radiator grills, hydraulic machinery parts, control
panels, speedometer frames, toys and windshield wiper parts. Zinc-aluminium alloys are
used for bearings and bushings for high load low speed applications, electrical conduit
fittings, transformer parts, liquid and gas valve housings, marine and mine hardware and
pressure resistant components. Forming die alloys are used in the construction of limited
life dies and punches for forming sheet metal parts.

1.9 Production and Foundries

Over 75 million metric tons of cast components worth more than $150 billion are
produced annually by over 35,000 foundries worldwide. About 15 million tones of
castings are recycled every year.

Table 1.1: Top ten producers of castings

COUNTRY PRODUCTION (million tons) NUMBER OF FOUNDRIES

2002 1994 2002 1994
CHINA 16.26 12.36 12000 13934
USA 11.81 11.71 2700 3100
JAPAN 6.75 6.68 1724 1428
RUSSIA 6.20 1900
GERMANY 4.59 3.48 673 889
INDIA 3.27 1.58 4700 6000
FRANCE 3.02 2.03 525 507
ITALY 2.44 2.27 1159 594
MEXICO 2.03 1787
BRAZIL 1.97 1.49 1000 934

According to the worldwide census of casting production, the top nations include China,
USA, Japan, Russia, Germany, India, France, Italy, Mexico and Brazil (Table 1.1). Other
countries with annual production over one million tons include Korea, Spain and Taiwan,
closely followed by Turkey and Canada. A large number of foundries are also operating
in Ukraine and Poland. Great Britain witnessed falling production of castings over the
last decade. The top ten producers together account for over 80% of the total production
of castings as well as the number of foundries worldwide. Over the last ten years, the
number of foundries in most countries has reduced, while the production has increased.

The average productivity of foundries worldwide is about 2000 tonnes per year. German
foundries have the highest productivity, with an average 6800 tonnes per year.

Most foundries are of jobbing type, handling orders from different customers. They are
geared for quick development of new castings and fairly large variations in order
quantities. On the other hand, the castings produced in captive foundries are mainly
consumed by the parent organization. The defining line is thinning as many jobbing
foundries are now specializing in fewer products (say only cam shafts) and captive

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foundries are beginning to cater to organizations other than the parent, for better capacity
utilization and to maintain a better competitive edge. Both types of foundries are moving
towards increased levels of automation.

Foundries are also classified depending on capacity, as large, medium and small. The
capacity may refer to either melting capacity (which depends on the furnaces installed
and working) or actual production of good castings (which depends on order booking,
overall yield and rejections). Large ferrous foundries can produce over 10,000 tons of
castings per year, and are usually equipped with automated sand plants, moulding,
melting, pouring and fettling equipment. On the other hand, small foundries may have
capacities of 1000 tons or less per year with most of the operations being carried out
manually.

Over the last decade, there has been a steady increase in requirements of casting buyers
(original equipment manufacturers and assemblers) in terms of quality assurance, shorter
lead-time, smaller lot size and competitive pricing. Assemblers are eliminating inspection
of incoming goods and expect the suppliers to be responsible for casting quality. The
increasing use of NC machines for finishing operations requires dimensionally stable
castings with uniform surface hardness to prevent damage to cutting tools. Because of
shrinking product development cycles, foundries are expected to deliver the first sample
in weeks instead of months. The adoption of Just-In-Time philosophy by assemblers to
reduce their inventory costs requires foundries to deliver small lots and more frequently,
while adhering to strict delivery schedules. The casting buyers want the foundries to
continuously reduce their costs every year by adopting better technologies and
methodologies. Foundries also have to contend with increasing pressure from regulatory
bodies in terms of energy conservation, environment protection and operational safety.

Many leading customers, particularly in the automobile sector, are moving toward long-
term strategic partnerships with a few capable foundries instead of short term cost-based
purchasing agreements with a number of foundries as in the past. This means that in order
to survive and grow, foundries have to offer dimensionally stable and sound castings
(preferably with self-certification), ensure reliable on-time small lot delivery and provide
continuous reduction in prices. This is forcing foundries to specialise, in terms of casting
alloys, part geometry (size/weight and complexity) and end application. Casting buyers
and suppliers are also realizing the importance of ensuring compatibility between product
design and process capability, by integrated product and process development through
close collaboration starting from the product design stage.

1.10 New Casting Development

The three major stages in developing a new casting include product design, tooling
development and foundry trials.

Product design: This influences virtually all other decisions and activities in product life
cycle, and eventually the technical and economical value of the product. In particular,
tooling design and manufacturing process can only be optimised within the framework

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established during this stage. It essentially involves specifying three types of
requirements. The first is functional requirements driven by product geometry, including
the overall shape and individual features, specified in terms of their dimensions, relative
location and orientation. The second is property requirements, which include thermo-
physical (density, thermal conductivity, electrical resistance, etc.), mechanical (tensile
strength, impact resistance, wear resistance, etc.) and chemical (corrosion resistance)
properties. The properties are mainly driven by the material composition and structure
(which can be modified by various treatments). The third is production and quality
requirements including order quantity, lead-time, surface finish, dimensional tolerance
and internal soundness. These are driven by parameters related to tooling design and
manufacturing process planning.

The above requirements are evolved and refined through three steps in product design:
conceptual design, detailed design and prototyping. Conceptual design essentially focuses
on basic geometric elements to achieve the functional requirements. Detailed design
involves selecting the material(s) and defining the geometry (features and their
dimensions), including the extent of their geometric variation (manufacturing tolerances).
This is followed by prototype fabrication to test the form, fit and function of the product.
The production and quality requirements are then finalised. Several iterations of
conceptual design, detailed design and prototyping are carried out to achieve the optimal
combination of functional requirements, quality and cost.

Tooling development: It is a critical activity linking product design and manufacturing.

The tooling comprises patterns and core boxes (for sand casting) or dies (for die casting
and investment casting). Tooling design can be further classified as design of main cavity
(or the pattern for producing the cavity), other cavities and accessories. The main cavity,
produced by bringing together two or more segments of moulds, involves selection of the
best orientation of part in the mould and determining the parting line. The mould may
have a single or multiple cavities depending on part size, requirement and other
considerations. Internal cavities in the part, such as holes and undercuts (portions which
hinder removal of pattern from mould or part from die), are produced by cores. This
requires identification of cored features, design of cores (including their supports, called
prints in sand casting) and core boxes for producing the cores. Proper allowances have to
be incorporated in the mould cavity and cores considering part shrinkage, distortion and
subsequent machining. Draft or taper has to be given to facilitate easy removal of the
pattern from sand mould or casting from permanent mould. Other cavities include feeders
or risers (number, location, shape, dimensions) to compensate for volumetric shrinkage
and gating channels (sprue, runner and ingates) to lead molten metal into the mould.
Accessories include cooling, guiding and ejection systems, especially for dies.

The method for manufacturing the tooling depends on its material, complexity, quality
and time/cost considerations. Conventional machining combined with manual finishing is
still widely used, but gradually being replaced by numerically controlled machining
owing to better consistency and higher productivity. In recent years, rapid prototyping or
free form fabrication technology is being used to produce tooling for one-off castings.

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The rapid prototyped model can be duplicated using rapid or ‘soft’ tooling methods
suitable for small order sizes.

Foundry trials: After tooling development, trial castings are produced in the foundry.
This involves preparing the moulds or dies, melting and pouring the metal, and removing
the castings after solidification. The castings are inspected using destructive and non-
destructive methods for external and internal defects, if any. The most common
destructive method is cutting the casting in different places and observing the cross-
section. Non-destructive methods include radiography, ultrasound and eddy current
testing. Based on the results, the tooling (usually gating and feeding) may be modified
and process parameters (usually pouring temperature, time and pressure variation in case
of die casting) may be tuned to improve casting quality to the desired level. Typically, 3-
trials are required for most new castings, each trial taking up a working week. The
sample castings are sent to the customer for approval and then the regular production
commences. However, even after several trials and approval of sample castings, there can
be a high incidence of casting defects during regular production. Internal defects (such as
shrinkage, gas porosity and blow holes) are usually discovered at the machining stage in
the assembler company, often leading to production bottlenecks. If such defects cannot be
eliminated by modifications to process parameters or tooling design, then it becomes
necessary to modify the product design, which is prohibitively expensive at this late
stage.

The average lead-time for the first good sample casting is several weeks, of which tooling
development and proving accounts for nearly 70%. The lead-time can be reduced by
more than half, especially for intricate castings, using computer-aided systems for
product design, tooling development and process optimisation. Using a solid modelling
program, a 3D model of the cast product can be created on a computer, visualised from
various angles and its mass properties can be computed. The model can be subjected to
various loads to predict internal stresses and deformations, and the part geometry can be
optimised for its functional requirements. The tooling models can be generated by
modifying the part model by splitting across a parting line and applying draft and various
allowances. The models of feeders and gating system can be added to create the complete
casting model. Mould filling and casting solidification can then be simulated to predict
internal defects. The process parameters, tooling design and part model can be modified
and verified by simulation to achieve the desired quality without pouring trial castings.

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