International Journal of Market Research Vol.

52 Issue 1

Whose design is it anyway?

Priming designer and shifting preferences
Gorm Gabrielsen, Tore Kristensen and Judith Lynne Zaichkowsky
Copenhagen Business School

A.series.of.studies.is.presented.which.investigates.preference.among.similar.but. different. designs. within. a. product. category .. The. variables. of. price,. brand. name. and. priming. designer. are. shown. to. shift. preferences .. Without. brand. names,. consumers.prefer.a.well-designed.object ..When.supplied.with.information.about. brand.names.and.designer,.they.may.shift.their.preferences.to.designs.they.believe. are.designer.brands,.even.when.the.actual.design.is.not .

Introduction
Research.on.design.in.marketing.is.heavily.represented.by.investigation.of. successful.designs.or.innovative.designs.for.new.product.development.(e .g .. Luo.et al..2008;.Srinivasan.et al..1997) ..Besides.new.product.research,.there. is.a.growing.interest.in.investigating.the.added.value.of.design.elements.to. everyday.product.categories,.to.understand.how.non-functional.attributes. increase.preference.(Chitturi.et al..2008;.Hagtvedt.&.Patrick.2008;.Orth. &.Malkewitz.2008) ..Design.is.said.to.be.a.major.differentiating.attribute. in.the.preference.and.choice.of.consumer.goods.(Zolli.2004) . Consumers. seek. to. buy. uniquely. designed. products. that. represent. significance. and. meaning. in. their. lives,. perhaps. to. indicate. and. reflect. their. own. uniqueness. of. identity. or. to. signal. an. avant-garde. role. in. society .. Distinctive. designs. have. also. made. everyday. goods. indicators. of. social. and. cultural. status .. It. has. been. said. that,. above. all,. good. design. provides.functionality,.and.hence.makes.life.easier.in.practical.day-to-day. living. (Petroski. 1994;. Heskett. 2002) .. Therefore. major. manufacturers. of. everyday.items,.from.cars.to.tea.bags,.are.focusing.on.design.to.generate. appeal. and. obtain. a. competitive. edge. in. the. marketplace. (Business Week On-Line.2006;.Fabricant.2006) .
Received.(in.revised.form):.15.December.2008

2010 The Market Research Society DOI: 10.2501/S1470785310201077

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Many. brands. employ. famous. designers. to. cue. the. specialness. of. the. object.and.reinforce.consumers.choice.through.the.name.of.the.designer,. rather.than.the.actual.design ..For.example,.designer.labelled.brands.can. be. 40-dollar. Martha. Stewart. bed. sheets. in. Target,. trendy. Karl. Lagerfeld. clothes. at. H&M,. or. 40,000-dollar. patchwork. handbags. from. Marc. Jacobs.at.Louis.Vuitton ..Consumers.are.led.to.rely.on.the.name.Martha. Stewart-Target. or. Marc. Jacobs-Louis. Vuitton. as. powerful. and. proven. indicators.of.trustworthy.designer.brand.goods . Sometimes.the.design.forms.the.actual.distinctive.identity.of.goods,.and. the. brand. name. or. designer. name. is. not. obviously. or. visibly. attached. to. the.product,.leaving.designer.items.completely.unlabelled.as.such ..In.these. cases. the. consumer. may. not. know. the. designer. when. purchasing. and. cannot.obviously.show.off.the.designer.brand.name.to.the.uninitiated ..For. example,.the.jewellery.trade.relies.on.unique.materials.and.design,.as.does. the.furniture.category,.where.the.designer.is.rarely.known.by.those.outside. the.industry.(Louie.2006) ..In.these.cases,.the.object.might.not.be.readily. identified.as.a.designer.brand.by.consumers.unfamiliar.with.the.product . Sometimes.distinctively.designed.products.are.knocked.off .by.low-price. look-a-likes.and.it.is.very.difficult.to.tell.the.originals.from.the.knock-offs,. especially. when. the. label. or. brand. name. is. missing. from. the. object .. For. example,. a. real. Arne. Jacobsen. egg. chair. retails. for. over. US$12,000,. but. other. furniture. manufacturers. may. sell. a. look-a-like. for. considerably. less .. Copying. the. distinctive. design. of. consumer. goods. is. a. worldwide. problem.for.original.manufacturers,.representing.estimated.losses.of.over. US$30.billion.a.year.to.original.companies.(McCubbins.2004;.IIPA.2007) .. Consumers.themselves.may.not.know.when.they.are.purchasing.a.knockoff,.especially.when.there.are.no.external.cues.such.as.brand.name.to.rely. on .. They. also. may. not. understand. why. an. object. is. so. expensive. if. they. do.not.know.it.is.an.original.design,.and.may.therefore.actually.seek.out. less. expensive. look-a-likes .. Consumers. may. rely. on. price. or. distribution. channels.to.assess.the.uniqueness.of.their.purchase,.but.they.still.may.not. be.knowledgeable.as.to.or.aware.of.the.designer.aspect.that.correlates.so. highly.with.price . An.important.question.for.marketing.and.retailers.is:.How.do.you.get. consumers.to.value.and.identify.original.designs.over.copy-cat.brands.or. knock-offs?. To. answer. that. question. we. first. need. to. know. (a). which. consumers. can. recognize. a. designer. good?,. (b). Can. such. a. designer. good.decrease.price.sensitivity?,.(c).Can.a.designer.good.override.a.wellknown.brand.name?.and,.finally,.(d).Is.there.a.design-prone.segment?.If. preferences.can.be.shifted.by.providing.consumers.with.information.about.

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the.designer,.purchasers.may.become.less.price.sensitive.and.perhaps.more. likely. to. purchase. original. designer. items .. Therefore. the. purpose. of. this. study. is. to. assess. how. consumer. evaluations. of. an. object. change. when. they.are.given.information.about.brand.names.and.information.about.the. designer .

Selected literature review Design

Bob. Veryzer. has. researched. design. and. aesthetics,. documenting. what. makes.a.consumer.recognize.and.prefer.a.good.design.(Veryzer.1995,.1999;. Veryzer.&.Hutchinson.1998) ..He.finds.consumers.generally.have.a.gestaltlike. aesthetic. response. to. the. design. principles. of. unity. and. proportions .. Furthermore,.consumers.are.not.consciously.aware.of.the.design.principles. or.their.reaction.to.them,.yet.their.preferences.and.choices.of.products.are. definitely.influenced.by.the.design.of.the.objects . Research. in. Psychological Science. explains. consumer. preferences. by. relating. the. design. principles. to. emotions .. Humans. are. found. to. prefer. emotionally. neutral. visual. objects. that. are. curved,. over. those. that. have. primarily. pointed. features. and. sharp. angles. (Bar. &. Neta. 2006) .. The. rationale. for. this. finding. is. that. sharp. transitions. in. a. contour. portray. a. sense.of.threat,.on.either.a.conscious.or.unconscious.level,.and.thus.trigger. a. negative. bias .. Other. research. finds. that. people. tend. to. prefer. highly. prototypical.stimuli.or.objects.over.unusual.exemplars ..This.is.called.the. beauty-in-averageness.effect.(Winkielman.et al ..2006) ..The.reason.given. for.this.finding.is.that.prototypes.are.processed.fluently,.with.greater.speed. and.efficiency.than.atypical.objects ..Because.of.this.fluency.in.processing,. more.positive.emotions.or.reactions.are.elicited ..Therefore.it.can.be.said. that.demand.should.be.higher.for.an.object.with.a.pleasing.design .

Form can override function

Consumers. may. perceive. that. aesthetics. are. associated. with. an. artistic. edge. on. branded. products .. Sometimes. the. form. may. be. so. strong. that. it. overrides.the.functional.benefits.of.the.product ..For.example.the.Juicy.Salif,. created. by. the. brand. Alessi,. is. wildly. successful. (see. Figure. 1) .. The. juice. squeezer.costs.20.times.the.price.of.a.normal.juicer,.yet.it.is.significantly. deficient. for. practical. purposes .. This. distinctive. identity. through. design. has. enormous. commercial. importance. for. the. manufacturer,. for. it. adds.

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value. especially. where. margins. are. low .. As. Heskett. (2002). observes,. the. term. squeezer. should. perhaps. be. more. appropriately. applied. to. profit. leveraging. rather. than. functionality. for. users .. So. the. objective. for. many. product. categories,. particularly. those. where. consumers. have.low.involvement.and.are.price.sensitive,.is. to.make.the.consumer.more.design.sensitive.and. perhaps.lower.price.sensitivity .

Why a designer name may override aesthetics: cultural and social influences as taste
It. has. been. said. that. goods. are. indicators. of. Figure 1 The Juicy Salif social. and. cultural. status. (McCracken. 1988) .. squeezer by Alessi As.disposable.income.increases,.the.potential.for. conspicuous. consumption. increases,. and. so. then. demand. for. distinctive. products. increases .. Because. of. this,. designer. brands. have. proved. to. be. powerful. devices. particularly. in. the. more. expensive. sectors. of. consumer. products . Purchase.of.designer.objects.may.be.a.risky.issue,.especially.for.publicly. consumed. goods. (Loewenstein. et al .. 2001) .. Ones. taste. and. perception. of. quality. may. appear. to. be. wrong. when. styles. change. quickly. or. fads. come. and. go .. For. example,. hundreds. of. dollars. are. spent. each. summer. by. consumers. on. sunglasses .. Last. years. sunglasses. work. well,. but. the. style. of. the. frame. may. be. fashionably. obsolete .. Small-framed. sunglasses. are. turned. in. for. large. sunglasses. for. those. who. want. to. appear. socially. or. culturally. savvy .. Furniture. and. other. similar. products. may. hold. this. same. social. stigmatisation. (Douglas. 1996) .. To. possess. an. object. in. the. belief. that. it. is. of. fine. quality. or. in. good. taste,. only. to. stand. corrected. by. an. expert. (or. someone. competing. in. the. social. game. of. choice). is. a. bad. experience. (Bourdieu. 1984) .. Ridicule. and. shame. may. be. the. result .. Therefore.consumers.may.be.extra.cautious.when.buying.items.associated. with.good.taste.or.designer.status . In. this. context. an. important. issue. is. whether. a. framing. mechanism. is. operational. (Tversky. &. Kahneman. 1981) .. Framing. occurs. when. a. stimulus,. or. cue,. makes. people. perceive. the. object. or. design. differently. than. they. would. without. it .. For. instance,. when. the. product. is. presented. in. the. context. of. designer,. it. might. be. evaluated. differently,. than. if. it. was. presented. in. another. context,. or. simply. stands. alone .. In. addition. to.

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the. contextual. framing,. when. an. evaluation. is. conducted. as. a. step. in. a. sequence.of.many.different.steps.in.a.decision.process,.the.evaluation.step. is. affected. both. by. what. has. preceded. it. and. what. is. expected. to. come. afterwards.(Langley.et al ..1995) ..The.designer.prefix.is.such.a.contextual. framing. in. that,. when. the. term. is. used,. the. expectations. of. what. the. product.is.or.what.it.means.may.change . Additional. information,. such. as. objective. knowledge. about. the. choice,. may. frame. the. selection. and. preferences .. The. knowledge. provided. puts. the.identification,.preferences.and.buying.decision.in.a.particular.context,. which. will. enable. a. competent. person. to. make. the. right. choice .. For. example,. one. may. think. that. all. high-quality. automobiles. have. leather. seats,.and.conclude.that.a.particular.auto.is.of.high.quality.and.desirable. because. of. that. cue .. Therefore. perhaps. when. choices. are. primed. by. the. cue.designer.(which.is.used.as.a.framing.cue.for.evaluation),.people.will. assign.this.knowledge.to.their.evaluation.and.choice . Sometimes. the. design. is. not. that. aesthetically. appealing,. yet. when. coupled. with. a. designer. label. or. famous. brand,. the. product. sells. famously ..Handbags.are.a.good.example.of.this..especially.the.Fugly,.or. Frankenbag,.a.limited.edition.denim.patchwork.bag.from.Louis.Vuitton,. which. sold. for. over. US$40,000. (National Post. 2007) .. Aesthetics. are. subjective,.and.in.many.circumstances.purchasers.of.such.items.are.known. as. fashion. victims,. because. the. design. is. really. not. that. aesthetically. appealing. . it. is. purchased. because. the. individual. relies. on. the. designer. label.as.a.proxy.for.good.taste . However,. it. is. not. known. if. they. are. paying. more. for. the. designuniqueness.or.for.the.desirable.brand.name ..The.brand.name.and.design. are.confounded ..The.two.are.closely.related,.but.the.conscious.brand.may. be. well. known. and. positive,. while. the. other. (the. actual. design). may. be. truly. negative. to. the. unconscious. perception .. Here,. conceptual. fluency. may.be.low.(Reber.et al..2004) ..So.the.consumer.may.be.taking.their.cue. for.aesthetics.from.the.brand.name,.rather.than.from.the.inherent.design .. Therefore. it. may. be. enlightening. to. separate. designer. brand. name. from. the.actual.design .

Brand name
The. amount. of. information. available. to. cite. from. on. the. importance. of. brand.name.to.evaluation.and.choice.seems.infinite.and.overwhelming.(for. a. review. see. Hoeffler. &. Keller. 2003) .. Dawar. and. Parker. (1994). found. brand.name.and.price.were.universal.indicators.for.product.evaluation.and.

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choice.in.the.product.category.of.electronic.equipment ..Brand.name.may. also.override.information.concerning.other.important.product.attributes,. and.may.be.the.only.cue.used.by.consumers.in.choice ..Van.Osselaer.and. Alba.(2000).found.brand.cues.may.be.so.powerful.that.they.may.block.the. learning.of.quality-determining.attribute.cues ..Therefore.once.brand.name. is.included,.the.evaluations.may.change,.so.the.visual.design.elements.or. the.gestalt.of.the.product.may.be.diminished.by.a.strong.brand.name .

Design acumen
People. high. in. design. acumen. make. quicker. sensory. connections. and. exhibit.more.sophisticated.preferences.regarding.the.design.of.things.than. those. with. little. design. acumen. (Csikszentmihalyi. &. Robinson. 1990) .. This.design.acumen.may.be.acquired.in.different.ways ..For.example,.one. may.inherently.perceive.good.design,.or.one.may.have.extensive.training. and. experience. in. design .. Its. a. matter. of. a. persons. ability. to. judge. the. nature.and.quality.of.the.work.through.salient.ratios,.symmetry,.balance,. perceptual. grouping,. the. use. of. strong. metaphorical. cues,. and. contrast .. Consumer.researchers.who.have.looked.at.product.design.and.consumer. responses. are. Bloch. (1995). and. Bloch,. Brunel. and. Arnold. (2003) .. They. find. strong. individual. differences. in. consumers. concern. for. product. appearance.or.design.through.a.scale.to.measure.the.Centrality.of.Visual. Product.Aesthetics.(CVPA) ..Therefore,.there.may.be.individual.differences. in. the. attraction. and. identification. of. design. closely. tied. to. ones. CVPA .. Consumers.who.score.highly.on.inherent.design.acumen.would.rely.on.the. actual.design.of.a.product.to.form.their.preferences,.while.those.scoring. low.on.design.aptitude.might.rely.on.external.cues.such.as.brand.name.or. designer.labels .

Prior experience
Preferences.within.product.categories.develop.over.time.with.purchasing. experience,. changes. in. income,. knowledge. and. maturation .. So. people. with. more. experience. in. purchasing. from. a. product. category. may. in. fact.have.cultivated.certain.tastes.that.apply.to.their.choices.(Johnson.&. Lehmann.1997) ..A.person.may.learn.what.to.look.for.in.a.product.design. and.to.assess.the.important.determinants.of.attractiveness.for.that.product. category .. For. example. in. the. product. category. of. bed. linen,. over. time,. people.may.learn.that.the.thread.count,.ply.and.type.of.cotton.all.combine. to.form.a.different.quality.of.tactile.sensations ..Any.one.of.these.attributes.

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alone.may.not.signal.a.certain.level.of.quality,.but.an.experienced.consumer. might. predict. the. combination. of. attribute. levels. that. will. give. the. best. sensation ..Following.on.from.this,.people.who.have.purchased.repeatedly. from.the.product.category.might.have.different.preferences.than.those.who. have.little.or.no.prior.purchase.experience.from.the.product.category .

Summary
From. the. literature,. several. factors. are. reviewed. that. may. influence. peoples.preference.for.choices.within.a.product.category ..These.may.be:. (1). an. inherent. ability. to. recognise. unified. design;. (2). cues. such. as. the. brand. name. and. price,. which. may. interfere. with. the. evaluation. of. the. design. attribute. and. override. it;. (3). the. framing. of. the. designer. label. or. related.information;.(4).a.persons.individual.design.acumen;.and,.finally,. (5).prior.experience.with.the.product.category ..Each.of.these.factors.will. be. controlled. for. or. measured. in. assessing. consumers. evaluations. and. preferences.among.different.choices.with.similar.designs.within.a.product. category .

Methodology
Three.experimental.conjoint.designs.were.used.to.test.how.people.evaluate. preferences. within. a. product. class. when. selecting. with:. (1). only. visual. design. information;. (2). the. origin. or. brand. information. added;. and. (3). the.information.that.one.of.the.choices.is.a.designer.or.a.special.choice .. Evaluations.first.took.place.without.the.price.information.attached.to.the. choices ..The.evaluations.were.then.repeated.within.each.study,.adding.the. actual.prices.of.each.choice.as.a.conjoint.variable ..In.this.way.the.weight. given.to.price.within.evaluations.could.be.estimated.separately ..Price.was. not.of.interest.per.se,.but.since.price.is.the.barrier.or.facilitator.to.decision. to. purchase. for. many. situations,. it. was. important. to. include. it. in. the. analyses.to.further.frame.the.results.and.see.how.the.evaluation.changes. with.the.price.(Lichtenstein.et al..1988) .

Procedure
Stimuli The.product.category.used.was.rice.paper.lamps,.which.are.a.small.type. of.lamp.dominated.by.inexpensive.products.that.many.people.buy.to.use. in. back. rooms,. storage. rooms. or. childrens. rooms .. In. general. this. is. a.

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mundane.product.category,.but.it.is.possible.for.some.rice.paper.lamps.to. be.of.high-price.design ..Three.different.brands.of.rice.paper.lamps.were. selected ..To.represent.the.designer.choice,.a.lamp.designed.by.the.famous. Japanese-American. sculptor,. Isamu. Noguchi,. was. chosen .. This. designer. is.well.represented.in.major.art.galleries.all.over.the.world.and.there.is.a. foundation.in.his.name.in.New.York ..Therefore.he.has.some.credibility.as. a.famous.designer.that.may.not.be.common.knowledge.among.consumers. (Micucci.2003) . To. represent. a. knock-off. (or. copy-cat). lamp,. a. no-name. brand. bought. at.a.local.Chinese.import.assortment.shop,.which.copied.a.similar.shape. and. style. of. the. designer. Noguchi. lamp,. was. chosen .. While. the. Chinese. lamp. had. a. similar. shape,. the. finishing. and. materials. on. this. lamp. were. inferior. to. those. on. the. designer. lamp .. The. third. lamp. was. represented. by.IKEA,.which.is.a.widely.distributed,.well-known.brand.for.affordable. everyday.home.furnishings ..This.lamp.was.made.out.of.similar.materials,. but.had.a.different.shape.or.design.than.the.designer.and.knock-off.lamp .. No.attempt.was.made.to.determine.a.priori.which.lamp.followed.the.best. design.principles,.but.the.Noguchi.lamp.was.the.original.well-crafted.lamp. in.this.product.category . The.actual.price.points.of.the.lamps.were.10.(Chinese),.185.(Noguchi). and. 20. (IKEA) .. The. lamps. were. labelled. Q,. R. and. S. in. the. blind. treatment,. to. give. each. lamp. a. meaningless. and. neutral. label. to. choose. from ..The.lamps.are.shown.in.Figure.2 . Data collection The.experiments.were.conducted.in.various.shopping.malls.in.a.large.city .. Computers. were. set. up. with. a. self-directed. data. collection. program. and. the. actual. goods. were. displayed. alongside. the. computer. station. so. the. respondents.could.look.at,.touch.and.feel.the.tactility.of.the.goods ..Passersby. were. asked. if. they. would. take. a. few. minutes. to. evaluate. the. lamps .. Their.participation.lasted.less.than.10.minutes ..The.order.of.the.computer. presentation.of.the.lamps.for.evaluation.was.randomised.across.subjects.in. each.experiment . The sample The. respondents. were. a. convenience. sample,. self-selected. randomly,. as. they.were.attracted.to.the.display.stand.in.the.malls.and.lobbies ..A.total. of.60.men.and.75.women.participated.(135.in.total) ..Their.self-reported. income. and. age. categories. are. as. follows:. 8%. young;. 91%. middle-aged;.

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Lamp Q: Chinese 10

Lamp R: Isamu Noguchi 185

Lamp S: IKEA 20

Figure 2 The three rice paper lamps

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1%. older;. 78%. lower. income;. 18%. middle. income;. 5%. upper. income .1. Their. prior. experience. in. purchasing. lamps. was:. 22%. purchased. no. lamps;. 45%. purchased. one. or. two;. 33%. had. purchased. three. or. more. lamps.previously ..The.number.of.designers.recalled.was:.32%.could.name. none;.16%.named.one;.24%.named.two;.27%.could.name.three.or.more. designers . Questionnaire content Data.were.collected.from.each.individual.on.their.aesthetic.aptitude.(CVPA. scale:.Bloch.et al ..2003) ..The.questions.used.to.measure.the.individuals. sensitivity.to.design.were:.(1).I.enjoy.seeing.displays.of.products.that.have. superior. designs;. (2). A. products. design. is. a. source. of. pleasure. for. me;. (3).I.see.things.in.a.products.design.that.other.people.tend.to.pass.over;. (4).I.have.the.ability.to.imagine.how.a.product.will.fit.in.with.designs.of. other.things.I.already.own;.and.(5).When.I.see.a.product.that.has.a.really. great.design,.I.feel.a.strong.urge.to.buy.it ..Respondents.prior.experience. with. lamps. was. measured. by. the. number. of. lamps. they. had. previously. purchased ..Their.design.knowledge.was.measured.by.asking.them.to.recall. the.names.of.any.designers.of.household.objects.and.furnishings.they.may. be.aware.of . Conjoint design Conjoint. design. is. used extensively. in. evaluating. design. issues. because. it. allows. evaluation. of. preference. weights. for. the. price. cue. separate. to. the. gestalt. or. the. design. issues. (Bloch. 1995) .. Data. collection. was. done. by. showing.pairs.of.pictures.of.the.lamps.on.the.computer.screen.and.asking. respondents.to.slide.the.computer.cursor.towards.the.one.they.preferred .. There. was. a. training. screen. session. of. how. to. use. the. cursor. scale. by. sliding.the.cursor.one.way.or.another.depending.on.the.strength.of.ones. preference. for. a. choice .. If. one. lamp. was. only. preferred. a. little. then. the. cursor.was.moved.only.slightly.towards.that.lamp ..If.one.lamp.was.greatly. preferred,.then.the.cursor.was.moved.completely.to.the.right.or.left ..They. could. easily. see. the. actual. lamps. while. they. rated. them. pairwise. on. the. computer .

. It.is.likely.that.these.data.suffer.from.social.bias.in.under-reporting.ones.income.to.strangers,.and.regressing. ones.age.to.the.average ..What.is.important.are.the.reported.experience.and.knowledge.levels,.which.are.well. distributed .

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The model
The.respondents.rated.their.preference.for.the.lamps.on.a.22.cm.line.on. the.computer.screen,.labelled.at.the.left.anchor.I.prefer.the.left.lamp.very. much. and. at. the. right. anchor. I. prefer. the. right. lamp. very. much .. Two. new.lamps.appeared.for.each.judgement ..The.distance.from.the.middle.of. the.scale.to.the.preference.was.registered.electronically . The.corresponding.values.of.the.scores.of.subject.p,.with.lamp.i.to.the.left. and.lamp.j.to.the.right,.was.denoted.yijp ..It.is.assumed.that.the.numerical. score. increases. with. the. strength. of. the. preference. for. j. over. i,. and. the. equal.but.opposite.preferences.(.j.over.i,.and.i.over j).corresponds.to.equal. but.opposite.scores ..Thus.for.subject.p,.yijp.is.the.assessed.preferences.of. lamp.j.over.lamp.i,.and.yjip.is.the.assessed.preference.of.lamp.i.over.lamp. j ..If,.for.example,.yijp.is.positive,.j.is.preferred.over.i ..If.yijp.is.negative,.i.is. preferred.over.j . The.underlying.assumptions.of.the.mathematical.model.are.that.the.yijps. are. independent. random. variables. and. normally. distributed. with. mean. value. E(yijp). =. j. . i,. i. . j. and. i,.j. =. 1,.2,.3 .. As. the. only. difference. of. s. are. of. interest,. one. can. add. the. restriction. that. the. s. should. sum. to. zero ..When.price.is.added.to.the.evaluation.of.the.lamps,.another.variable. is.added ..The.score.of.subject.p.with.lamp.i,.with.price.k.to.the.left.and. lamp. j. with. price. l. to. the. right. was. denoted:. y(ik)(.jl)p .. Again. y(ik)(.jl)p. are.assumed.independent.random.variables.and.normally.distributed.with. mean.value.E(y(ik)(.jl)p).=.(j..i).+.(l..k),.i..j,.i,.j.=.1,.2,.3.(lamps) .. l..k;.l,.k.=.1,.2,.3.(prices),.where.1.+.2.+.3.=.0.and.1.+.2.+.3. =.0 ..This.is.the.model.for.the.conjoint.layout . The.equation.for.no.preference.among.the.lamps.is:.1.=.2.=.3.(=.0) The.equation.for.no.preference.among.the.prices.is:.1.=.2.=.3.(=.0) As.the.equations.are.general.linear.models,.they.are.tested.with.F.tests .

Results Study 1: Evaluation of lamps without external cues

In.the.first.study,.47.individuals.(22.women.and.25.men).rated.the.lamps. labelled.with.the.letters.Q,.R.and.S ..Respondents.were.not.told.the.names. or.origins.of.the.lamps ..After.they.rated.the.three.pairs.of.lamps.naked,. the.respondents.were.asked.to.rate.them.again,.this.time.with.the.actual. prices. of. each. lamp. rotated. among. the. choices .. A. full. factorial. was. used. with.the.price.variable.yielding.nine.paired.comparisons .

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^ With. no. price. or. contextual. information,. lamp. R. ( R. =. 83 .33). was. ^ preferred. strongly. to. lamp. Q. ( Q. =. 6 .33),. which. again. was. preferred. ^ strongly.to.lamp.S.( S.=.89 .67);.F(2,139).=.19 .24,.p.<.0 .001 ..Therefore. without.any.external.cues,.respondents.did.strongly.prefer.the.well-crafted. designer.lamp ..When.the.lamps.were.evaluated.with.the.price.information. the.scale.shrunk,.and.the.Q.and.R.lamps.became.much.closer.in.preference. ^ ^ ( Q.=.33 .67.vs. R.=.43 .67,.N .S .) ..Although.lamp.Q.was.a.lesser-preferred. lamp,.the.price.information.decreased.the.gap.to.R.so.that.the.preferred. lamp. (R). was. not. significantly. more. attractive. at. the. higher. price .. Lamp. ^ S.( S.=.77 .33).remained.highly.undesirable.compared.to.the.other.two,. even.when.evaluated.at.the.lower.price.points.(p.<.0 .001) ..So.a.low.price. did.not.make.up.for.the.perceived.less.attractive.design.in.lamp.S ..In.other. words,.people.preferred.both.the.Q.and.R.lamps.at.10.and.at.20.over.the. S.lamp ..Even.when.the.S.lamp.was.priced.at.10.or.20,.it.was.not.always. preferred.over.the.Q.and.R.lamps.priced.at.185 . When. looking. at. the. price. trade-off. variable. alone,. it. is. not. surprising. ^ that.the.smallest.value.of.10.was.preferred.( 15.=.94),.but.20.was.also. ^ rated. positively. ( 30. =. 71). and. these. two. price. points. were. not. rated. significantly.different.from.one.another.(t(419).=.1 .48,.N .S .) ..Therefore. consumers.were.quite.willing.to.pay.double.the.lowest.price.for.the.most. preferred. design,. but. sought. to. avoid. the. design. they. did. not. like,. S,. no. matter. how. inexpensive. the. lamp .. Generally. people. sought. to. avoid. the. ^ high.price.of.185.( 225.=.165),.p.<.0 .001 . After.rating.the.lamps,.the.respondents.were.asked.whether.they.would. consider. buying. any. of. the. lamps .. Thirty-nine. per. cent. said. they. would. not.consider.buying.any.of.them .2.Thirteen.percent.said.they.would.buy. Q;.38%.said.they.would.buy.R;.and.only.9%.said.they.would.buy.lamp. S ..They.did.not.know.which.price.matched.which.lamp,.so.they.could.not. use.price.for.an.identification.cue.for.which.lamp.to.purchase . At.the.end.of.the.data.collection,.respondents.were.told.that.one.of.the. lamps. was. designed. by. the. famous. designer. Isamu. Noguchi. and. they. were.asked.to.guess.which.lamp.he.designed ..Most.people.chose.the.IKEA. lamp.S.(51%).as.being.the.designer.lamp;.36%.correctly.identified.the.real. designer. lamp. R,. and. 13%. identified. the. Chinese. knock-off. (lamp. Q). as. the.original.designer.lamp . Therefore. respondents. preferred. the. designer. lamp,. especially. when. rating. the. lamps. without. any. information .. When. price. information. was. added,. their. preference. became. insignificant. from. the. copy-cat.

. We.did.not.ask.why.they.would.not.purchase.any.of.the.lamps ..

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lamp .. However,. when. asked. which. was. the. designer. lamp,. most. people. misidentified.the.lamp.that.was.least.preferred.as.the.designer.lamp ..There. were.no.differences.in.the.correct.identification.of.the.lamps.between.men. and.women.(2.=.0 .40,.df.=.1,.N .S .) . The.data.on.previous.experience.in.lamp.purchases.were.classified.into. three.categories:.(1).those.that.had.never.purchased.a.lamp.before.(N.=.9);. (2).those.that.had.purchased.one.or.two.lamps.(N.=.22);.and.(3).those.that. had.purchased.three.or.more.lamps.(N.=.15) ..Again.a.chi-square.analysis. of.guess.as.to.which.was.the.designer.lamp.and.previous.lamp.purchasing. experience.was.not.significant.(2.=.3 .45,.df.=.2,.N .S .) ..Respondents.were. also. asked. to. recall. any. designers. they. were. aware. of,. and. we. classified. their.responses.into.four.groups:.(1).those.who.recalled.no.designers.(N.=. 14);.(2).those.who.could.name.one.designer.(N.=.7);.(3).those.who.recalled. two.designers.(N.=.16);.and.(4).those.who.recalled.three.or.more.designers. (N. =. 10). (no. one. named. four. and. one. person. named. five. designers) .. None. of. the. respondents. named. the. designer,. Noguchi,. used. in. this. set. of. experiments .. There. was. no. relationship. between. recall. of. number. of. designers.and.ability.to.identify.the.correct.designer.lamp.(2=5 .26,.df.=. 3,.N .S .) . When.the.correlations.were.examined,.the.data.showed.that.there.was. no.correlation.between.number.of.lamps.previously.purchased.and.number. of. designers. recalled. (r. =. 0 .05. N .S .) .. There. was. also. no. relationship. between.number.of.designers.recalled.and.the.Centrality.of.Visual.Product. Aesthetics.Scale.(r.=.0 .16,.N .S .) .

Study 2: Branded evaluations

Fifty-two. new. respondents. (32. women. and. 20. men). participated. in. the. second.experiment ..In.this.study,.the.lamps.were.labelled.or.branded.as.the. Chinese.lamp,.the.Isamu.Noguchi.lamp.and.the.IKEA.lamp ..Therefore. the. lamps. were. identified. as. originating. with. distinct. manufacturers,. or. lamps.with.brand.names ..The.respondents.were.not.told.who.Noguchi.is,. or.that.he.is.a.famous.designer . ^ The. results. show. that. the. Noguchi. lamp. was. still. preferred. ( R. =. 68). over. the. other. two. lamps. (F(2,154). =. 9 .03,. p. <. 0 .001) .. However,. preference. for. the. IKEA. lamp. increased. and. preference. for. the. Chinese. lamp. decreased. when. the. lamps. were. labelled. as. such,. and. they. were. ^ ^ equally.preferred.( S.=.31.vs .. Q.=.37:.N .S .) ..The.name.or.label.Chinese. lamp. may. have. a. negative. quality. that. depresses. evaluation. beyond. the. actual. design .. Perhaps. this. cue. evokes. an. image. of. poor. craftsmanship.

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or. even. a. faulty. product .. The. name. IKEA. may. have. a. very. positive. effect. on. the. evaluation. due. to. the. familiarity. of. the. brand. name. in. the. marketplace ..For.IKEA,.this.may.be.an.example.of.Zajoncs.(1980).theory. that. familiarity. breeds. liking .. When. we. compare. scores. from. the. first. experiment,. we. see. the. weight. for. the. IKEA. lamp. shifted. from. 90. to. 31,.while.the.Chinese-labelled.lamp.shifted.from.+6.to.37 ..Therefore.a. well-known.brand.name.benefits.the.perception.of.the.object ..The.Chinese. brand.name.may.have.a.past.general.negative.reputation.and.this.could. be.influencing.perceptions . When.the.prices.were.added.to.the.evaluation,.the.scales.compressed,. showing.an.effect.similar.to.that.seen.in.the.first.experiment:.Chinese.lamp. ^ ^ ^ Q.=.13 .33;.Noguchi.lamp. R.=.30 .67;.IKEA.lamp. S.=.17 .33 ..There. was. no. significant. difference. in. the. evaluation. between. the. Chinese. and. IKEA.lamps.with.the.prices.attached . The.respondents.were.then.asked.whether.they.would.consider.buying. any.of.the.lamps ..Thirty-nine.per.cent.said.they.would.not.buy.any.(same.as. the.first.experiment);.8%.said.they.would.buy.the.Chinese.lamp;.39%.said. they.would.buy.the.Noguchi.lamp;.and.15%.said.they.would.buy.the.IKEA. lamp ..Therefore.with.the.brand.names.attached.to.the.lamps,.the.purchase. preference.rates.for.the.Chinese.lamp.and.the.IKEA.lamp.inversed ..Most. people. still. preferred. the. actual. designer. lamp .. Again. respondents. stated. their.purchase.intentions.without.knowing.which.price.belonged.to.which. lamp,.so.price.could.not.be.used.as.an.indicator.of.any.one.lamp . These. data. were. analysed. by. gender. and. we. found. that. slightly. more. women. than. men. indicated. they. would. buy. none. of. the. lamps. or. the. Noguchi.lamp.(2.=.7 .2,.p.=.0 .07) ..We.then.looked.at.the.possible.relation. between. buying. intentions. and. their. previous. purchase. experience. (2. =. 9 .5,.df.=.6,.N .S .).and.knowledge.of.designers.(2.=.4 .3,.df.=.9,.N .S .) ..No. significant. relationships. were. found. among. any. of. these. variables. with. choice.or.evaluation.of.the.lamps .

Study 3: Prime the designer

In.the.third.study,.36.new.respondents.(21.women.and.15.men).evaluated. the.three.rice.paper.lamps.again,.labelled.only.Q,.R.and.S ..This.group.was. informed.at.the.beginning.of.the.experiment.that.one.lamp,.but not which one,. was. designed. by. the. Japanese-American. sculptor. Isamu. Noguchi,. and. that. his. sculptures. can. be. seen. at. famous. local. and. international. art. museums ..That.is,.the.subjects.were.primed.for.designer.and.given.factual. information.about.the.designer.and.his.fame ..The.very.first.question.posed.

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to.the.respondents.was:.Which.one.is.the.Noguchi.lamp?.The.responses. were. as. follows:. 6%. thought. it. was. the. Chinese. lamp;. 36%. correctly. identified.the.Noguchi.lamp;.and.58%.wrongly.identified.the.IKEA.lamp. as.the.designer.Noguchi.lamp ..Again,.the.majority.of.respondents.selected. the.IKEA.lamp.as.the.designer.lamp,.just.as.they.did.in.the.first.experiment . The.respondents.then.went.through.the.same.procedure.as.for.the.first. experiment,.rating.the.preference.of.the.lamps.labelled.Q,.R.and.S,.with. and. without. the. price. factorial .. Here. almost. opposite. results. to. those. from.the.first.experiment.were.found.for.the.preference.of.the.IKEA.and. the. Chinese. lamps .. The. preference. weights,. when. the. respondents. were. ^ ^ primed.that.one.was.a.designer.lamp,.were.as.follows:. Q.=.98 .67;. R. ^ =.107 .33;. S.=.8 .67.(F(2,106).=.24 .63,.p.<.0 .001) ..Pairwise,.each.is. significantly.different.at.the.p.<.0 .01.level . Without. and. with. the. price. information,. the. Noguchi. lamp,. R,. is. strongly. preferred. (107 .33. vs. 58),. the. IKEA. lamp,. S,. is. about. neutral. (8 .67.vs.4),.and.the.Chinese.lamp,.Q,.is.least.preferred.(98 .67.vs.54) .. Finally,. respondents. were. asked. about. their. buying. intentions:. 33%. said. they.would.buy.none.of.the.lamps;.6%.said.they.would.buy.Q;.44%.said. they.would.buy.R;.and.17%.said.they.would.buy.S ..Again,.there.was.no. relation. between. this. outcome. and. any. of. the. other. measured. variables:. gender,.CVPA.scale,.prior.experience.in.purchasing.lamps,.or.the.number. of.designers.recalled . There.was.no.relationship.between.respondents.guess.as.to.which.was. the.designer.lamp.and.the.number.of.designers.they.were.aware.of.(2.=. 0 .25,.df.=.3,.N .S .;.see.Table.1) ..Among.respondents.believing.that.lamp.R. was.the.Noguchi.lamp.(which.it.was),.62%.expressed.a.buying.intention. for. this. lamp,. and. 38%. did. not. want. to. buy. any. of. the. lamps .. None. of. these. respondents. expressed. any. intention. to. purchase. the. other. two. lamps,.IKEA.or.Chinese ..Among.respondents.who.(wrongly).believed.the. Noguchi.lamp.was.S,.33%.would.not.buy.any.of.the.lamps,.33%.would. buy.the.Noguchi.lamp,.and.29%.wanted.to.buy.the.lamp.they.(wrongly). believed. was. the. Noguchi. lamp .. Therefore. giving. people. information. about. the. designer. did. seem. to. increase. preference. towards. the. lamp. they. thought. was. the. designer. lamp .. However,. not. always,. as. some. who. wrongly.believed.that.the.IKEA.lamp.was.the.designer.lamp.indicated.that. they.would.rather.buy.the.Noguchi.lamp . This.perhaps.indicates,.although.the.name.(brand).dimension.is.effective,. that.design.is.still.very.important.in.choice ..It.shows.that.it.may.be.possible. to. design. with. such. virtuosity. and. quality. that. it. may. interfere. with. the. effect.of.a.strong.brand ..The.results.do.show.the.strengths.of.good.design ..

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Table 1 Guesses of which is the designer lamp and buying intentions for Study 3
Indicated selection No purchase intention Lamp Q Lamp R Lamp S
Exact likelihood ratio (2-sided) 2 = 7.9; df = 3; p < 0.1.

Designer guess R (correct Noguchi) 38% 0% 62% 0% S (incorrect IKEA) 33% 6% 33% 29%

No. doubt. the. combination. of. good. design,. good. brand. and. good. price. would.be.unbeatable .

CVPA scale and preference evaluation over the three studies

The.computed.Cronbachs.alpha.reliability.for.these.five.items.on.CVPA,. over. three. different. samples,. was. 0 .67,. 0 .85. and. 0 .84 .. When. consumer. preferences. for. the. lamps. were. examined. by. the. mean. split. on. CVPA. scores,.the.data.showed.that.both.low.and.high.scorers.equally.preferred. the. Noguchi. lamp .. No. matter. what. other. information. was. provided,. the. Noguchi. lamp. was. positively. evaluated. and. preferred. over. the. other. choices . Differences.were.found.in.experiments.two.and.three.with.regard.to.how. low. and. high. CVPA. scorers. evaluated. the. choices .. However,. there. does. not.seem.to.be.a.clear.answer.on.which.consumers.can.identify.a.good. design.using.the.CVPA.scale ..Those.scoring.high.on.the.CVPA.evaluated. the.IKEA.lamp.less.than.the.other.choices.only.when.it.was.without.any. brand. or. designer. prime .. In. fact,. those. scoring. high. on. the. CVPA. were. also.more.likely.to.think.the.designer.lamp.was.the.IKEA.one,.when.it.was. not,.and.evaluated.it.more.positively.than.those.in.the.first.experiment.(see. Table.2) ..Respondents.who.scored.relatively.lower.on.the.CVPA.scale.had. a.very.low.preference.for.the.IKEA.lamp.and.a.strong.negative.preference. for.the.Chinese.lamp ..The.label.Chinese.lamp.might.be.interpreted.as.a. sign.of.a.non-designer.lamp.and.this.might.be.interpreted.as.a.switch-off . of.the.design.context.framing .

Discussion and conclusions

Over.all.three.studies,.the.data.found.that.the.design.of.the.lamps.affects. individual.preference,.and.hence.the.lamps.as.objects.are.indeed.different .. In. general. the. lamp. that. was. well. crafted. by. an. established. artist. was.

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Table 2 Differences in preferences between low and high CVPA scores

Experiment 1: Naked lamps Q R S Experiment 2: Branded Chinese lamp Noguchi lamp IKEA lamp Experiment 3: Primed by designer Q R S Lower CVPA N = 21 13.97 82.11 96.08 N = 31 10.14 66.51 56.37 N = 24 66.74 101.60 34.86 Higher CVPA N = 26 0.41 84.58 84.11 F(2,137) = 0.11; N.S. N = 21 63.33 82.33 19.00 F(2,152) = 2.67; p = 0.07 N = 12 162.25 118.11 44.14 F(2,104) = 4.27; p < 0.05

preferred,.and.hence.the.designs.themselves.clearly.contain.information ..In. the.first.experiment,.the.interesting.result.is.the.Noguchi.guess ..Very.few. people.rightly.guessed.that.R.was.the.real.designer.lamp,.despite.the.fact. that.it.was.preferred ..Most.people.wrongly.guessed.the.odd-shaped.lamp,. S,.was.the.designer.lamp,.but.it.was.least.preferred.by.the.respondents.. that. is,. people. associated. the. designer. label. with. the. avant-garde. shape. they.did.not.really.prefer.when.it.was.unlabelled.or.when.they.were.not. primed . There. is,. not. surprisingly,. no. correlation. between. the. guesses. as. to. which.is.the.designer.lamp.and.design.aptitude,.prior.experience.in.buying. lamps,. gender. or. knowledge. of. designers .. However,. most. people. chose. the.Noguchi.lamp.as.the.one.they.would.prefer.to.buy,.and.this.was.not. related. to. their. ability. to. identify. the. designer. lamp .. Lamp. S,. which. is. shaped.like.a.conch.and.lacking.a.tripod,.may.take.time.to.perceive.and. judge,.hence.perhaps.it.was.given.a.lower.preference.based.on.the.theory. of. cognitive. consistency. . that. is,. the. design. of. the. conch. as. a. lamp. was. not.consistent.with.how.they.think.a.lamp.should.be.formed ..The.reader. is.also.reminded.that.the.respondents.never.knew.and.were.not.told.the. actual.prices.of.each.lamp.and.therefore.could.not.use.price.as.a.cue.for. designer . The. results. of. the. second. experiment. found. rather. strong. effects. for. brand. name. and. are. perhaps. to. be. expected .. Here. the. Chinese. label. resulted. in. a. more. negative. evaluation. than. when. respondents. evaluated.

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the. same. lamp. without. the. Chinese. label .. Made-in-China. products. are. frequently. associated. with. poor. quality. and. are. the. source. of. countless. deficient.product.recalls.(BBC News.2007) ..The.cue.may.be.negative,.and. hence.it.interferes.with.the.design.elements.of.the.lamp ..The.lamp.that.was. evaluated.the.most.negatively.(S).now.turned.positive.with.the.IKEA.brand. label .. IKEA. is. a. well-known. international. brand. representing. value. for. money.(especially.to.the.middle-class,.and.most.of.our.subjects.were.selfdescribed. as. middle-class) .. This. positive. well-known. cue. overrode. what. was. perceived. as. a. less. desirable. design. when. unbranded .. Therefore. the. connotations. of. the. brand. go. far. beyond. the. visual. aspects.of. the. design. and. people. may. rely. on. deep-seated. or. previously. learned. beliefs. about. names.or.brands.for.evaluation.(Hoeffler.&.Keller.2003) . Study. 3. showed. how. priming. respondents. about. a. designer. and. providing. concrete. information. about. the. fame. of. the. designer. shifted. preferences ..Furthermore,.the.initial.guess.of.which.was.the.designer.lamp. appeared.to.anchor.their.preferences ..The.design.knowledge.had.a.strong. influence.when.matched.with.a.real.superior.design ..So.the.answer.to.the. question. of. How. do. you. convert. price-sensitive. consumers. to. designsensitive.consumers,.so.they.are.willing.to.pay.more.for.their.goods?.may. lie. in. giving. consumers. concrete. information. about. the. designer. at. the. point.of.purchase ..It.is.likely.that.the.more.prestigious.the.information.is. perceived.as.or.valued.by.the.consumer,.the.more.likely.the.shift.will.be.to. the.designer.brand.name . In.this.study.respondents.were.primed,.in.the.narrative,.that.the.sculptor. Isamu. Noguchi. has. his. sculptures. located. in. famous. art. museums .. These. are. strong. institutions. that. may. have. an. equivalent. effect. as. a. strong. brand ..The.effect.of.a.designer.name,.known.only.to.a.few.people,.when. associated.with.a.strong.institution.may.increase.the.desire.to.own.objects. made. by. the. designer .. This. relationship. can. be. thought. of. in. terms. of. Heiders. Balance. Theory. (1958) .. The. individual. highly. regards. the. art. museum,.and.if.the.designers.goods.are.in.the.art.museum,.they.must.be. valuable.and.worth.the.individual.owning.at.a.higher.price ..Therefore.this. shift. to. the. designer. good. keeps. the. cognitive. aspects. of. the. individual. positively.in.balance .

Research implications
The. studies. are. valid. in. that. they. are. conducted. in. situations. where. real. consumers.are.conducting.their.business ..Replications.with.other.product. categories.and.actual.purchases.are.needed.to.show.the.robustness.of.the.

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findings ..The.links.between.design,.designer.and.brand.name.are.ripe.for. further. research .. The. name. of. a. designer. like. Alessandro. Mendini. may. add.to.the.brand,.like.Alessi,.and.add.recognition.and.image.to.a.product. (Keller.1993) ..Future.research.also.needs.to.look.at.the.differences.between. publicly. consumed. luxury. goods. versus. privately. consumed. necessities .. While. this. study. found. an. effect. for. designer. brand. using. a. relatively. privately.consumed.good,.the.effects.for.publicly.consumed.luxury.goods. may.be.even.more.pronounced . A. direct. extension. of. this. study. might. be. to. establish. a. standard. for. evaluating. good. design .. It. seems. essential. to. have. an. expert. view. of. the. particular. designs .. For. instance,. a. panel. of. acclaimed. design. experts. who. have. academic. credentials. and/or. serve. as. competition. judges. might. establish. a. frame. of. reference. of. measurement. in. connection. with. good. design ..A.different.approach.might.be.to.reduce.the.emphasis.on.branding. and. to. establish. design. as. the. major. issue .. Doing. that. allows. one. to. measure.how.much.various.forms.of.framing.will.add.to.the.pure.designs . The. design. effects. should. be. reinforced. when. supported. by. good. branding,. labelling. and/or. relevant. concrete. information. pertaining. to. the. design .. Market. researchers. can. assist. companies. by. testing. specific. information.in.their.communication.strategies.and.measuring.the.responses. to. the. brand,. gaining. a. deeper. understanding. of. consumers. evaluations. and.price.trade-offs.for.design.elements ..They.may.use.this.information.as. a.key.element.in.creating.demand.for.originals,.as.opposed.to.imitations,. knock-offs.or.retail.brand.copies . There.are.no.doubt.individual.differences.in.the.ability.to.identify.good. design ..However,.we.cannot.confidently.say.that.our.measures.were.able. to.capture.those.differences ..It.could.be.that.cognitively.based.paper.and. pencil.measures.correlate.with.learned.inferences.and.not.with.automatic. reactions. to. the. stimulus .. Experiments. using. eye. tracking. and. response. times.might.add.to.the.knowledge.of.important.design.elements,.as.they. are. used. as. a. proxy. for. processing. fluency,. which. is. a. measure. for. liking. (Lee. &. Labroo. 2004) .. Market. research. is. now. relying. on. more. invasive. measures,. such. as. fMRI,. to. establish. real. reactions. to. different. package. designs.(Reimann.et al ..2008) ..This.integration.of.brain.activity.to.market. research.may.soon.become.the.status.quo .

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About the authors

Gorm. Gabrielsen. holds. a. Masters. in. Mathematics. and. Mathematical. Statistics. from. the. University. of. Copenhagen. (1976) .. Since. 1983. he. has. been.appointed.as.Associate.Professor.of.Statistics.at.Copenhagen.Business. School ..He.has.published.on.theoretical.matters.and.worked.as.a.statistical. consultant.for.both.companies.as.well.as.official.organizations ..His.special. areas. of. interest. are. general. social. science,. forensic. psychiatry,. design. management.and.food.research .. Tore. Kristensen. is. Professor. of. Strategic. Design. at. the. Copenhagen. Business. School .. His. published. work. concerns. design. of. products. and. the. value. of. design. for. a. company .. His. research. includes. design. of.

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environments. as. seen. in. a. consumer. perspective,. as. well. as. the. use. of. physical. space. to. increase. creativity .. His. most. recent. research. involves. sensorics.and.the.value.of.music . Judith.Lynne.Zaichkowsky.is.Professor.of.Marketing.and.Communications. at.the.Copenhagen.Business.School ..She.received.her.PhD.from.UCLA.in. Marketing,. with. minors. in. Psychology. and. Statistics .. Dr. Zaichkowskys. 1985. Journal of Consumer Research. paper. on. the. involvement. construct. has.been.recognised.as.one.of.the.top.cited.articles.in.consumer.behaviour. and. one. of. the. most. influential. articles. in. the. field. of. advertising .. She. is. also. the. author. of. The Psychology behind Trademark Infringement and Counterfeiting . Address. correspondence. to:. Judith. Lynne. Zaichkowsky,. Professor. of. Marketing.and.Communications,.Department.of.Marketing,.Copenhagen. Business.School,.Solbjerg.Plads.3,.2000.Frederiksberg,.Denmark . Email:.zaichkow@sfu .ca

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