goods and services which provide us with our livelihoods and satisfaction.

That is, humans are both producers and consumers. Ecotourism and green productivity are concepts for us to use as producers, as business people. Of course, we will need to be ecotourists when we travel if our ecotourism businesses are to survive and grow. As producers we seek payment and profit for our work and our investments. The marketplace (where the laws of supply and demand prevail) provides the incentive for us to be conscious of costs. However, if our timeframe is short we pay no heed to the long-term sustainability of the resources we use (for example, the soils of our farms and the fish in the sea) and deplete them ultimately, completely exhausting them. If institutional arrangements are such that we need not concern ourselves with the costs that our waste disposal places on others (say, pollution from a factory killing fish downstream), other industries will fail and overall we will be worse off. As producers we need to face the correct prices (prices which reflect the costs of pollution and resource degradation). We need to have the best available information on such matters as the conservation of inputs (such as energy and water); and we need a general management philosophy that looks to do more with less. You will understand that a profit-maximising goal should drive businesses to this very approach. Yet lack of good information and the wrong price signals both of which are prevalent in modern economies result in waste, environmental degradation and reduced profits. This is what some call a loselose situation. The philosophy of green production comes from understanding this. It is a philosophy based on a sound theoretical and practical understanding of how business works (how entrepreneurs and managers think) and a sound understanding of technical possibilities for saving resources such as energy and water, and the environmental costs associated with not saving them. Because of its role in the production process, green productivity is often called cleaner production or eco-efficiency. Ecotourism has evolved during the period that green productivity has also evolved, although ecotourism started earlier. A very brief sketch of the history of modern tourism, leading to ecotourism, is presented in the next chapter.

Chapter Two

The Changing Nature of Tourism

Tor Hundloe

Introduction
Tourism is the worlds largest industry, a position it achieved after the end of the Cold War. In 2000, 698 million people were classified as international tourists (meaning that they spent at least one night in a foreign country). Fifty years ago there were only 25 million international travellers. By the year 2020, it is predicted that 1.6 billion people, or one-fifth of the forecast world population, will be international tourists.

Expect Change
The history of modern tourism covers nearly three centuries. It started with the Grand Tour by the sons (with some notable exceptions, women were not in this privileged position) of the northern European aristocracy, and the travels of famous scientists such as Carl Linnaeus in the early 1700s. With the formation of a middle class in Europe as the Industrial Revolution gathered pace, the weather-weary and wealthy sought sun, relaxation and health-giving waters in the Mediterranean, in locations such as Nice, the coasts of Italy and Greece, and the Canary Islands. Nice, originally an obscure stop-over on the Grand Tour of Italy, promoted its sun as the best in the world. The rich came for health purposes. Honeymoon travel became fashionable for the well-off in the 1830s. A much sought-after destination became Niagara Falls. This locations reputation was such that by the late 18th century it was considered the greatest natural wonder in the world. Today, we have an extensive list of places competing for this accolade, and those that are deserving are on the World Heritage List (see Box 1 for those in APO economies).

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Box 1: World Heritage Properties in APO Member Countries

Bangladesh
Historic Mosque City of Bagerhat Ruins of the Buddhist Vihara at Paharpur The Sundarbans Ajanta Caves Ellora Caves Agra Fort Taj Mahal Sun Temple, Konarak Mahabalipuram Kazianga National Park Manas Wildlife Sanctuary Keoladeo National Park Churches and Convents of Goa Khajuraho Hampi Fatehpur Sikri Pattadakal Elephanta Caves BrhadisvaraTemple, Thanjavur Sundarbans National Park Nanda Devi National Park Buddhist Monuments at Sanchi Humayuns Tomb, Delhi Qutb Minar, Delhi Darjeeling Himalayan Railway Borobudur Temple Compounds Ujung Kulon National Park Komodo National Park Prambanan Temple Compounds Sangiran Early Man Site Lorentz National Park Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara Shrines and Temples of Nikko

Nepal

India

Sagarmatha National Park Kathmandu Valley Royal Chitwan National Park Lumbini, the Birthplace of the Lord Buddha

Following Rousseaus description of all mountain streams and abysses, came the cult of the mountains with the inevitable comparison of all mountainous places to the Swiss Alps. Henry Thoreau promoted the nature walk from which bushwalking was to develop. In 1872, the worlds first National Park, Yellowstone, was declared, and the concept of National Parks was adopted around the world. The coming of the camera and landscape photography played a fundamental part in promoting tourism, with native and human cultural artefacts as backdrops to recreational experience. Of course, without mass transport (originally trains, then in the 20th century steam ships, followed by the motor car and jet passenger aircraft from the 1950s) tourism would not have grown, and continue to grow as it does today. From the 1980s the film industry, and then television, played a significant role in enticing people to dream of sun, surf and sand. Popular music by groups such as the Beach Boys and by Elvis Presley (in Blue Hawaii) exported the beach culture worldwide. Today it is Baywatch. But, as we will point out, the beach culture does not suit everyone, everywhere, at all times. However, the warm waters and sunny days of the French Riviera and the Mediterranean (and their more than comparable rivals) are no longer the sole privilege of the aristocracy. Until very recently the growth in tourism was concentrated in the West and in the northern hemispheres. By the end of the 20th century new groups of tourists emerged from all corners of the globe. In particular, the fast-growing middle class in Asia is creating an expanding market of millions of tourists. Wherever tourists gather in large numbers there are impacts: usually positive financial ones for the local hospitality industry and for those who supply the hotels and restaurants with food, resources and labour; but sometimes negative impacts on the local culture, and more often than not negative environmental impacts. As tourist numbers inevitably increase, so will these positive and negative impacts. However, this does not mean that the future will be like the present, or the past. Tourism what tourists are seeking from experiences has changed over time. Still, there are some constant themes, such as seeking the sun (or at least a warmer climate in winter for those living in colder climes) and coastal destinations (the beach and sand). In Box 2, Tsung-Wei Lai summarises the threats of expanding tourism and the promises (Is that all they are?) of ecotourism.

Pakistan

Archaeological Ruins at Moenjodaro Taxila Takht-Bahi and Sahri-Bahlol Historical Monuments of Thatta Fort and Shalamar Gardens in Lahore Rohtas Tabbataha Reef Marine Park Baroque Churches of the Philippines Rice Terraces of the Philippines Cordilleras Puerto-Princesa Subterranean River National Park Historic Town of Vigan Republic of Korea Sokkuram Grotto Pulguksa Temple Haeinsa Temple Changgyong Pango Chongmyo Shrine Changokkung Palace Complex Hwasong Fortress Sacred City of Anuradhapura Ancient City of Polonnaruva Ancient City of Sigirya Sinharaja Forest Reserve Sacred City of Kandy Old Town of Galle and its Fortifications Golden Temple of Dambulla Historic Town of Sukhothai Historic City of Ayutthaya Thungyai-Huai Kha Khaeng Wildlife Sanctuaries Ban Chiang Archaeological Site Complex of Hu Monuments Ha Long Bay Hoi An Ancient Town My Son Sanctuary

Philippines

Indonesia

Sri Lanka

Iran

Tchogha Zanbil Persepolis Meidan Eman, Esfahan Buddhist Monuments in the Horyu-ji Area Himeji-jo Yakushima Shirakami-Sanchi Historic Monuments of Ancient Kyoto Historic Villages of Shirakawa-go and Gokayama Hiroshima Peace Memorial (Genbaku Dome) Itsukushima Shinto Shrine

Japan

Thailand

Vietnam

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Box 2: A Snapshot (by Tsung-Wei Lai)

The rapid expansion of international tourism is fostered by economic globalisation. Modern mass tourism is embraced by governments as well as multinational aid and lending institutes as a smokeless (non-polluting) industry to increase employment and economic prosperity, especially in developing countries. Amid the trend of free trade and economic globalisation, the influx of foreign capital for tourism development projects flows into remote and pristine areas to create holiday paradises. With foreign capital, remote fishing villages are being transformed into world-class island resorts catering to tourists from around the world. Beneath the image of paradise painted with sun, beaches, and coconut trees, however, mass tourism development projects are often ridden with long-term negative impacts on the environment. Mass tourism often promotes unsustainable production and consumption patterns in developing countries where appropriate technology for waste treatment and pollution abatement is often insufficient or entirely lacking. Equally, if not more important, concerns regarding conventional tourism projects include the associated social and cultural impacts on the host regions/communities through disruption of traditional ways of life, promotion of monoculture, and the exploitation of local labour. Since the publication of Brundtlands report, Our Common Future, in 1987 sustainable development has become a buzzword in the global political arena. In 1992, Agenda 21, a comprehensive program of action for sustainable development across industries and countries, was adopted by 182 nations at the Earth Summit held in Rio. In 1995, the tourism industry presented its contribution towards a sustainable development strategy with the Agenda 21 for the Travel and Tourism Industry Towards Environmentally Sustainable Development, published by the World Travel and Tourism Council, the World Tourism Organization, and the Earth Council. The green reform promoted by the conventional mass tourism industry and government agencies is often considered by conservationists as merely greenwashing or ecotourism lite that focuses on minor cost-saving measures rather than seriously grappling with the principles and practices of ecotourism (Honey 1999, p. 49; McLaren 1998, p. 109). Honey further contends that the mass tourism industry often promotes self-regulation and green innovations for cost-saving, while opposing any tourism industry taxes, even those designed to promote environmental protection (Honey 1999, p. 3233). In the past decade, growing interest in ecotourism and nature-based tourism presents an opportunity to address the environmental and social impacts of tourism activities, while fostering sustainable tourism.

Ecotourism: An Overview
Nature-based tourism gains in significance yearly, and as a sub-set of this type of tourism, ecotourism grows rapidly. There are many explanations for this development, ranging from psychological ones pertaining to human relationships with nature, to the influence of popular education (the natural history television shows), to the very significant change in attitude towards the environment which has seen it become a mainstream issue on par with economic wellbeing, education and health. The principles of sustainable development, put on every countrys agenda by the Brundtland report, Our Common Future, are changing the world. At this point in time, ecotourism is still special interest tourism, of which there are many kinds. Imagine that there is a large hotel on the outskirts of a city with many cultural attributes and nearby there is a National Park. At any one time, staying in this hotel could be tourists whose prime interest is shopping in the city. Then there could be tourists whose main interest is culture they undertake tours to museums, cathedrals and occasionally go shopping and take one walk in the National Park. Then there could be tourists whose first love is sport. They might have gathered in this hotel because it is near to a football ground, tennis centre or ski field. While not involved with their favourite sport, they might do some shopping or visit the theatre. And there could be nature lovers at the hotel. They spend most of the time ambling through the National Park, having picnics near a crystal clear stream, but also find time to engage in other activities. There could be adventure tourists who seek the natural environment because of the thrills of white-water rafting, but that is where their interest stops. What of the ecotourists? They might do all, or at least some, of the things just mentioned, but their main activities will involve not simply walking in the National Park, but seeking out knowledge about it. What animal species live in the area? What is the geological foundation of the place? Are there any threatened plants or animals? What is the areas cultural history? The ecotourists will want to assist in some small way in the management of the area. The differences between tourist types should be becoming obvious. The ecotourist will be keen to discover that the hotel is practising green productivity: it has had a environmental audit and found that there is waste in the use of water and energy; it has had consultants prepare an environmental management system by which to better manage resources to do more with less. The ecotourists and presumably the other visitors also are pleased that it is a green hotel. However, that does not make for an ecotourism experience. The ecotourist notices that the tour operators in the National Park are extremely careful to stay on the walking tracks, to limit

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numbers of tourists at any point in time, and to ensure the removal of wastes. The tours are sound green products. And the hotel and park management staff work together to achieve the interests of both the public sector and the private sector. It appears that good profits are being earned each year by the operators and are likely to continue. That is, the tourism businesses are sustainable and so is the environment on which they depend. Yet, green tourist products and sustainable businesses based on sustainable ecosystems are necessary but not sufficient conditions to meet the ecotourism criteria. In Boxes 3 and 4, Tsung-Wei Lai defines sustainable tourism, nature-based tourism and ecotourism. Ecotourism is nature-based tourism; it is low impact tourism (based on the principles of green productivity and ecology); but it is, importantly, both an enjoyable and learning experience for the tourists (that is, the tourists want interpretation of the environment they are in); it is tourism which respects local cultures (however, it is not cultural tourism where the prime focus is culture); and it gives something back to the community in recognition of the satisfaction gained by the tourists. Ecotourism is linked to the distinctive nature of a place. It is not adventure tourism one can bungy jump anywhere! Ecotourism is not sightseeing, because sightseeing does not require tourists to engage with the place. Firsthand (or some would say hands on) experiences like being able to smell the flowers and vegetation as it rots, being able to hear the song birds, and pull leeches from your skin in a rainforest, are the characteristic of ecotourism. To summarise, good interpretation services, cultural sensitivity and involvement with the local community are the three issues which differentiate ecotourism from its cousins green tourism and sustainable tourism. Readers of this book will discover debate about the acceptable scale of ecotourism. Some advocate small-scale (village level) operations. They dont believe larger operations (whether they be bus, boat, rail or cable-car tours, or resorts and theme parks) can meet ecotourism criteria. There is no easy answer to this other than to say that scale does not matter if the tourism product is low impact (some large-scale operations can have less impact because of their design than the cumulative impact of many small-scale operators) and meets the other necessary criteria of good interpretation and giving something back to the community. One can understand, to some extent, the proponents of small-scale ecotourism because until fairly recently until the advent of accredited or certified ecotourism products there was a strong propensity for the large-scale operations not to meet ecotourism criteria. The scale question is likely to be answered on a case-by-case basis, much depending on the type of tourism operation, the management philosophy, government regulations and type of infrastructure.
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A range of views is expressed in Part B on the matter of scale and related issues. At this stage in the development of ecotourism (recall it is of very recent origin) the optimal approach is likely to be let a thousand flowers bloom.

Box 3: Definition of Sustainable Tourism (by Tsung-Wei Lai)

The definition of sustainable tourism is still open to various interpretations. Sustainable tourism, according to McLaren (1998, p. 109), is defined as meeting the needs of present tourists and host regions while protecting and enhancing opportunities for the future. Based on the principles of ecological economics, Driml and Common (1996, p. 4)define sustainable tourism as tourism which is compatible with the conservation of the existing natural environment while generating a non-declining stream of net economic benefits. The difference between tourism as sustainable development and sustainable tourism should be recognised. Sustainable tourism only has to maintain its viability as a profit generating activity for an indefinite period of time whereas tourism as sustainable development needs to fulfil the principles of sustainable development. Butler (1993, p. 29) suggested a more comprehensive definition of sustainable tourism, that is, tourism which is developed and maintained in an area (community, environment) in such a manner and at such a scale that it remains viable over an indefinite period, and does not degrade or alter the environment (human and physical) in which it exists to such a degree that it prohibits the successful development and well-being of other activities and processes.

Box 4: Nature-based Tourism and Ecotourism (by Tsung-Wei Lai)

The concept of nature-based tourism burgeoned in the early 1900s with the Sierra Club outings in the United States. In the early 1980s, the concept of ecotourism was developed by conservationists, such as Hector CeballosLascurain who started to use the term ecotourism while lobbying to conserve wetlands in northern Yucatan for a breeding ground for the American flamingo. To persuade developers not to build marinas, he argued that tourist activities such as bird watching would boost the economy of the rural community and help conserve the fragile ecosystem at the same time. Accordingly, ecotourism was branded as a means to give nature value so that conservation can be achieved without sacrificing economic growth. The definition of ecotourism is still evolving. According to Australias National Ecotourism Strategy, ecotourism is defined as nature-based tourism that involves interpretation and education of the natural environment and is

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managed to be ecologically sustainable. The Ecotourism Society defines ecotourism as responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the benefits of local people. Honey expands the social characteristics of ecotourism to include aspects of ethics and democracy (1999, pp, 2224). According to the broad definition suggested by Honey, genuine ecotourism has the following characteristics: involves travel to natural destinations; minimises impact; builds environmental awareness; provides direct financial benefits for conservation; provides financial benefits and employment for local people; respects local culture; and supports human rights and democratic movements. In essence, the key elements that distinguish ecotourism from other tourism operations are: a focus on the natural environment, ecological sustainability, education and interpretation, and local and regional benefits. As one of the fastest growing sectors in the tourism industry, ecotourism is charged with a mission to promote sustainable tourism practices.

What these criteria do not explicitly focus on are matters such as how to have minimal impact, how to design with nature, how to interpret nature, how to benchmark, and how to prepare an ecotourist audit. Consider the following issues as examples. With regard to minimal impact on animals, think of whale-watching. The number of tourists to a whale-watching area will be determined by the size of the area. The number of boats will be limited, the movement and noise of the boats will be strictly controlled. If the tourist activity interacts with dolphins, the number of people in the water at any one time will be strictly limited. Feeding of the animals will not be permitted. If the issue is design of an accommodation house, the basics will include (before a sod of earth is turned) a climate analysis, a locality analysis and a site analysis. Climate will determine the design of the building and the materials used. The locality analysis will determine the actual site of the building, the construction methods, the water supply, etc. At the site level, a large range of matters will be dealt with to minimise impact: drainage, stormwater, solid waste, noise, visual impact, air quality, cultural sensitivity, and personal experiences. As an example of how climate determines design, consider Box 6 which relates to a small tourism establishment in the wet tropics. At the site level see the discussion in Box 7.

Ecotourism in Detail
In Box 5, the eight principles of ecotourism applied by the Australian certification scheme (NEAP) are outlined. These criteria are consistent with those suggested by a range of experts; in fact, they could be considered marginally more rigorous than those used by Honey, who is very critical (and rightly so) of lite ecotourism.

Box 6: Climate and Design: Wet Coastal Tropics (from Queensland Tourism)
Climate Condition
Very humid all round with warm to hot conditions and high ground temperatures Solar radiation is intense. Summer is usually a wet season.

Box 5: Ecotourism Criteria

Focuses on directly and personally experiencing nature. Provides opportunities to experience nature in ways that lead to greater understanding, appreciation and enjoyment. Represents best practice for environmentally sustainable tourism. Positively contributes to the conservation of natural areas. Provides constructive ongoing contributions to local communities. Is sensitive to and involves different cultures, especially indigenous cultures. Consistently meets customer expectations. Is marketed accurately and leads to realistic expectations.

Design Response
100% shading of habitable area all year round by use of large overhangs. Lightweight materials for structures (heavy materials like bricks or blockwork store heat) Raised floors to assist in cooling. Roofs should be well insulated, as should walls and floors. Ventilation should be maximised.

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siting the development in an area with natural values that can be used to interpret the environment in a wider context; and considering the type of tenure, and rights of access and use.

Layout When deciding upon the exact location of the building, and the relationships between the different components of the development, there are a number of factors that need to be considered. These include: The site features of the site such as: aspect, slope, vegetation, hydrology, soil types, fauna, geomorphology and cultural heritage. Interactions between people and the site the movement of people around the site, as well as the views, sounds and smells that can be experienced. Opportunities for these experiences should be enhanced, as they will add to visitors appreciation of the location. Technology systems energy, waste, water supply communications. lighting, etc. The layout of the buildings on the site should allow these systems to operate efficiently, and should also assist in minimising the effects of their installation and operation on the site.

What to Build This process can be broadly broken down into eight categories, or building blocks. Each building block integrates with the others to form the final design of the structure. Each will play some part in influencing the choices made about one or more building blocks. The eight building blocks are: 1. layout; 2. planning; 3. building practice; 4. materials; 5. forms; 6. material's qualities; 7. technology (energy, water supply, waste); and 8. costs.

Box 7: Site Analysis (from Queensland Tourism)

When conducting a site analysis, development site needs to be selected. there are two issues that need to be There are some general rules addressed: to be followed when deciding upon where to build; and the specific site of a structure. These include: what to build. building on the least sensitive Where to Build areas, or areas that have already been subject to human After decisions have been made disturbance; on the best general location, a specific

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 External lighting should be kept to the minimum needed for safe pedestrian movement around the site. Lights should be positioned low to the ground or controlled for coverage and to minimise glow spread. This reduces the impact of lighting on the activities of fauna and the visual disturbances of the natural nightscape. For similar reasons, any high-noise mechanical systems (e.g. extractor fans) should be located within a building near areas that are used for high noise activities (such as loading docks or playground areas). Otherwise they should be isolated in purpose-built structures. Avoiding, or limiting the use of these systems is the most acoustically effective means of noise control. The figure illustrates a design response to a selection of potential site constraints: buildings are placed to minimise or avoid damage to natural vegetation, to minimise interference with natural ground and surface water flows and, importantly, fauna pathways and feeding areas; taking advantage of breezes, winds and access to sunlight; and balancing views and privacy (visual and acoustic).

References
Butler, R. W. 1993. Tourism an evolutionary perspective, in Tourism and Sustainable Development: Monitoring, Planning, Managing, eds. J. G. Nelson, R. Butler, & G. Wall, Department of Geography, University of Waterloo. Driml, S. and Common, M. 1996. Ecological Economics Criteria for Sustainable Tourism: Application to the Great Barrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas, Australia, Journal of Sustainable Tourism. 4(1): 316. Honey, M. 1999. Ecotourism and Sustainable Development Who Owns Paradise? Island Press, Washington, D.C., U.S.A. McLaren, D. 1998. Rethinkling Tourism and Ecotravel the paving of paradise and what you can do to stop it. Kumarian Press, Connecticut, U.S.A. Tourism Queensland, 1999. Grow Your Own Ecotourism Business Vol 1, Tourism Queensland, Brisbane.

Next consider interpretation, there is a need to be conscious of various facts: (i) interpretation provides information, but information is not necessarily interpretive; (ii) interpretation should be pleasurable; (iii) interpretation should involve first hand experience and awaken visitors senses, motivate and develop attitudes based on knowledge; and (iv) interpretative tools (guided walks, activities etc.) are only limited by the imagination.

In Conclusion
Ecotourism is the future of tourism, but it will have to resolve the issue of large-scale ecotourism. Depending on the circumstances, there can be better ecological and economic benefits from large-scale ecotourism. There are already examples in Australia where this is obvious. However, scale is a case-by-case decision. The fundamentals of ecotourism (given that it is taken as given it will be based on green productivity principles, in that it is nature-based, provides quality experiences, is enjoyable, and is profitable not only for the operators but the local community) do not change with a change in scale. And there are as many ways as there are intelligent people to practice ecotourism.

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