Fuselage Arrangement

1. Niu, Airframe Structural Design

General configuration Fuselage = Semi-monocoque structure = thin-skinned shell stiffened by longitudinal stringers which, in turn, are supported by transverse frames. High strength to weight ratio. Can withstand local failure without total failure (load redistribution). Thins sheets: efficient in resisting shear and tension loads in the plane of the sheet but need to be stiffened longitudinally and transversely to carry compression loads+loads normal to skin design of semi-monocoque system requires sheet stability+panel buckling + semi-diagonal tension field action. 2 major issues:
y y

Check that stress is correctly distributed in the structure, and how it is distributed Check that stresses are reasonable for the structure taken as a whole as well as its components taken alone Skin instability: because of their low thickness and their curvature, skin components tend to buckle easily (under low compressive or and shear stress). If no requirements thick panels, or high number or stringers, which triggers a low pitch between each of them = inefficient design But stringers are relatively efficient design, so buckling of the skin = not an important factor in limiting the ultimate strength of the structural system. Stress redistribution over the entire structure when buckling starts important to detect when buckling starts! In some cases, the design criteria will specify that buckling is not allowed below a certain percent of limit load or design load. Panel instability: panel = parts of the fuselage (skin+stringers) separated by the frames. If these frames are sufficiently rigid, a semi-monocoque structure if subjected to bending will fail on the compression side. [] Initial failure thus occurs in a single panel and is referred to as panel instability failure. Frames stiff because must carry various loads of the inside of the cabin (payload). Other load to be considered when designing stringers: shear forces transferred (by semi diagonal tension field action) by the skin panels when skins buckle under shear or compressive loads. General Instability: same as panel instability, but extended over several panels. Happens when frames are not stiff enough. Aim = ensure that failure through panel instability and not through general instability. Equation for frame stiffness (p.378):

3 types of instability failure of semi-monocoque structures:

y

E = Elasticity modulus I = Moment of inertia of frame

D = Diameter of stiffened fuselage L = Frame Spacing M = Bending moment of fuselage Configuration: 1) 2) 3) 4) Efficient pressure structure (cylindrical cross-section + spherical end caps). Compromises for better aerodynamics. Compromises for passengers (cutouts for doors+windows). Weather radar antenna, large cavities for wings+landing gears

Primary structural requirements:

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Primary flight loads (only flight and environment conditions) = lift, thrust, pitching moment (from wing), maneuvering tail loads (from empennage), pressure Secondary loads (from function or utility of the airplane) = loads from large equipment (galleys, passengers, seats)

Other important parameter: cross-section for passenger transport Fuselage = external skin + stiffening members Stiffening members = frames and bulkheads (transverse elements), stringers and longerons (longitudinal elements) Skin+stringers: y Stringers: stabilize the external skin + carry axial loads induced by the bending moment y carries the shear from the applied external transverse and torsional forces, and cabin pressure y It carries all of the primary loads due to fuselage bending, shear, torsion and cabin pressure y lightweight, strong structures that are relatively easy to produce and maintain y Most efficient structure least number of joints or splices panels as large as possible, but panels limited by available mill sizes and stringer length limited by manufacturing technique y Skin and stringer spliced at the same location to maintain the relative stiffness of the skin/stringer combination, which is desirable from a fatigue standpoint. y Ideal shape for the fuselage cross section = true cylinder y Minimum thickness for the fuselage skin: 0.036 in. y Stringer spacing varies between 6 to 10 inches. y Fatigue = Primary design consideration repeated tension loading = critical fatigue condition it must have a fail-safe design where an individual part failure can be sustained or retained until it is found and repaired before it results in a catastrophic failure Failsafe design concepts: 1) break the component down into several small overlapping pieces if 1 fails, the load can be carried by adjacent parts 2) Use of a restrainer or a failsafe strap that will contain the failure within controllable limits.

3) Doublers bonded to the skin: acts as fail-safe strap in the station plane and a bearing plate for the rivets that attach the stringers.

Fig. 1 Data for fail-safe strap in fuselage sections (Courtesy Niu, p.383)

Fig. 2 Fail-safe strap located between skin and frame (Courtesy Niu, p.388)

When skin thickness determined by bending loads consider that fatigue is not critical.

hoop tension low enough to

Frames: y Functions:  Maintain the shape of the fuselage + reduce the column length of the stringers to prevent general instability of the structure. Generally light parts because frame loads small and compensate each other.  Act as support shell (fuselage skin-stringer panel) compression/shear  Distribute concentrated loads onto the shell, redistribute shear around structural discontinuities, and transfer loads at major points  Act as crack stoppers  serve to distribute the applied loads into the fuselage skins. At points of introduction of concentrated forces (wings, tail surface, landing gear) y Frame cap = usually Z-section, C-section for bulkhead

Attachment frame/skin:  by means of an angle or clip

Fig. 3 Clip arrangement

Functions of the clip: transfers skin panel normal pressure loads to frame, helps break up excessive column length of stringers, acts as frame web panel stiffener, provides some degree of compressive strength of frame inner chord (cap)  Another possibility is the use of a shear tie Functions of the tie: shear load path between frame and fuselage skin. It helps to keep the desired shape for the skin (especially when the contour is not circular). Meanwhile, the frames hold the shear ties and the stringers in the desired shape.

Fig. 4.392 Shear tie design (Courtesy Niu, p.392)

Frame spacing influences weight of bulkheads and flooring and can have a substantial impact on compressive skin panel design

Fig. 5 Influence of frame spacing on flooring and bulkhead weight

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Bulkhead weight increases again from a particular spacing value because of the addition of some stoppers which prevent cracks from propagating. Usual ring or frame spacing : 20 inches for transport airplanes 2 types of frames: ordinary frames and frames (including bulkheads) specially stiffened for various purposes Two main situations:  When the contour is circular (round), the only function of the frame is to help stabilizing the shape of the skin and to prevent buckling from occurring (pressure loads are carried in hoop tension)  When the frame is located in a nonradial contour area. In that case, pressure loads combine with the stabilizing loads to produce large bending moments.

Pressure bulkhead:  A dome is usually preferred to a flat bulkhead to close the rear fuselage. Best shape = hemisphere because the membrane stresses for a given amount of material are the least with this configuration.  Connection bulkhead/cabin shell : it is necessary to avoid any radial offset between the shell and the dome skins. The joint itself is made by sandwiching the three skins aft section fuselage, dome and aft body fuselage to form a single lap joint.

2. Howe, Aircraft Loading and structural layout

Cross section shape
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Rectangular cross sections are efficient in terms of space, but are not often used (except in fighter aircraft) because they are not suitable when a substantial pressure differential is a requirement cross sections based on the use of circular arcs with as small as a radius as possible are more appropriate to limit the stresses. Other possibility: cross section made of the combination of several circles, with a tie at the intersection between the latest. the structural layout is fundamentally unchanched when composites are used. large pressurized fuselage structures are less amenable to the application of composite materials than are lifting surface components. preferable to react as much of the loading as possible in the outer shell.

Structural layout Skin and longitudinal stringers

y y y

y y y y y

To determine fuselage skin thickness, both the pressurization (especially for large cross section) and the shear loading need to be taken into account. Loads more uniform in distribution the use of tapered thickness and integral machining is not as spread as for lifting surfaces Fuselage built in lengthwise sections, but the number of division needs to be minimized to save more weight (need for reinforcement) Skin joints = frame or longitudinal stringers When loading is low or when basic fuselage is extensively interrupted by cut-outs, the use of four longitudinal booms (longerons) is recommended, so as to react the direct stresses due to both the vertical and lateral bending loads. Outer shell used to support the longerons against overall compression buckling and to provide shear carrying capacity Closely spaced frames stabilize the skins against shear buckling Used to transmit local shear loads into the structure + sometimes help to react the pressurization loads Continuous direct contact with the skin is required to ensure the function of crack stopper the stringers pass through and are cleated to it. Other possibility: floating frames which are attached only to the stringers (better from a manufacturing point of view) requires the introduction of bands to perform the function of crack stoppers Used to transmit shear loads and maintain torsional integrity where the cross section has major changes in shape React loads in bending Occur at the end of a pressure cabin of fuel tank Two main design philosophies: either curved, membrane type (lighter but connections with the rest of the fuselage are made more complicated) or flat FIGURE 14.23

Frames
y y y y

Bulkhead
y y y y

3. AV-8B/GR Mk 5 airframe composite applications

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Lightning protection: designed to withstand a 100 kA swept stroke lightning restrike, damage is greatly reduced by applying a thin metallic coating to spread and dissipate the lightning energy five woven cloth plies (0.070 in skin thickness) are required to prevent penetration, a conductive surface coating of flame-sprayed tin was selected to prevent lightning penetration Repair when forward fuselage is damaged: because it is a secondary type structure, it can be done through the addition of local wet lay-up to re-establish the five-ply thickness. Electromagnetic leakage: to ensure correct performance of the on-board avionics systems, tests were carried out for the choice of the material and following conclusions have been drawn:  Carbon/epoxy has the inherent shielding capability needed for fighter aircraft design.  Tests show little difference in shielding between carbon/epoxy and aluminum structures because of joint effects.

 Designs such as finger doublers and/or tin plating are effective in reducing the electromagnetic field leakage through carbon/epoxy joints.  Antennae for UHF and L-brand systems function properly when using carbon/epoxy ground planes.