An Abstract of Study of Parameters in the Development of Sustainable Transportation System: A Case Study of Mumbai, India By Bhairavi S.

Dhakras

Submitted as partial fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Civil Engineering

The University of Toledo August 2004

Urban transportation forms one of the most important components of urban development. With the growing business, trade and urbanization all over the world, there is a growth in demand for transportation. Transportation problems mainly arise due to this growing demand and the inadequacy of the supply of transport facilities. This imbalance between capacity or supply of transport facilities and the increasing demand from people causes an unsustainable condition. Traffic congestion, trave l delays and dissatisfaction amongst the travelers are all the results of this imbalance. These are accompanied by environmental problems like air and noise pollution with high vehicular emissions and excessive fuel consumption. Concept of sustainability thus arises from the

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need of having a transportation system which would efficiently cater to the needs and travel demands of citizens, without causing any adverse effect on the environment. In this study, literature regarding transportation planning and urban designing is reviewed for various developed and developing countries. Most populous city in the world, developing city in Asia and the financial capital of India, the City of Mumbai, is selected as the study area. Views of the citizens of Mumbai and information about their regular traveling pattern are collected through a web survey. Transportation scenario and problems in this city are closely observed and studied which lead to interesting findings and facts. These include congestion index, loss i working hours, vehicular emissions, average speed, n distance, travel time, expenses and commuter satisfaction. A statistical analysis is carried out to measure the commuter satisfaction and different aspects of the transportation system affecting the performance of the system as a whole. It is deduced that congestion, rush, delay, parking, pedestrian facilities and road quality are major factors from peoples point of view, which significantly affect their satisfaction or acceptability of the performance of Mumbai Transportation System. Environmental problems are also studied for the City of Mumbai, and recommendations made to alleviate them. It is finally inferred that there is an urgent need for comprehensive transportation planning, dispersing population, curbing private vehicle use and effectively facilitating the public transportation in the City of Mumbai.

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Dedicated to My parents, brother and sister in law in Mumbai, India Thank you for being with me, always!

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Acknowledgements

I take this opportunity to thank Dr. Jiwan Gupta for his guidance, suggestions and co-operation. I am grateful to Dr. Candace Ayars for her immense help with the statistical analysis. Without her effort and help, this analysis would not have been possible. I appreciate Dr. Heydinger and Dr. Mostaghel for being on my defense committee. I am thankful to my parents, my brother and my sister in law in India, who have been a constant source of support and inspiration throughout my stay in the United States. I appreciate Anirbans help with technical details and comments, Amits suggestions and guidance, Priya for sharing pictures of Mumbai, Mr. Vijay Sidhaye for Mumbai maps and Tanvi, Srilakshmi and Rachana for their co-operation and understanding throughout their stay with me. I express my gratitude towards Mr. Seeman Corey, Rachana and Anirban, who helped me design the online questionnaire. I am thankful to Save Bombay Committee, Mumbai Metropolitan Region Development Authority, Regional Transport Office of Mumbai, Mumbai Municipal Corporation, Sustainable Transportation Yahoo Group and all the other web sites and books, which provided me with a great deal of information. I am especially thankful to Mr. Kisan Mehta, president of Save Bombay Committee, who has been my greatest inspiration in making Mumbai a sustainable city. I thank the citizens of Mumbai, who by their responses and comments have made this research possible.

Table of Content Page Abstract Dedication Acknowledgements Table of Content List of Figures, Maps and Photos List of Tables ii iv v vi ix xii

Chapter 1: 1.1 1.2

Introduction Background Sustainability 1.2.1 1.2.2 Definition Measures (Indicators) of Sustainability

1 1

3 6 9 11 11 13 14 22

1.3 Chapter 2: 2.1 2.2

Research Objectives Literature Review Urbanization and Unsustainable Transportation Demand Management Means to Sustainability 2.2.1 2.2.2 Land Use Planning Non-Motorized Transportation

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Page 2.3 2.4 Chapter 3: 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 3.5 3.6 Chapter 4: Role of Policy Implementers Government 29

Towards Sustainable Transportation Meaning and Indicators 31 Study Area City of Mumbai, India Information of the City History and Development Geography and Population Employment Transportation Traffic in Mumbai Environmental Crisis Taking a closer look at Transportation Problems Focus on Andheri, a Mumbai suburb 55 55 57 57 60 62 66 70 70 71 72 34 34 35 40 42 48 51

4.1 4.2

Overview of the area Transportation Infrastructure 4.2.1 4.2.2 Streets Sidewalks

4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8

Planning and Management Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic Environmental Pollution Spreading Localities Indiscipline and inefficient control of traffic Land Use Planning Concentration of Employment Centers

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Page Chapter 5: 5.1 Data Collection and Analysis Data Collection 5.1.1 5.1.2 5.2 Online Survey Survey Design and Observations 74 74 74 76 83 83 85 99 106 106 107

Analysis 5.2.1 5.2.2 Commuter Satisfaction Statistical Analysis

5.3 Chapter 6: 6.1 6.2

Environmental Aspect Results and Inference Interpretation and Inference Suggestions for Mitigation 6.2.1 Dispersion of Population and Employment Satellite Towns 6.2.2 6.2.3 6.2.4 6.2.5 Facilitation of Public Transportation Parking Pedestrian Convenience Curbing personalized vehicles on roads

107 108 110 110 111 113 113 115 116 122

Chapter 7: 7.1 7.2 References Appendix

Conclusion and Recommendations Conclusion Recommendations

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List of Figures Page Figure 1.1 Figure 3.1 Sustainability Curves Graph of increase in population in Mumbai from years 1911 to 1991 with estimated population in the year 2003 Figure 3.2 Figure 3.3 Figure 3.4 Motor vehicles (all types) from 1980 to 2003 in Mumbai Increase in private motor ownership (two-wheelers and cars) Average Air Pollution Levels at Traffic Junctions of suburbs of Wadala, Mahim and Andheri in Year 2002-03 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure 5.4 Graph showing AM and PM peak hours of travel Graph showing percentile speeds for AM Road Traffic Graph showing percentile speeds for PM Road Traffic Distribution of scores for Mumbai Transportation System as a whole Figure 5.5 Figure 5.6 Figure 5.7 Figure 5.8 Figure 5.9 Figure 5.10 Figure 5.11 Distribution of responses about Road Quality Distribution of responses about Congestion Distribution of responses about Delay due to Speed Distribution of responses about Frequency of Buses and Trains Distribution of responses about Pedestrian Facilities Distribution of responses about Rush in Public Transport Distribution of responses about Parking 86 86 87 87 88 88 89 89 52 77 80 80 40 49 49 6

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Figure 5.12

Distribution of responses about Availability of alternate modes 90 90 93

Figure 5.13 Figure 5.14 Figure 5.15

Distribution of responses about Cost of Travel Distribution of scores for Crowding Distribution of scores for Availability of Transportation Modes

93 94 94 98

Figure 5.16 Figure 5.17 Figure 5.18 Figure 5.19

Distribution of scores for Infrastructure Distribution of scores for Cost Graph of Linear Regression Emission levels (gm/km) for buses and trucks with respect to speed

100 101

Figure 5.20 Figure 5.21

Emission levels (gm/km) for cars with respect to speed Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, four stroke with respect to speed

102

Figure 5.22

Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, two stroke with respect to speed 103

List of Maps

Map 3.1 Map 3.2 Map 3.3 Map 3.4

Map of Mumbai Mumbai with significant areas City of Mumbai with roadways and important locations City of Mumbai showing Western Railway and

36 38 44

Central Railway Map 4.1 Focus Area in Mumbai The suburb of Andheri

46 56

List of Photos Photo 3.1 Photo 4.1 Photo 4.2 Photo 4.3 Photo 4.4 Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway Prolonged road constructions and maintenance Prolonged road constructions and maintenance Fenced and Narrow Medians on street in Andheri, Mumbai Jay walking due to lack of pedestrian signals and road Markings Photo 4.5 Photo 4.6 Photo 4.7 Photo 4.8 Photo 4.9 Photo 4.10 Photo 4.11 Photo 4.12 Photo 4.13 Photo 4.14 Photo 4.15 Photo 4.16 Photo 4.17 Hawkers on the pedestrian sidewalks Sidewalks occupied by hawkers in Mumbai Over-saturated flows at traffic signals Traffic Jam during peak hour Rush for the buses during peak hours Rush at a railway station to board train Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai Cattle on Mumbai streets Vehicle-Pedestrian Conflict outside Railway Station Slums around railway tracks Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway Station 60 61 61 63 64 65 66 67 68 68 69 69 71 73 47 58 58 59

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List of Tables Page Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table 3.3 Table 3.4 Table 3.5 Table 3.6 Push Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai Pull Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai Number of vehicles in 2003 in Mumbai Air Quality Monitoring at Traffic Junction (2002-03) Ambient Air Quality Levels at fixed monitoring sites Emission Load of Mumbai City in tons/day for year 2002-03 from Transportation Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Percentage of respondents based on their profession Percentage of Trips in mornings and evenings to and from suburbs and city Table 5.3 Percentage by number of trips, distance, and average AM and PM speeds for each mode of travel. Table 5.4 Percentage rating for the acceptability of Mumbai Transportation System and the parameters Table 5.5 Table 5.6 Commuter Satisfaction Index calculation Coefficients from Factor Analysis (Rotated Component Matrix) Table 5.7 Table 5.8 Summary of basic statistics for the four factors Model Summary xii 92 95 95 82 84 79 77 53 76 41 42 48 52 53

Table 5.9 Table 5.10 Table 5.11 Table 5.12 Table 5.13 Table 5.14

Correlations Coefficients from regression analysis Correla tions and Significance Model Summary Coefficients and significance values for linear regression Percentage decrease in fuel consumption and emission of pollutants

96 96 97 97 98

104

Table 5.15

Emission values in gm/km for the actual speed and ideal speed of vehicles in Mumbai 104

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Chapter 1 Introduction

1.1

Background Transportation is essential for the movement of people and goods. Deb [1] states

that the productive efficiency of urban areas is maintained when mobility requirements in the cities are fully met. With the growth of cities, demand for transportation grows with the growing business and trade all over the world. Thus urban transport forms one of the most important components of urban development. A good network of roads and an efficient transport system make a substantial contribution to the working efficiency of a city. The evolution of industrial development calls for an expansion of transportation systems to cater to the increasing demand. Most of the population and economic growth in the world is occurring in developing countries [2]. The occurrence of rapid urbanization in the world has created the migration of people from rural areas to metropolitan cities. This has resulted in more people and more goods making more trips in urban areas, often over longer distances [2]. Approximately 45 per cent of world population lived in urban areas in 1995. By the year 2025, this figure is estimated to rise to 60 per cent [3]. In 2003, 38 per cent of population (around 1.2 billion persons) of Asia lived in cities. By 2020, the proportion of urban residents will have increased by 50 per cent with the urban population reaching over 2

billion [4]. By some estimate at least 153 cities in Asia will have population exceeding 1 million persons [4]. Rapid urbanization is accompanied by an alarming rate of increase in the number of vehicles. In fact, the inventory of vehicles has been rising at a faster rate in terms of percentage as compared to the population. There is a high growth of autoownership in cities for better accessibility. Besides, in many of the developing countries owning a car is a symbol of prestige. With this, there is higher demand for the use of transportation facilities. However transport infrastructure development and provision of public transport facilities have severely lagged behind as compared to the demand. Road networks in cities are clogged by the explosion of personalized vehicle and have resulted in acute traffic congestion, steeply increasing number of accidents and levels of pollution. Process of urbanization with an improper controlled planning has resulted in disproportional spatial distribution of population and economic activities necessitating large-scale intra-city movement of people, goods and vehicles. Transportation problems mainly arise due to the imbalance between capacity or supply of transport facilities and the demand from the people. Traffic congestion, travel delays and dissatisfaction amongst the travelers are all the results of this imbalance. These are accompanied by environmental problems like air and noise pollution. Nonmotorized transportation modes (which mostly include pedestrians and cyclists) have become the most vulnerable in the present vehicular dominant transportation system. They are deprived of safe movement on roads, due to growing traffic. This causes increase in the number of accidents, pedestrians being the victims most of the times. Travelers spend money on their travel directly (traveling expenses) or indirectly (local taxes), but are unable to get desired satisfaction. There is a gap between increasing traffic

and existing infrastructure (in terms of bridges, roads, traffic control devices, subways etc). This gap is increasing leading to unsustainable condition, which prevents the smooth flow of traffic and healthy environmental conditions, suppressing economical development. Concept of sustainability thus arises from the need of a transportation system which would efficiently cater to the needs and travel demands of citizens.

1.2 1.2.1

Sustainability Definition The World Bank provides the following definition of sustainability:

Sustainability is defined as the condition in which there is a balance and stability between the social, economic, environmental and physical factors, satisfying the present needs as well as not compromising on the ability of the future condition. Pearce, Makandia & Barbier (1989) [5] define sustainability as: Sustainable development involves devising a social and economic system, which ensures that these goals are sustained, i.e. that real incomes rise, that educational standards increase, that the health of the nation improves, that the general quality of life is advanced. Sustainability is a condition when there is maximum fulfillment of needs with least resource consumption, optimum cost and without causing negative impact on environment and society. Sustainable transportation can be defined as the most efficient and convenient movement of people and vehicles with least amount of energy (in terms of fuel and efforts), at most favorable costs and with least amount of congestion and environmental impacts such as air and noise pollution.

Sustainable transportation is a long-term goal to achieve, and the progress towards it is incremental. Improvement in transportation is often misinterpreted as only building bridges, widening roads and having rapid transit systems. Although it includes all these techniques, transportation can become sustainable only when it holistically considers social, economical and environmental aspects. Good land use planning requiring minimum need to travel, transportation network friendly for all classes of people, transportation modes causing minimum amount of air pollution, and transportation options demanding least cost and effort of people can be considered as various aspects of a sustainable transportation system. Thus sustainable transportation concerns with the impacts of transportation developments on economic efficiency, environmental issues, resource consumption, land use, and equity. It includes the application of systems, policies and technologies, which would help achieve the continuous economic development without having a detrimental effect on environmental and human resources. It aims at the efficiency of transit of goods, services and delivery systems with minimum accessibility problems. Sustainable transportation system aims at designing of congestion- free urban planning, with bicycle and pedestrian friend ly design of the areas. It focuses on moving people and not only the vehicles, which in turn would reduce air pollution as well as the increasing congestion. Sustainability can be achieved with the change in behavioral aspects of people. When people understand the impacts of transportation, they can in turn make choices that reduce the need for resources and thus minimize the adverse impacts. A report by the World Bank (1996, 4-6) defines sustainable transportation as made of three components:

The economic and financial component, which includes the issues of adequacy of transportation infrastructure funding, organization and scale.

The environmental and ecological component, which includes issues of how transportation investments and mode options influence the reduction in consumption of energy, pollution etc.

The social component, which emphasizes adequate access to transportation services by all segments of society.

Sustainability is also said to be a measure of transport impact on all aspects of the natural and human environment. All costs are accounted for, including those costs that indicate the quality of the trip for the traveler. A principal human cost is the time spent in transport. This cost is the largest single cost after the systems capital and operating costs [6]. Sustainability cannot be achieved only by changing the vehicular designs, patterns and their management. It implies changes in the way we think to identify and evaluate the solutions to transportation problems. It focuses on accessib ility, which can be improved by having better means of communication and land use management that will reduce the need to travel. Sustainability can be graphically defined as shown in Figure 1.1.

Some Appropriate Measures

Sustainability Needs Technology Resources Environment Ecological System Time

Figure 1.1

Sustainability Curves

Source: Sustainable Transportation: Conceptualization and Performance Measures, Texas Transportation Institute Socio-economic needs of the people increase with the growth in technology. Figure 1.1 shows the increasing needs and the depleting resources. After a certain point of time, the resources are unable to satisfy the needs and the unsustainable condition arises. Thus an imbalance is created as the supply gets diminished as compared to demands.

1.2.2

Measures (indicators) of Sustainability Various researchers are conducting research to define measures of sustainable

development, but no definitive set of measures has been arrived at as acceptable by everyone. Indicators of sustainability can be the units of measuring progress towards sustainable development. There are three basic functions of indicators - simplification,

quantification, and communication. Indicators generally simplify in order to make complex phenomena quantifiable so that information can be communicated. The general public is concerned about sustainable development and the environment. They like to be informed about the state of the environment and the economy and how and why they are changing [5]. Performance should be measured in ways that meet both governmental standards and public needs and wishes. A primary performance measure can be devised which indicates how regional travel time delay is affected by the recommended strategy. Other secondary benefits could be identified and measured that are of interest to stakeholder groups. A clear additional benefit is how equitably people across a region share in the primary benefit of congestion relief. For some travelers, having more travel choices, especially safe non- motorized modes, is a benefit. Money that is freed up with a costeffective regional solution would also constitute a benefit. It could be applied to local transport problems or to important social purposes. Other measurable benefit indicators include: reductions in health impacts, environmental damages, and accident costs, as travelers shift to transit, ride share and non- motorized modes [6]. The University of Reading [5] gives the indicators for sustainable transportation in terms of car use and total passenger travel, short journeys, real changes in the cost of transport and freight traffic. While there is no simple or single means of achieving efficient transportation, measures for the study could include the following: Congestion index. Reduction in pollution levels.

Per capita energy consumption (Alberta Round Table on the Environment and the Economy -- May, 1993).

Reduction in travel times or the traveling costs. Percentage of excess of capacity over the demand. Benefit-Cost Ratio (B/C) of travel; B/C > 1 is a sustainable condition. Transportation planners face major challenges in exploring affordable, efficient

and reliable transport services for the citizens, minimizing negative environmental impacts. For achieving the sustainability, impact of each development and improvement has to be studied in deep and its benefits have to be calculated. Sustainability is attained when there is social comfort and equity with least consumption of resources. Urban areas in developing countries require new approaches to address their transportation problems. Although the problems appear to be universally the same, their solutions differ. Developing countries face a challenge in finding innovative solutions. Transportation planners often tend to apply methods developed in developed countries to problems in developing countries with little concern for differences in causes, need, condition, resource availability and climate [7]. These solutions may demand enormous costs. It is important for developing nations to develop a transportation system with limited resources, thus avoiding consumption of excessive amounts of land and other sources. Policy makers should realize that solutions designed for cities of developed countries cannot be directly applied to the urban areas of developing countries. They can and should learn from the experiences of developed countries. These countries should also acknowledge the interrelationships that exist between different urban trends and impacts. Addressing problems in isolation would not be very effective because of the

complex nature of the urban transportation system. Interrelated problems require integrated strategies implemented over time, from the immediate and short term to the gradual and long term. Developing countries need to make approaches city specific, even for cities within the same country. For instance, developed countries face a problem of urban sprawl, which essentially means the dispersion of population in low densities. Such countries encourage mixed land use pattern consisting of residences, work places, shopping malls, schools etc. This r duces the commuting distance and thus the car e dependency. In contrast to this, the City of Mumbai has a mixed land use pattern. The city consists of industries, factories, schools, offices, residential complexes, big and small employment centers and slums in a small area of 438 sq. km. Still the city faces a large number of transportation and environmental problems, all of them being very severe and serious. Mumbai, with a very high population density, mixed land use pattern and a good network of public transportation, is a very congested city. It means that the causes of these problems are not exactly similar to the ones in the developed countries, and demand innovative and different solutions.

1.3

Research Objectives The main objective of this study lies in identifying transportation problems in the

City of Mumbai, studying their causes, measuring them and suggesting feasible measures for sustainability. Although the measures of sustainability have not been exactly defined, sustainability of transportation in Mumbai can be measured by knowing the definition of sustainable transportation. Various parameters related to transportation system are studied which affect the sustainability from social, environmental and economical point of view.

With limited sources in obtaining data, the following tasks are envisioned to study the sustainable transportation system in Mumbai.

Literature study to define the sustainable transportation system for the City of Mumbai, by considering various parameters and the historical development.

Study of population, employment and transportation system. Defining a study area within the City of Mumbai for in depth study of sustainable transportation.

Measuring social satisfaction and acceptability towards the current system, and defining the indicators of sustainability.

Focusing on environmental aspect and recommending strategies to curb environmental damages.

Suggesting mitigation measures for achieving sustainability.

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Chapter 2 Literature Review

2.1

Urbanization and Unsustainable Transportation With rapid industrialization, most countries in the world are experiencing rapid

urban growth. There has been a population movement from rural to urban areas since twentieth century. Population and economic growth in the world i occurring mainly in s developing countries [4]. As discussed earlier, in 1995, approximately 45 per cent of world population lived in urban areas, but by the year 2025, this figure is estimated to rise to 60 per cent [3]. In 2003, 38 per cent of population of Asia lived in cities (around 1.2 billion persons). By 2020, the proportion of urban residents will increase by 50 per cent with the urban population reaching 2 billion [4]. At least 153 cities in Asia will have population exceeding 1 million persons [4]. Growth in population with the improvement in economy has caused growth in vehicle ownership. Although personal automobile ownership rates are lower in developing countries as compared to the developed countries, the growth rate of motor vehicles in deve loping countries has been rising in past few years and is also expected to rise in the future. Rapid urbanization has caused tremendous demand for supporting infrastructure such as water, transportation, electricity etc. In particular, a gap between the demand and supply of transportation facilities is increasing due to ineffective transportation management or due to incompetence of the existing system. This is apparently due to lack of comprehensive planning and weak

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institutional support. Transportation consumes more than 20 percent of the world's total energy and produces much of the world's air pollution [8]. As more and more people will be dependent on private automobiles, it is estimated that by 2025, the transport sectors energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions will be twice than that in 2000. The health and environmental implications of the rapidly growing and poorly regulated motorization are highly problematic. Each year, more than 750,000 people are killed by motor vehicles, most of them being pedestrians, and another 500,000 die prematurely due to transport-related air pollution in developing countries [9]. Transportation problems as discussed earlier are arising since the capacity or supply is unable to satisfy the travel demand, creating an unsustainable condition. Traffic congestion, travel delays, dissatisfaction amongst the travelers, environmental problems like air and noise pollution are various causes of unsustainable transportation. Travelers experience discomfort in traveling due to traffic jams, longer travel times and air pollution. Developments of new and improvement in existing facilities are seen, but transportation often remains a problem with increased travel demand. Billions of dollars are spent on highways and ring roads (beltways) in the developing countries while too little is spent on new public transit fleets which could effectively reduce pollution and congestion [9]. Sustainable transportation includes smooth movement of vehicles, goods and people. It demands conve nience of people and stability in the environment at optimum cost and effort. Until now, improvement of transportation network prioritized the movement of vehicles, thus benefiting the high income group of society. With increasing traffic and demand for travel, building bridges and widening roads became the common solutions to transportation problems. Urban

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growth and spread of transport networks often mismatched the supply and demand, projecting unsustainable trends. Conventional approaches which consist in providing new infrastructure along traditional lines to solve these problems no longer appear relevant. Transportation solutions include much more than providing only infrastructural facilities. Meeting future transport and travel needs, in line with sustainable development, calls for a review of urban transport infrastructure in terms of new investment and innovation. Developing a sustainable transportation system is a challenge for transportation engineers and planners.

2.2

Demand Management Means to sustainability There are two basic approaches to solve transportation problems. One approach is

to increase capacity in terms of infrastructure, and the other is to manage demand. Increasing capacity to a certain extent is wise and reasonable. However, it is impractical and expensive to increase capacity to uphold the continuously growing demand. Management strategies are affordable and real-time solutions. Comprehensive planning and management considers a wider range of potential solutions to transportation problems. When all impacts are considered, Transportation Demand Management (TDM) is often the most cost effective solution to transportation problems [10]. TDM can provide multiple benefits, including reduced congestion, road and parking facility, cost savings, crash cost savings, consumer cost savings, pollution reduction and more efficient land use. It includes use of alternative modes, facilitation of non- motorized transport, parking management strategies and effective land use planning.

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2.2.1 (1)

Land Use Planning Concept and Importance A city's form greatly influences and is influenced by travel patterns. Development

of improper urban form has been one of the root causes of many transportation problems throughout the world [3]. Rapid, unplanned and uncoordinated growth of cities has dispersed their populations, with more people moving from the city centers to their urban periphery. This dispersion reduces access to public transportation and makes the cost of building and maintaining new public transportation systems prohibitive. An increase in public transit systems seldom accompanies the growth in population, mainly because of high capital costs and its urban form. Non- motorized modes of transportation in the urban areas of developing countries also get affected and influenced by the city structure. They can remain viable options only if there is a suitably high population density and a mixed land use development pattern [3]. Transportation problems in developed countries like United States, Australia and European countries occur due to scattered low density population and hence create automobile dependency. In contrast, the problems in developing countries like India, China and Thailand occur because of high densities of concentrated population. Thus proper land use planning to suit the conditions and environment may need to be considered to solve the transportation problems. Transport, land use and environment are inter-related in an urban development. A change in one causes an impact on the others. For example, good land use planning for a city may lose its significance due to inadequate transportation facilities and vice versa. This can cause people to choose unusual modes of travel with longer travel times. In turn, it causes an adverse effect on the environment.

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Transport influences not only the land use, that is the way the land is used, but also who uses it [11]. The travel pattern of people for various activities, most important being the home to work link, is crucial in a transport planning. Transportation problems tend to arise from inappropriate spatial distribution of homes, offices, shops, factories, schools etc. It creates inconvenience for people to travel long distances and durations through congested traffic. Traffic situations arising from improper land use planning thus have restricting effect on movement of people. Hayashi [12] discusses land use planning as an important aspect of urban development. He further states that land use planning system is fundamental to improve the environment for reasons such as: (i) It is extremely essential in controlling urban sprawl to keep the infrastructure development cost at an acceptably low level, particularly during periods of rapid suburbanization. (ii) Infrastructure improvement provides benefits not only to users, but also to owners, tenants and developers of land properties in the vicinity. This attributes in the form of value increase.

(2) (i)

Effects of improper Land Use Planning Urban sprawl It can be defined as an unplanned and unconstrained growth of urban

development, which results in an inefficient and incomplete use of land and resources. It is one of the major causes contributing to broader environmental problems through the

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interactive mechanism of urbanization and motorizatio n. Urban sprawl involves developments of low residential densities over a large land space.

(ii)

Automobile Dependency Dispersed land use patterns require a high level of mobility for a given level of

access. This mobility is easily achieved from self-owned automobiles. Automobile dependency consists of high levels of per capita automobile travel, automobile oriented land use, and reduced transport alternatives [13]. It causes poor pedestrian and cycling conditions, limited transit service and under-pricing of automobile travel (such as abundant free parking, unpriced roads and low fuel taxes). In countries with large land areas and widely distributed populations, transit services prove to be unviable, resulting in growth in auto-ownership. For example, Australian cities, were relatively compact in the past, and walking was the dominant mode of personal transport. But there has been a steady progression from a compact walking city to a sprawling, car-dependent city at low residential densities by world standards. Residential density and travel characteristics in the suburbs of both Australian and North American urban areas have led to auto dependency in these countries [14]. Americans use their automobiles more than citizens of other developed countries, more likely due to lack of co-ordination between land-use and transportation policies in the United States [15].

(iii)

Increase in external costs Although automobiles are expensive to own, they are not very expensive to drive.

Use of automobile has internal and external costs [13]. Internal costs (costs borne by the

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vehicle owner) include price paid for the vehicle, maintenance, taxes and fuel costs. External costs (costs borne by the society) in the form of environmental impacts (air pollution, noise), congestion (delay caused to others), and accident costs (suffering and grief) are believed to be more than the internal costs. Thus the social cost (summation of internal cost and external cost) is always high. An inappropriate land use planning can lead to automobile-oriented city, poorly suited for walking, cycling and transit. The growth and development of such city is unsustainable and depicts a lack of co-ordination amongst stakeholders. For instance, in Bangkok, large tracts of land remain undeveloped between and behind the main roads. This development is the result of improper planning with inefficient use of land. Since much potentially valuable land is either not used or used only for small-scale farming, this type of development is highly uneconomical for transportation as it simultaneously causes obstruction of the main roads and produces deplorable living conditions for the people who live and work along the roads [11]. Urban sprawl is a serious issue in developed countries like United States. Poland reports widespread uncontrolled and unmanageable out of town development as one of the major forces driving urban areas away from sustainable development [16]. There is a different type of land use planning problem existing in Mumbai, India as compared to the urban sprawl problems of developed nations. In Mumbai, the urban growth is in the form of conurbations, that is a high density development along the main transportation routes. Conurbation development creates congestion problem on main arterial roads. Thus, whether a city is developed or developing, densely populated or sparsely populated, land use planning holds particular importance.

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(3)

Implementation of Land Use Planning and Control As discussed earlier, most of the population growth is occurring in the

metropolitan cities and suburbs. This rate and pattern of growth which is totally or substantially unplanned is expected to continue. Such unplanned growth will move jobs farther form homes, increasing commuting distances and thereby longer travel times. Land use planning techniques are thus required for co-ordination between travel and transport facilities. Smart Growth, a concept associated with growth management is used as an anti urban-sprawling technique. It aims at establishing land use strategies to increase population and housing densities and make transit more feasible [17]. It also intends to create resource efficient and livable communities. In the United Kingdom, land use control has been an effective planning tool for protection against rapid urban sprawl and environmental degradation in the suburbs. It has been implemented through several legislative measures such as the Restriction of Ribbon Development Act of 1935. In Japan, legal land use planning through the designation of restricted urbanization area has reduced the speed of urban sprawl. Sustainable planning and zoning measures relating to transportation include the development of high-density, mixed land use areas, rather than segregating commercial and residential districts. Mixed- use areas combine homes and businesses; residents simply walk or bicycle, rather than drive, to work. Specific examples of this type of development include pedestrian zones, which include roadways converted to pedestrian and bicycle use [18]. Specific examples of pedestrianization are discussed further. One of the best examples of efficiency and sustainability gains that come from coordinated transportation and land use planning is that of Stockholm, Sweden. The last

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half century of strategic regional planning has given rise to a regional settlement and commutation pattern that has substantially lowered car dependency in middle- income suburbs. Stockholm planners have created jobs- housing balance along rail-served axial corridors. This in turn has produced directional- flow balances. During peak hours, 55 per cent of commuters are typically traveling in one direction on trains and 45 per cent are heading in the other direction. Such balanced directional splits stand in marked contrast to the United States where, because of lack of coordination in infrastructure and development, trains and buses are often filled in the morning inbound but back- haul three-quarters empty [19]. Countries like France, Denmark and Sweden have held sprawl in check by heavily taxing electricity and petroleum consumption at a rate three to four times higher than in United States [19]. Increasingly, policy makers around the world are promoting measures like fuel taxing, road pricing and tolls, which will discourage the use of private vehicles. New suburban developments in The Netherlands and Germany are designed to provide safe and convenient pedestrian and bicycling access. Residential developments almost always include other uses such as cultural centers, shopping and service establishments that can easily be reached by foot or bike. New residential areas are located adjacent to town centers, connected by a fine mesh of local streets. The proximity to town makes trips shorter, while the finer grain of the road network allows pedestrians and bicyclists to choose quieter, less heavily traveled streets over busier, more dangerous roads [20].

19

In Germany, the concept of short distances is gaining around in many cities. German cities have begun to put an emphasis on mixed development, preserving areas where housing, employment and social services exist in close proximity, developing other activities in single use areas such as housing, employment, services and leisure facilities [16]. Heidelberg and Freiburg have been pioneers in introducing low-noise vehicles in noise protection districts. In Switzerland, land use and transport planning are integrated effectively at the regional level in the Cantonal (county) master plans. At a federal level, sectoral land use plans are developed by the ministries responsible in close collaboration with the Federal Office of Spatial Development with sectoral plans, for example covering railways and public transport. In Finland, transport system plans have been drawn up for most urban areas taking full account of land use development plans [16]. Holland has implemented a strict development control mechanism called ABC system that is based on transportation need. In this system, transit-dependent activities are classified as "A", which requires that they be of specific density and located within walking distance of public transit service. This category includes offices, residences, retail, and entertainment facilities. Wholesale, distribution, or business services are categorized as "B" activities, and must be located on the outskirts of "A" districts, with specific arterial road connections. Industrial firms and warehousing facilities are classified as "C", and must be located near to major highways and motorways. The way this system works is that the local communities produce a zoning plan, based on the National ABC guidelines. This plan takes into account current mode splits (such as 40 per cent of trips by bicycle, 30 per cent by public transit and 30 percent by automobile),

20

as well as an "efficiency model" (developed by the Department of Transportation) which measures how the plan will improve transportation connections from a current base of 100 per cent. When a business wants to build a facility within the community, it is offered a selection of sites within its category. This would be considered very deterministic, except that there is flexibility in the application of the system, based on the community's needs. So, for example, a Class C firm could select a site outside of its normal choices (often a green field site) if it is willing to provide the community with some additional service or facility that it needs [21]. Berlin, Germany, has adopted a regional approach to transportation and land use. Berlin itself is an artificial construct, created out of seven conurbations that occupied the northern part of the State of Brandenburg. Each of these smaller areas is presented with a regional plan, including current and planned transportation infrastructure, which lays out planned densities, intended development zones, and growth boundaries. This regional plan is negotiated between the seven towns that make up the Berlin metropolitan area. Once it is agreed upon, the regional plan is passed into law, to be implemented by the several towns. The towns then set zoning and development parameters on specific parcels and neighborhoods within their boundaries. While they have significant flexibility in this effort, each town has a performance measure that may not be exceeded, since it has been passed into la w. Thus, each town must contribute to meeting the goals of the regional plan through neighborhood level implementation [21].

21

2.2.2 (1)

Non-Motorized Transportation Importance Walking and cycling are sustainable means of transport. All journeys, whether

short or long involve walking. A pedestrian friendly city is more humane. In many ways, walking and cycling are ideal ways to get around cities. These non- motorized travel modes cause virtually no noise or air pollution. The only energy they require is provided directly by the traveler. Moreover, they are quite economical, costing much less than auto or public transit, both in direct user costs and public infrastructural costs [20]. Conventional transportation evaluation practices usually seem to prioritize automobile-oriented planning to non- motorized transportation (NMT). This is because the benefits of NMT are difficult to quantify. Walking and cycling are inexpensive and hence tend to be ignored. It may be difficult to determine the number of non- motorized trips in an area because they are often under-recorded in travel surveys and traffic counts. Some travel surveys exclude non- motorized trips altogether and when included, walking and cycling trips are often undercounted because they include many short, non-work and recreational trips, and trips by children, all of which tend to be overlooked. Automatic traffic counters do not record non- motorized travel and manual counts usually focus on arterial streets, ignoring side streets and paths that may be popular walking and cycling routes. Most trips involve non- motorized links that are often ignored in traffic counts. Trips classified as auto or transit are usually walk-auto-walk, or walk-transitwalk trips, yet the walking component is often not counted, even if it takes place on a roadway [22]. One study finds that the actual number of non-motorized trips is six times greater than what conventional surveys indicate. This suggests that 20 to 30 per cent of

22

all trips are non- motorized, yet a much smaller portion of transport funds are spent on facilities and safety programs for non-motorized modes [23]. There is considerable latent demand for non-motorized travel. That is, people would walk and bicycle more if they had suitable conditions. For example, two-thirds of U.S. urban trips are less than five miles, distances suitable for bicycling. A U.S survey indicates that 17 per cent of adults would sometimes bicycle commute if secure storage and changing facilities were available, 18 per cent would bicycle commute if employers offer financial incentives, and 20 per cent would bicycle commute if they could ride on safe bike lanes. This survey indicates that non- motorized travel could increase significantly with appropriate support and encouragement. Residents in neighborhoods with suitable street environments tend to walk and bicycle more, ride transit more, and drive less than comparable households in other areas. One study found that walking is three times more common in a community with pedestrian friendly streets than in otherwise comparable communities that are less conducive to foot travel [22]. Researches and studies have proved the importance of non- motorized transportation and its planning. Significance of walking and cycling has been realized, and improvements towards it are being done or proposed for the future. Some countries have undertaken a wide range of measures to improve safety including better facilities for walking and bicycling, urban design sensitive to the needs of non- motorists, traffic calming of residential neighborhoods, restrictions on motor vehicle use in cities, rigorous traffic education of both motorists and non- motorists, and strict enforcement of traffic regulations protecting pedestrians and bicyclists [20]. Some of the measures are described below.

23

(i)

Pedestrianization Facilitation for walking and bicycling Over the last few decades, European countries have implemented a range of

policies to make walking and cycling safer. Copenhagen, Denmark has recognized the social value of pedestrian streets [24]. There were heated discussions when Copenhagen started the pedestrianization. However, it became a great success almost immediately. Pedestrianization continued over a period of 30 years and the downtown parking policy aimed to remove 2-3 per cent of the parking spaces every year. With the improvement of the public transport system and the enlargement of the bicycle network, more and more space has been taken away from the traffic and given to people. Oulu, Finland is extending its pedestrian zone, which is proving to be very successful, even in temperatures of -30 C. Italian cities have been leading a way to create pedestrian cultural environments. In Naples, places like Piassa del Plebiscito are rediscovering their former splendor after the removal of private cars. Venice remains the archetype of a car-free city [24]. Pedestrianized zones are currently found in Munich in Germany, Boston in Massachusetts and Denver and Boulder in Colorado. Pedestrianized commercial areas generate up to 25 per cent more revenues than spaces developed to encourage automobile use. This financial success is attributable to easy access by foot and public transportation [18]. When people walk through shopping display, they tend to buy and spend money on small items that may generate lot more profit in terms of per square foot of shop area. Curitiba, Brazil, presents one of the best illustrations of pedestrian zone development. Located close to mass transit and residences, one such zone features restaurants, and other businesses. The city has combined these zones with a highly

24

efficient bus system and carries more passengers as compared to Rio subway system although Curitiba city is one sixth of Rio. The integration of mass transit with pedestrian zones in this city of 1.5 million people has created more disposable income for residents due to decreased transportation costs and new markets for locally produced goods [18]. Another excellent example of pedestrian mall is Caracus, Venezuela. The pedestrian walk is 400 to 600 feet wide and 2 miles long with small shops, restaurants and music stands. Walking and cycling have been more developed in northern cities than in southern cities, although the southern climate is more suitable for such activities. Amsterdam has the most elaborate bicycle network, complementing the road and canal routes. A pilot program in Delft, a city in The Netherlands indicates that up to 55 per cent of all urban trips may be done by bicycle. In Copenhagen, Munster, Erlangen and other cities, up to 35 per cent of all transport needs are satisfied by bicycle, while in cities of the former German Democratic Republic, such as Desaau, the use of bicycle is falling. Cities such as Basle can be traversed and enjoyed by bicycle, while cities of Zurich and La Rochelle lend bicycles free to citizens and visitors [24]. In The Netherlands and Germany, new suburban commercial developments have sidewalks and bicycle paths to serve non- motorists. Parking lots almost never surround buildings, as in the United States; instead, they are built next to or behind buildings, thus permitting easy access to pedestrians and bicyclists. When an obstacle such as a highway, railroad, or river must be traversed, Dutch and German cities usually provide safe and attractive pedestrian and bicyclist crossings. German and Dutch cities have invested heavily to expand and improve facilities specifically for bicycling; many of these investments have focused on increased safety. The most obvious symbol of this

25

investment is the already massive and ever expanding network of bike lanes and bike paths, which provide completely separate rights of way for cyclists. Unlike the fragmented cycling facilities, the bike paths and lanes in The Netherlands and Germany form a truly integrated, coordinated network covering both rural and urban areas. Dutch and German bikeway systems serve practical destinations for everyday travel, and not just recreational attractions. In The Netherlands, the network of bike paths and lanes more than doubled in length in less than 20 years: from 9,282 km in 1978 to 18,948 km in 1996. The German bikeway network almost tripled in length: from 12,911 km in 1976 to 31,236 km [20]. Under Norways inter- ministerial program for environmentally friendly urban development, strengthening the role of cycling as an important urban transport is considered an important task. Germany provides statistics on cycling, which it estimates to account for 12 per cent of all trips and averages 300 km per head of population per year. It foresees significant potential to increase these figures, noting that the figure is nearer 27 per cent of all trips in The Netherlands and as much as 40 per cent in some countrys towns and cities. A national cycling promotion plan is under preparation to coordinate federal, state and local measures. Finland also aims at improving the pedestrian environment and non-hindrance is one of the principles for transport planning [16].

(ii)

Restraint on automobile-use In Europe, large fuel taxes have reduced use of automobile [18] and encouraged

NMT. Other regulations include toll collection and congestion pricing. Pricing proves to be a major disincentive for car-ownership, and people avoid living at places accessible

26

only by cars. Congestion pricing sche mes essentially employ tolls based on time-of-day use and thereby serve to reduce peak time traffic. Other proposed incentives include feebates and pay-at-the-pump auto insurance. Feebates, proposed in both California, United States and Ontario, Canada, encourage the purchase of fuel-efficient vehicles by providing rebates for their buyers, creating a system that pays for itself. Pay-at-the-pump insurance, another California proposal, adds an insurance surcharge to each gallon of gas purchased my motorists. Hence drivers of more efficient cars pay less for insurance [18]. In London's borough of Hammersmith and Fulham, a method was developed for controlling the addition of parking (and thus car use) through new or in- fill developments. The borough Council calculates an accessibility index called public transport accessibility level (PTAL) for all locations within a specific area. Currently these range from high accessibility (level 6) to low accessibility (level 1). The higher the accessibility level, the lower the permitted parking spaces per unit of occupancy. This can apply equally to residential and to office space. Discussions are under way to develop measures for retail and other motor-vehicle oriented functions. The focus of this method is that it provides a basis for dialogue before a development is planned out. Rather than depending on national averages for ratios of parking to residential or office space, the London boroughs are using their own experiences, based on existing and planned public transit services. They are being supported by London Transport, because one goal of using the PTAL is to at least maintain the competitive balance between auto use and public transit use. Just as the local road infrastructure can only accommodate very gradual i creases in automobile traffic, the public transit system cannot accommodate n

27

sharp peaks and troughs in patronage which might be caused by severe fluctuations in traffic congestion due to sharp increases in auto use [21]. Parking policies are one of the most important and widely used instruments employed in restraint of car use and thus promoting a more sustainable urban environment. The Tokyo metropolitan government has long practiced a regulatory policy of requiring proof of a rented or owned off-road parking space for the purchase of private cars. In Europe, Switzerland has developed the parking policy to the greatest degree. Charging and policies to reduce the number of public parking spaces in central urban districts and private parking lots in new buildings have been employed for a number of years. In the latest stage, negotiations are underway with large property owners to begin charging for and reducing the number of existing residential parking spaces in some urban locations [16]. The city of Evora, Portugal, has developed integrated local traffic and land use plans, redirecting car traffic away from the center of the city and enhancing public transport services, including of parking charges in the center. Cordon charges are introduced for cars entering the urban centers [16].

(iii)

Public Awareness and Education Children are often the victims in accidents involving pedestrians. Hence, traffic

education for children should be given importance. Some European countries have already started spreading awareness. There are Childrens Traffic Clubs in Scotland. In The Netherlands and Germany every school provides comprehensive programs to educate children to walk and bicycle safely. Approximately by the age of 10, every child has

28

received extensive instruction on safe walking and bicycling practices. They are taught not just the traffic regulations but how to walk and bicycle defensively, to anticipate dangerous situations, and to react appropriately. Throughout Germany, schoolchildren in the third and fourth grades are required to take bicycling courses, often taught by special traffic police, with a concluding exam. Children are tested by real police officers in special traffic parks with simulated streets, intersections, traffic signals, and possible dangers. Children take the traffic courses seriously and compete with each other for the best grade. Even bike safety inspections are a special event [20]. Driver training for motorists in The Netherlands and Germany is much more extensive, thorough and expensive than in the United States. Dutch and German drivers are required to take a minimum number of hours of driving instruction with private firms, usually costing at least $1,500 [20].

2.3

Role of Policy Implementers Government A single authority for public transport and private car parking could internalize

more equitably the environmental costs of private motoring and improve public transport. In Evora, one of the World Heritage cities, the new traffic plan includes the creation of large car parks outside the city walls, a high quality public transport system with mini and micro-buses, well adapted to the existing narrow medieval streets, and the creation of pedestrian and bicycle paths. In Orvieto, Italy, the alternative mobility system has been created out of the need to improve urban life and revitalize the old railway that serves the tourists [16].

29

Singapore has been seen as a developmental state because economic development planning has been followed up with provision of industrial and business infrastructure and their effective maintenance and management without all of which, the economy would not exist. It has shown tremendous success in environmental and vehicle management. Singapores experience with environmental management has shown that if urban growth and industrialization do have a major environmental impact, the most negative aspects of such impact can be managed if there is an environmental policy in place for proper planning and effective implementation of both plans and policy [25]. From the mid 1970s, Singapore has tackled its transportation problems with combination of planning, engineering, fiscal and administrative measures [26]. The components of the strategy are: (1) integrated land use and transportation planning (2) the construction of a modest and efficient road network (3) good traffic management (4) public transport as the dominant mode of travel (5) road pricing to curtail excessive demand for travel Land is too scarce in Singapore to allow provision of large buffers between incompatible deve lopments such as industrial and residential areas. In spite of this limitation, Singapore has managed, through coordinated efforts between town planners and environmental engineers, to maintain a high quality environment even as it continues its rapid industrialization and urban growth [27]. In Singapore, as in any urbanized city, motor vehicle emission is a significant source of air pollution. The vehicular population has been steadily increasing over the

30

past decade as a consequence of rapid urbanization and economic growth. The vehicle population would have been probably higher had the Government not discouraged the ownership of vehicles through various measures. Singapores strategy for reducing pollution from motor vehicles is two-sided: improving engines and fuel quality to reduce emissions and using traffic management measures to control the growth of vehicle population and fuel consumption. Ministry of Environment works closely with the Registry of Vehicles to implement the two-pronged strategy. Between 1981 and 1987, the lead content in leaded petrol was gradually reduced from 0.8 to 0.15 gram/liter. The use of unleaded petrol was promoted in February 1990 through a differential tax system which made unleaded petrol 10 cents cheaper than leaded petrol at the pump. All petroldriven vehicles registered for use in Singapore after July 1, 1991 are able to use unleaded petrol. About 57 per cent of all petrol sold in Singapore at the end of 1993 was unleaded petrol. The sulfur content in automobile diesel was reduced from 1 per cent by weight in 1976 to the current limit of 0.5 per cent by weight to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions from diesel vehicles. The sulfur limit has further reduced to 0.3 per cent by weight from July 1, 1996 onwards to reduce particulate (soot) emissions as lower sulfur diesel produces less particulate emissions. Since October 1992, motorcycles and scooters have been required to comply with the carbon monoxide and hydrocarbon emission standard before they can be registered for use in Singapore [27].

2.4

Towards Sustainable Transportation Meaning and Indicators As discussed in the first chapter, there are various definitions given for the

sustainability. Similarly, no definite measures or indicators are defined for measuring the

31

sustainability. According to the Transport Canada the goal of sustainable transportation is to ensure that environmental, social, and economic considerations are factored into decisions affecting transportation activity. According to Richardson, a sustainable transportation system is one in which fuel consumption, vehicle emissions, safety, congestion, and social and economic access are of such levels that they can be sustained into the indefinite future without causing great or irreparable harm to future generations of people throughout the world [28]. The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) defines environmentally sustainable transportation as

transportation that does not endanger public health or ecosystems and that meets needs for access consistent with (a) use of renewable resources that are below their rates of regeneration, and (b) use of non-renewable resources below the rates of development of renewable substitutes [28]. Canadian Centre for Sustainable Transportation defines sustainable transportation system as: A sustainable transportation system is one that (i) allows the basic access needs of individuals and societies to be met safely and in a manner consistent with human and ecosystem health, and with equity within and between generations; (ii) is affordable, operates efficiently, offers choice of transport mode, and supports a vibrant economy; (iii) limits emissions and waste within the planets ability to absorb them, minimizes consumption of non-renewable resources, limits consumption of renewable resources to the sustainable yield level, reuses and recycles its components, and minimizes the use of land and the production of noise [28]. However, in order to find out whether or not the transportation system is sustainable, some comprehensive sustainability criteria are to be evaluated that reflect all

32

three components of sustainable development - the economy, society and environment [28]. Few measures like congestion index, benefit-cost ratio, reduction in the pollutio n levels, reduction in travel time and costs and per capita energy consumption can be used to evaluate sustainability. Each indicator can be evaluated independently and then the effect of all indicators in combination can be studied. Again, there is no particular definition for congestion index either, but different people have different views over the term. Dahlgren [28] defines congestion index as person-delay on any street, i.e. actual time traveling on a street minus the ideal time under free flow cond itions. Simon Li [28] views congestion index as the condition when demand approaches or exceeds the capacity (supply) of a facility. Developed countries have started moving towards sustainability with various policies and reforms. There is no single solution to address the interrelated transportation problems. These problems require a bold, solid and an integrated approach. Although sustainability has three different aspects environmental, economical and social results from feasible solutions will contribute to all three features. Thus improvement in any one indicator will cause an enhancement to the environment as whole.

33

Chapter 3 Study Area - City of Mumbai, India

3.1

Information of the City History and Development Bombay, which has recently been renamed to its ancient Marathi name of

Mumbai, is the largest metropolis in India [29]. Mumbai is considered as the soul of enterprise. The City of Mumbai is also known as the financial capital of India. Mumbai is the busiest city in India due to large employment centers, offices, factories, film industry and stock exchange. It is a commercial hub, where a large population commutes from suburbs to downtown offices, banks, factories and mills for a living. Mumbai, a busy, crowded and a commercial city has a great economic significance. It is the main destination for international flights to and from India. Also, it is the biggest port in India and undergoes most foreign trade in the country. Life in Mumbai is fast, similar to New York in the United States. Mumbai fell into British possession in the mid 17th century, where it was immediately given in a charter to the East India Trading Company. In the hands of this company and later under British administration, Bombay (Mumbai) prospered from a group of seven swampy islands for fishing, to the most economically vibrant city on the Indian subcontinent [29].

34

Mumbai is the financial and trade centre of India, and also an important cultural centre. Bombay houses India's film industry, Bollywood. The film industry produces the second most number of motion pictures in the world every year, next to Hollywood. Mumbai is the centre of India's high-technology industries. It is also an important industrial city [29]. Mumbai is a cosmopolitan city. Nearly 13 million people live in the city ranging from wealthy industrialists living in skyscrapers to the poorest people who live in the city's slums [30]. The population is concentrated primarily on a single island, separated from the rest of India by the shallow Bay of Thane. Mumbai is a tourist attraction too, with Gateway of India monument, Prince of Wales Museum and the Hanging Gardens. In the outskirts of the city there are many ancient caves like Elephanta caves and the Kanheri caves [29].

3.2

Geography and Population Mumbai lies at the south of the continent of Asia. Geographically, Mumbai is

surrounded by Arabian Sea on three sides east, west and south. Its growth is restricted in east-west direction. Navi Mumbai (New Bombay), a city smaller than Mumbai, lies on the north-east side of the City of Mumbai. The width of City of Mumbai ranges from 4.75 km in the north and 1.3 km at the south. Along with the eastern and the western suburbs, the city has grown northwards. The city along with the suburbs forms the Greater Mumbai (referred as Mumbai hereafter). Map 3.1 shows the map of Mumbai and Navi Mumbai. The Central Business District (CBD) lies at the southernmost tip. Mumbai has a humid tropical temperature. Its average low temperature is 19C and an average high

35

temperature of 29C in winter. The average low temperature is 27C and the high is 33C in summer [31].

Map 3.1 Source:

Map of Mumbai http://www.geocities.com/newpanvel2001/map.html

36

Map 3.2 shows Mumbai by categorizing areas according to their significance. The western- most region in the southern side of Mumbai constitute tourist spots like Marine Drive, Malabar Hill and Walkeshwar. The northern side mainly constitutes middle class residential area and small commercial complexes. The Central region in the southern side is mostly the commercial area mixed with industries. Congested commercial areas like Kalbadevi and Bhuleshwar are in this area. Girgaum, a middle class residential area is also a part of this region. The northern part of this region is industrial and commercial area that has rubber and plastic industries and small factories manufacturing spare parts of automobiles etc. Seepz, a complex popular for software companies is in this area. The eastern coast is mainly occupied by port activities. This area has large truck traffic. The eastern suburbs on north side are residential areas of middle to low income groups. There is industrial development in this region. Areas to east and north of Wadala are occupied by oil refineries, chemical and fertilizer units and atomic energy establishment [32].

37

CBD Harbor Area Tourist spots Map 3.2

Industries, factories Residential (mid.inc) No specific area

Res. Area (high inc) Forest

Mumbai with significant areas

38

With a small area of 438 sq. km, the city is the most populous city in the world, with a population of 12.38 million [33]. With a very high population density (28,265 persons per sq. km), the city is continuing to grow further. The city provides opportunities for employment and education that have caused a severe growth of this city. With the urbanization, population of Mumbai has risen by more than 3 times from 1951 to 1991 (population in 1951 being 2.96 million and 9.9 million in 1991 [34]). According to Save Bombay Committee report, the island city is densely developed with residential densities varying from 129 to 3717 persons per hectare (1 hectare = 0.01 sq. km). The graph of increase in population from 1921 to 1991 is as shown in Figure 3.1. It can be seen from the figure that there has been a continuously increasing population from 1911 to 2001. The population is estimated to reach more than 25 million by 2011 [35], the reason being high birth rate as well as migration of people from other parts of the nation to Mumbai in search of jobs. Urbanization of Mumbai is m ainly due to employment opportunities in the city.

39

Population figures of Mumbai from 1901 to 2001 in million

Population in million 20 15 10 5 0
19 01 19 11 19 21 19 31 19 41 19 51 19 61 197 1 198 1 199 1 200 1 201 1

13.00 8.23 5.97 0.78 0.98 1.18 1.16 1.49 2.97 4.15 9.90 Population Expon. (Population)

Years

Figure 3.1

Graph of increase in population in Mumbai from years 1911 to 1991 with estimated population in the year 2003

Source:

Population statistics from Tata Institute of Fundamental Research web site

3.3

Employment There are various types of formal and informal employment sectors. Mumbai is

considered as a city of job opportunities. Mumbai is known for its film industry, Bollywood and is the financial capital of India. It attracts people from all parts of India and has become the most populous city in India. There are offices of financial services, media, printing, publishing, software, share market etc. Forty per cent of the formal sector jobs in Mumbai are concentrated within a two- mile radius of Flora Fountain around the Fort area. There are 144 jobs for every 100 residents in the Fort area, creating enormous congestion [36]. According to a study on Global Change in University of Michigan, the migration of population to Mumbai is due to push and pull factors [37]. For example, migrants may be 'pushed' out of a rural region because of unemployment as

40

shown in Table 3.1. It is evident form the Table that almost 70 percent of people who come to Mumbai is due to poverty and hunting for jobs. They could be also 'pulled' out of rural villages by the lure of friends or family in a particular city as shown in Table 3.2. Most likely, people migrate because of a combination of the two. The understanding of these factors working together helps in examining and explaining the driving forces of urban migration.

Table 3.1 Push Factors

Push Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai Percent migration 39 30.2 8.9 8.6 6.6 4.7 1.2 8 100 The Social Sphere, a study carried out in University of Michigan

Hunting for Job Poverty Someone in the house exercising persuasion Someone in village interested in migration Student Others Differences with others Not Available Total Source:

41

Table 3.2

Pull Factors affecting Migration to Mumbai Percent migration 34.3 23.2 11.5 10.5 10.5 7.7 2.3 100

Pull Factors Some friends or relatives already there Secured some job Better opportunities (school, job etc) Due to transferred post Others Liking for the place Not Available Total Source:

The Social Sphere, a study carried out in University of Michigan

Mumbai accounts for 20 per cent of India's total employment in industry and 11 per cent of India's employment in total. It handles 30 per cent of India's exports and imports and is the subcontinent's largest port. However, there is still an extremely high rate of unemployment due to the fact that there are severely fewer jobs than there are workers [31].

3.4

Transportation The city's transportation system was modeled after the London transportation

system with the exception of the Underground Metro. It was pretty much developed in conjunction with London. As London developed a system, Mumbai received it approximately five years later. Tram service in Mumbai began in 1870. It remained until the 1950s whe n people felt that the trams were becoming obsolete even though their passenger carrying capacity was 50 per cent greater than buses [31]. The tram system was also removed for widening the roads for traffic [38]. Trams were more energy efficient, cleaner and could be easily modernized. The government did a study and ruled that buses

42

would be more effective. The tram system closed down in 1964 and the trolley buses were stopped in 1974. The trolley bus was much like a bus, but it ran on electricity, was quiet and was able to follow routes that the large diesel buses could not run on [31]. Road network in Mumbai is predominantly radial along the peninsula and comprises three main corridors, the Western Express Highway, the Eastern Express Highway and the Central corridor as shown in Map 3.3. Although termed as expressways, the roads are essentially arterial roads in terms of western standards. When these roads pass through the older parts of Mumbai the island city, the operational quality decreases considerably [35].

43

Map 3.3

City of Mumbai with roadways and important locations

Source:

www.mumbainet.com

44

Western Railway and Central Railway form the backbone of public transportatio n in Mumbai. They divide Mumbai into three north-south corridors as shown in Map 3.4. The Railway system in Mumbai is one of the most complex, densely loaded and intensively utilized systems in the world [40] with a spread over 302 km. The suburban services run by electric multiple units (EMU) consists of 184 rakes (train sets) of 9-car and 12-car composition. On any given day there are 2067 train services carrying 6.1 million passengers per day. Two corridors (one local and other through) on Western Railway run northwards from Churchgate terminus parallel to the west coast up to Virar (60 km). Two corridors (one local and other through) on Central Railway run from Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST) to Kalyan (54 km), from where it bifurcates into Kalyan-Kasara (67 km) in the north-east and Kalyan-Karjat-Khapoli (61 km) in southeast. The 5th corridor on Central Railway runs as the Harbor line starting from CST to Raoli Junction (11 km) from where the line splits. One line goes northwest to join Western Railway at Bandra and goes up to Andheri (11 km) and the other goes eastward to terminate at Panvel (39 km) via New-Mumbai. At present, the fast corridors on Central Railway as well as Western Railway are shared for long distance (Main line) and Freight trains [40]. Dadar forms a common railway station for the Western Railway and the Central Railway, where people change trains while traveling from both railways.

45

Map 3.4 Source:

City of Mumbai showing Western Railway and Central Railway www.mumbainet.com

46

Public transport (railways and buses) carries 88 per cent of the trips in the city with 6.1 million passengers per day by trains [40] and 4.5 million journeys per day by the local buses run by Bombay Electric Supply and Transportation (BEST) [41]. Overcrowding of trains is a common scene everyday. 4,700 passengers travel per 9-car train during peak hours, as against the rated carrying capacity of 1,700. This has resulted in super dense crush load of 14-16 standing passengers per sq. m of floor space. Because of the overcrowding on the mass transit system, many people are switching to scooters or mopeds [31]. A photograph of typical suburban train is as shown in Photo 3.1.

Photo 3.1 Source:

Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation web site

47

3.5

Traffic in Mumbai Mumbai traffic consists of motorized and non motorized vehicles competing on

the same road surface. Roads carry pedestrians, bicycles, scooters, auto-rickshaws, taxis, cars, buses and trucks. Vehicle population in Mumbai as in 2003 can be categorized as shown in Table 3.3.

Table 3.3

Number of vehicles in 2003 in Mumbai Number 527,108 341,774 54,809 98,527 11,812

Type of Vehicles Two Wheelers Cars Taxis Auto Rickshaws Buses Source:

Motor Transport Statistics of Maharashtra 2002-03

The rise in the number of vehicles due to urbanization is as shown in Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.3. There is a steep rise in the vehicle population from 1980 (286,132 vehicles) to 1990 (609,904 vehicles) and from 1995 (667,383 vehicles) to 2003 (1,123,562 vehicles). The private vehicle ownership in Mumbai is also rising. While in 1999, there were 379,441 two-wheelers in Mumbai and 284,964 cars, in the year 2000 the number was 407,306 and 303, 108 respectively and in 2003 the number of two-wheelers rose to 527,108 and cars to 341,774 [39]. Accident rate in Mumbai is also high. Although the accident rate is seen to be decreasing, year 2002 reported 25,470 road accidents in Mumbai [39]. It is estimated that 95 per cent of the accidents involve pedestrians.

48

Increase in vehicle population

1200000 1000000 Motor vehicles 800000 600000 400000 200000 0 1975
286132 441084 609904 667383 1123562 969680

Increase in vehicle population

1980

1985

1990 Year

1995

2000 20032005

Figure 3.2 Source:

Motor vehicles (all types) from 1980 to 2003 in Mumbai Motor Transport Statistics of Maharashtra 2002-03
Increase in Two Wheelers and Cars from 1999 to 2003
600000 Number of Vehicles 500000
379441 407306 527108

400000 300000 200000 100000 0 1998

284964 303108 341774

Two Wheelers Cars

1999

2000

2001 Year

2002

2003

2004

Figure 3.3 Source:

Increase in private motor ownership (two -wheelers and cars) Motor Transport Statistics of Maharashtra 2002-03

49

The physical area of the city has increased over the years, in terms of suburbs towards the north. With this growth, there is an increase in vehicular traffic in suburbs. With the CBD situated at the southernmost tip of Mumbai, commuter traffic to this area is high during mornings. Due to incapability of the public transport, people have started shifting to private modes. Over the last two decades, the number of private vehicles in Mumbai has increased four times while taxi population has increased by six times. The road length, however, has increased from 800 km in 1951 to about 1,800 km in 2001 [42] (1583 km asphalt roads and 278.810 km cement concrete roads). A substantial part of this increase in road length is because of new areas added to the city. Transport capacity increased by 225 percent from 1951 to 1991, but is insufficient. One of the driving forces in road transport is the increase in the car and truck fleets. The increase in population has resulted in suburbanization and created an enormous pressure of people working in the CBD of the city. With the growth in population, there is a high rise in the number of motorized vehicles. The traffic congestion has drastically reduced the average speed of the vehicles. Due to a very high vehicular density of about 735 vehicles per km [43], the average speed of vehicles is as low as 6 to 8 km/h [35]. As a result, emergency vehicles are unable to move smoothly. Total number of vehicles in Mumbai in 2002-03 was 1,165,782. Moreover, 110 vehicles are added to Mumbai everyday [43]. The vehicular count is expected to go to 1.6 million by 2010, though the existing road infrastructure can handle only 0.25 million vehicles [35]. The city is continuing to grow in terms of traffic but the transportation system is unable to keep the pace. Increase in population and motor vehicles makes it evident that the transport scenario of city of Mumbai is precarious. This

50

fact shows urgency in need of development of the infrastructure and the change in the existing transportation policies.

3.6

Environmental Crisis Traditionally, the industries have been blamed for the pollution, but it has been

discovered that 86 per cent of pollution is contributed by Mumbai traffic [44]. It has also been estimated that the air quality of such metropolitan cities in India will deteriorate by a factor of 3 in the next 10 15 years [45]. In addition to illnesses and lost work hours, Urban Air Quality Management Strategy (URBAIR) Greater Mumbai Report, estimates that air pollution in Mumbai causes approximately 2,800 premature deaths, with health damages costing over Rs 18 billion (approximately $500 million) a year. Air pollution levels in three important suburbs of Mumbai as in 2002-03 are as given in Table 3.4 and Figure 3.4. These levels are measured at traffic junctions in these suburbs with the Mumbai Municipal Corporation mobile van. The values are measured for an average of 24 hours (8 hrs maximum), with an annual standard of 60 g/m3 for sulfur dioxide (SO2 ), nitrogen oxides (NOx ), respirable suspended particulate matter (RSP) and 2 mg/m3 for carbon monoxide (CO) for residential and other areas. Air quality is very poor in traffic congested areas of the suburb of Andheri, the reasons being explained in Chapter 4. Ambient Air Quality average annual levels at fixed monitoring stations at few suburban sites in Mumbai are as shown in Table 3.5. Andheri and Maravli report bad ambient air quality with very high emissions of SPM and NO2 . Table 3.6 shows the load of pollutants from transportation in tons/day for the year 2002-03. NOx emissions are very high from diesel and CO emissions are enormous from petrol.

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Table 3.4 Site Annual Std Avg. 24 hrs Max. 8 hrs Wadala Mahim Andheri Source:

Air Quality Monitoring at Traffic Junction (2002-03) SO2 60 g/m3 Avg 12 15 39 Max 32 50 144 NOx 60 g/m3 Avg 163 209 254 Max 551 678 635 RSP 60 g/m3 Avg 198 231 332 Max 402 602 700 CO 2 mg/m3 (1 hr std.) Avg Max 1.5 2.3 3 6 6.1 6.4

Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03

Air Pollution Levels at Traffic Junctions in suburbs of Wadala, Mahim and Andheri Year 2002-03
350 300
254 332

250
3

231 209 163 Standard = 60 ug/m

3

198

ug/m

200 150 100 50 0 SO2

39 12 15

Wadala Mahim Andheri

NOx Air Pollutants

RSP

Figure 3.4

Average Air Pollution Levels at Traffic Junctions of suburbs of Wadala, Mahim and Andheri in Year 2002-03

Source:

Air pollution statistics from Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03

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Table 3.5

Ambient Air Quality Levels at fixed monitoring sites (Annual Average for 2002 to 2003)

Station Worli Khar Andheri Bhandup Borivali Maravali Source:

SO2 36 22 26 29 14 40

NO2 43 82 55 45 24 96

NH3 44 57 45 37 42 264

SPM 184 276 240 216 172 463

Lead 0.13 0.19 0.15 0.17 0.06 0.25

Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03

Table 3.6

Emission Load of Mumbai City in tons/day for year 2002-03 from Transportation SO2 PM 17.59 2.97 49.81 NOx 97.58 23.32 131.9 CO 52.71 356.84 414.97 HC 19.96 53.01 72.97 Other 19.95 0.17 32.04 Total 224.76 437.1 751.64

Diesel Petrol Total Source:

16.97 0.79 49.95

Mumbai Municipal Corporation Annual Report 2002-03

The City of Mumbai faces problems of improper matching of demand and supply, shortcomings of public transport system insufficient public transport capacity and improper maintenance management, increasing private vehicle ownership and ineffective

53

demand management and land use planning. Transportation planners face a challenge of solving these problems and making Mumbai a better place to live in for millions of its inhabitants. The city is in urgent need of having an efficient and sound transportation system, which will alleviate the urban transportation problems and make the city sustainable.

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Chapter 4 Taking a Closer Look at Transportation Problems Focus on Andheri, a Mumbai Suburb

4.1

Overview of the Area Andheri, a western suburb of Mumbai is selected as the study area for in depth

learning of problems through information and photos and proposing some measures to alleviate them. The eastern part of this suburb (approximate area 8 km x 5 km) is chosen in order to look at the typical urban problems with a closer perspective. Though this area forms a small part of Mumbai, the problems in and around this area are common to almost all places in suburbs. Problems related to pollution, congestion and over crowding are focused upon in the study of this area. The proposal to curb the problem is by no means the solution, but it is a small step towards sustainable transportation system. Andheri is one of the busiest suburbs of Mumbai due to a mixed land use pattern. Being one of the largest industrial suburbs in Mumbai as well as in India, the suburb faces traffic problems with a very high rate of industrial activity, population and traffic density. This area houses Seepz - an IT center, MIDC an industrial estate, Larsen and Toubro one of Indias largest engineering and construction conglomerate, Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus the International Airport and a variety of small scale factories and software companies. In addition to this, the area also comprises of residential complexes,

55

hotels, restaurants, slums, offices, film industry, vegetable and fish markets and small and large corporate. Due to a wide land use pattern, there are a large number of morning and evening trips generated within the suburbs. The area is a prototype of the Mumbai Transportation System. It has a busy railway station, bus depots, an international airport and a complex land use pattern. Map 4.1 shows the study area of Andheri.

Map 4.1 Source:

Focus Area in Mumbai The suburb of Andheri Original Map taken from Eicher City Map, Mumbai

The population density of this area was 29,359 persons per sq. km in 1991 [46]. With such a high density and an improper land use planning, the suburb faces a number of transportation and environmental problems. Inefficient transportation and land use planning, improper travel demand management and lack of traffic control and

56

infrastructure are some of the root causes of the transportation problems. Vehiclepedestrian conflict, high accident rate, air pollution, health disorders and many other serious issues have been the results of improper transportation system.

4.2 4.2.1

Transportation Infrastructure Streets In general roads are narrow and insufficient to the growing demand of pedestrians

and vehicular traffic. Western Express Highway and Western Railway run almost parallel in the western part of the study area. These two are the main transport systems in NorthSouth direction connecting to the other parts of Mumbai. An East-West arterial street known as Andheri-Kurla Road feeds traffic to the two North-South direction transport systems. Andheri-Kurla Road is 50 to 60 feet wide (there are no lanes in Mumbai except for highways), has to cater to the traffic coming from the busy Andheri Railway Station and connecting various collector roads. Bottlenecks and traffic jams are common in this area, lasting for extended durations of time. Streets have a heterogeneous mix of traffic comprising of motorized and non motorized vehicles, pedestrians, cattle and hawkers. Roads are poorly maintained, and excavation works for water and telephone lines often deteriorate them further. Photo 4.1 and Photo 4.2 show pictures of typical road construction and maintenance in Mumbai. It is difficult and often impossible for pedestrians to walk over them.

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Photo 4.1

Prolonged road constructions and maintenance (Photo taken on a main arterial street in the Suburb of Andheri)

Photo 4.2

Prolonged road constructions and maintenance (Photo taken on a main arterial street in the Suburb of Andheri)

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Photo 4.3

Fenced and Narrow Medians on street in Andheri, Mumbai

Roads get worse even more during monsoon. Medians are narrow and fenced (as shown in Photo 4.3), and alternate arrangements for crossing are not provided. As a result pedestrians haphazardly cross the roads and walk at places that are unsafe to walk. The area of Andheri has a good frequency of buses (although not sufficient to cater to an excessive demand). Andheri-Kurla Road, the only major arterial has a high volume of bus traffic. Bus stops are provided at regular intervals causing addition to more pedestrian traffic. Passengers getting down at bus-stops often need to cross the roads. Due to lack of wide medians, pedestrian crossings and pedestrian phase in traffic signals, they have to stand in the fastest lane on roads, waiting for the traffic to clear. A typical picture is shown in Photo 4.4.

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Photo 4.4

Jay walking due to lack of pedestrian signals and road markings

4.2.2

Sidewalks Most of the sections of roads and flyovers are not provided with sidewalks for

pedestrians. While there are few sidewalks in the Island city of Mumbai, the suburban roads hardly have any sidewalks. And if any, then sidewalks are occupied by hawkers (Photo 4.5 and Photo 4.6). Jay walking is frequent and common due to inability to walk comfortably and safely along the sides, thus causing confusion to the drivers. Pedestrian crossings are not provided or maintained at critical places. Widening of roads as suggested and implemented by various authorities, further increases the pavement for growing traffic and discourages the concept of having sidewalks for pedestrians. Either the sidewalks are narrowed or they are completely removed.

60

Photo 4.5 Source:

Hawkers on the pedestrian sidewalks http://www.stuartriley.net/Diary/2003_01_05.html

Photo 4.6

Sidewalks occupied by hawkers in Mumbai Picture taken on a street in Andheri, Mumbai

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4.3

Planning and Demand Management Planners tend to undervalue the importance of walking. Any trip, whether long or

short, involves walking. Walking has often been considered as an insignificant factor of transportation system. It is assumed that it is possible to walk along most roads, either on the edges of pavement or on narrow paths that develop naturally along road shoulders, no matter how dangerous it is. As a result, new communities are built without sidewalks, not realizing their importance. Roads thus have more driving area than the walking area. In order to cope up with the growing traffic, plans suggest widening of roads and building of bridges. As a result, sidewalks are removed, trees are cut and roads are widened to a certain extent. This can sustain more traffic for a short period of time. More vehicles are encouraged to come on the roads, and efforts are being taken to give them more space. Thus long term planning is neglected, and facilities and designs fail to cater to the demand for even next 5 years. Though roads are widened and bridges are built to accommodate the vehicles, the transportation crisis seems to continue. There is no comprehensive and thorough planning. Environmental degradation takes place as a result of cutting down trees and encouraging more vehicles on roads. Although feasibility studies are done to check the practicality of building the structures, impact studies are not even carried out. This is mainly because of the fact that there is no single authority to handle the transportation of the city. Hence decisions taken by various authorities are often uncoordinated and unsuccessful. Concepts of transportation engineering are not taken into consideration at all. Decisions and planning solely depend on perception of authorities and are not based on real time data. Authorities due to numerous reasons do not follow warrants or guidelines

62

to approve new or existing development. Peak hour studies are not made to study the flow characteristics of vehicles during the maximum congestion periods. Traffic signals cycles are not synchronized considering the demand. Hence the flow is over-saturated at road intersections creating crawling movement during peak times (Photo 4.7 and Photo 4.8).

Photo 4.7 Source:

Over-saturated flows at traffic signals http://www.stuartriley.net/Diary/2003_01_05.html

63

Photo 4.8

Traffic Jam during peak hour

Problems encountered in the study area also include over-crowding of buses (Photo 4.9) and roads, very long travel times, low travel speeds, bottlenecks and congestion, air pollution and dissatisfaction amongst the travelers. Average speed of travel is around 10 km/hr during peak hours by road and often reduces more due to gridlock conditions. Travel time for instance, is one hour from Andheri railway station to Powai, distance between them being about 10 km. In addition to this maintenance work on roads creates congestion for several days or weeks. Overcrowding occurs during the rush hours (Photo 4.10). Train frequency is high during the peak hours and travelers usually prefer to get down at Andheri because of the local bus network system. Though people perceive that the system seems to be good enough (since people are accessible to almost all places in Mumbai by bus or train), by any yardstick it is insufficient to carry

64

the increasing demand. As a result, people prefer to travel by their own vehicles on the roads which further worsen the situation. Movement of vehicles is given priority but adequate parking is often not provided considering the demand of vehicles. Vehicles parked on road side cause hindrance to the moving traffic. There seems to be a lack of coordination between the infrastructure and management. Thus investing funds into the roads and bridges and not curbing or managing the travel demand does not help much to relieve the traffic congestion.

Photo 4.9 Source:

Rush for the buses during peak hours http://www.mastgeneralstore.com/monroe/122598b.php3

65

Photo 4.10 Source:

Rush at a railway station to board train Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation web site

4.4

Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic With a mixed land use pattern, Andheri traffic consists of motorized and non

motorized vehicles. Roads carry pedestrians, bicycles, scooters, auto-rickshaws, taxis, cars, buses, bullock carts and trucks (Photo 4.11, 4.12 and 4.13) Thus there is no distinction of roads for vehicles and pedestrians. Cattle from the sheds are often let loose by their owners, which find their way to roads (Photo 4.14). This holds up the traffic jams even more. Pedestrians walking on roads further reduce the vehicular speeds. In order to stop at bus stops at regular intervals, buses suddenly change their lanes making it inconvenient and unsafe for pedestrians and cyclists on the road, who walk on the leftmost sides. At certain times of days (during lunch hours), cycles constitute around 30 per cent of traffic in suburbs [47]. During such peak hours, buses and cycles are seen

66

moving with roughly the same speed. Low income groups in Mumbai prefer to walk or use bicycles. As a result there is a very high pedestrian activity at any place and time. Vehicle-pedestrian conflicts are more hindering near Andheri railway station. Vegetable markets are situated around this area, for people returning from workplaces to shop during evenings. Thus this place gets crowded with pedestrians, vendors, customers and vehicles. Photo 4.15 shows the situation outside railway stations.

Photo 4.11 Source:

Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai http://www.sunshine-stories.de/stories2003/mumbai.htm

67

Photo 4.12

Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai

Photo 4.13 Source:

Heterogeneous Mix of Traffic in Mumbai http://www.sunshine-stories.de/stories2003/mumbai.htm

68

Photo 4.14

Cattle on Mumbai streets

Photo 4.15 Source:

Vehicle-Pedestrian Conflict outside Railway Station http://www.sunshine-stories.de/stories2003/mumbai.htm

69

4.5

Environmental Pollution Andheri has maximum air pollution levels in the metropolitan Mumbai. While the

average levels of NOx , SO 2 and RSP are 254, 39, 332 g/ m3 (Safe Standards are 60 g/
3 m3 ) at the traffic junctions, the average level of CO is 3 mg/m3 (standard is 2 mg/ m )

[43]. Table 3.4 and Table 3.5 in Chapter 3 show the air pollution levels of the suburb of Andheri. Noise pollution is also high, especially due to honking of the vehicles. Honking is a common practice to give indication. Prevailing noise level in Mumbai is 67-86 dBA at traffic congested areas (standard levels are 75 dBA for day and 70 dBA for night according to Central Pollution Control Board [43]. Noise levels are particularly high during mornings and evenings due to traffic and extra recreation trips during the evenings.

4.6

Spreading localities The population of Mumbai is growing towards north. Andheri being in the

northern part of Mumbai has a very high population density as mentioned earlier. Fifty five per cent population in Mumbai lives in slums [32]. These people come to Mumbai to earn a living. Andheri also has a lot of slum dwelling, towards its northern part. Unable to accommodate themselves anywhere, this slum population has encroached on roads highways and railway tracks (Photo 4.16). This causes an obstacle to the smooth movement of traffic. The Western Express Highway for instance has 6 lanes, out of which the outermost lane is almost occupied by the slum dwellers. As a result, the vehicular movement is constrained thereby increasing travel times. This situation is

70

equally dangerous for both the drivers and the slum dwellers. Children come on roads to play, and then are accidentally hit upon by the vehicles. Driving becomes all the more difficult during nights, due to insufficient illumination.

Photo 4.16 Source:

Slums around railway tracks Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation Pvt. Ltd. Web site

4.7

Indiscipline and inefficient control of traffic Drivers lacking proper driving knowledge are issued permanent licenses. Traffic

enforcement is weak and heavy fines are not imposed for breaking the traffic and parking rules. As a result drivers do not respect the traffic laws. Andheri, being an industrial as well as residential suburb has very high vehicular traffic. Due to large pockets of congestion and delays throughout the day, vehicles are often seen unwilling to stop and wait and yield to the pedestrians. A large number of pedestrians walk on roads (due to

71

unavailability of sidewalks), and drivers are disinclined to stop for every pedestrian. They are often seen passing through red signals. This dangerous action at the intersections leads to large number of road accidents. Vehicles are parked on the roadside, due to inadequate provision of parking lots. This blocks the already slow moving traffic, and adds more congestion. Signals are absent at places where the vehicle and pedestrian traffic is heavy. Most of the signals do not have appropriate signal cycle lengths, based on the traffic flow. Thus vehicle-pedestrian conflict increases even more at the traffic controlled intersections. Signals are pre-timed, and walk time for pedestrians is often insufficient. The city lacks an efficient traffic control and discipline. There are no provisions made for the disabled people, especially the blind. Plans and implementations are made for the infrastructural developments in Mumbai. But unless the traffic is controlled, suc h developments will be of no use.

4.8

Land Use Planning - Concentration of employment centers There is a concentration of employment centers and job opportunities in Mumbai.

Almost 40 per cent of total employment is located in Central Business District (CBD). This rate is growing towards the northern suburbs, and hence Andheri has become the busiest of all suburbs in Mumbai. This leads to an increase in the number of trips and trip lengths from the railway station of Andheri to various employment centers in the study area. Railway station is always crowded, and so are the roads outside (Photo 4.17).

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Photo 4.17 Source:

Over-crowding of typical Mumbai Railway Station Mumbai Railway Vikas Corporation web site

Again, there is a mixed traffic in such areas, and no place for parking. Due to lack of space just around the offices, people usually park their vehicles on the roads. Roads are not very wide, and parking becomes more problematic. There are vehicle-pedestrian conflicts as a lot of people walk from the stations / bus-stops to the offices. Vehiclepedestrian conflict forms a critical issue at public places, and often a loss of working hours occurs for employees in Andheri. There is a need to begin programs that will curtail car use and promote an integrated, environmentally sustainable urban transportation system with a clearly defined place for non motorized vehicles. Transferring the real cost of driving to car users instead of continuing to subsidize car ownership is an important concept to consider. In addition, instead of continuing to expand road networks to meet the growing demand, Mumbai needs to find ways to reduce existing as well as future travel demand.

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Chapter 5 Data Collection and Analysis

5.1 5.1.1

Data Collection Online Survey A sustainable transportation system is socially, economically and environmentally

friendly. The economical and environmental benefits are fairly easy to quantify. Benefits in the form of reduced pollution levels, reduction in traveling expenses, decrease in fuel consumption etc. determine the success of sustainable transportation in a quantitative manner. Being unable to quantify the social benefits, a transportation system often gets designed in an incomplete manner. General views and expectations of commuters who form the important part of any transportation system are left out while planning and designing. Literature related to the City of Mumbai gives a clear picture of transportation structure in the city. However this research study also requires information about the traveling pattern of commuters, their usual travel times, level of congestion, modes they use and prefer and the expenses on travel per day. The study also needs information about commuters views about the existing transportation, as well as their expectations from an ideal system. In order to know the current transportation condition in Mumbai and to study the effects and probable improvements in detail, an online survey was conducted. A

74

questionnaire seeking information about regular commuters in Mumbai was uploaded on www.surveymonkey.com and http://eng.utoledo.edu/bdhakras/Questionnaire.html. This questionnaire was passed on to the citizens of Mumbai through the medium of e- mails. The online survey was conducted for a period of three months from October 2003 to December 2003 and again in the month of May 2004. Target sample was decided as 200 or more. Total responses received were 218 after discarding few irrelevant and incomplete responses. Although the questionnaire uploaded in the year 2003 proved to serve the purpose of getting commuting information, it failed to get relevant information about the peoples acceptability level for parameters affecting the performance of transportation system. Hence, the questionnaire was again uploaded in 2004, with a changed format in order to get relevant responses, keeping all the other questions same as before. Thus 76 responses were received which gave an idea about the commuter satisfaction index. The online survey was able to collect views and opinions of people who access internet. Thus, illiterate and poor people did not get an opportunity to participate in the survey. However, sustainability demands equity and satisfaction of the people, irrespective of their economical background. Hence, although a small section of population of Mumbai accessing internet formed the sample space, the overall analysis is not biased. Econo mical background affects the travel pattern, modal choice and travel behavior of the commuters. However, the distance, time and expenses remain almost the same when commuters choose a particular mode of transport. Walking and public transport are more often the means of transportation for the poor people. This point has been taken into consideration while arriving at the results.

75

5.1.2

Survey Design and Observations The questionnaire was short and simple for the common people to understand. At

the same time the responses aimed to provide sufficient information and details about the transportation system. The profession of people was asked to see what section of Mumbai population responded to the survey. Table 5.1 shows the percentage of respondents based on their occupation.

Table 5.1

Percentage of respondents based on their profession Profession Percentage 38.4 28 4.7 6.6 2.8 6.2 13.3

Technical (engineers, architects, consultants, software) Students Teaching (teachers and professors) Public Relation (counselors, psychologists, receptionists) Medical (doctors, paramedical professionals) Business and Commerce (share brokers, businessmen, bankers) Others

Origin and Destination were asked to get information about trip generation and the trip lengths. Table 5.2 shows the percentage of trip distribution in morning and evening hours from the city to the suburbs and vice versa. This information is used to determine the flow and direction of traffic during morning and evening rush hours.

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Table 5.2

Percentage of Trips in morning and evening hours to and from suburbs and city

Origin to Destination Suburbs to City City to Suburbs Suburbs to Suburbs City to City

Per cent trips (A.M) 28 10.4 59.7 1.9

Per cent trips (P.M) 10.4 28 59.7 1.9

Responses also provided information about the usual morning and evening travel times. Morning and evening peak hours were then calculated from the g raph shown in Figure 5.1. Morning peak hours are 7 am to 11 am and evening peak hours are 5 pm to 10 pm. A concentrated peak travel occurs during 8 am to 9 am in the morning hours and 5 pm to 7 pm during evening hours.

Morning and Evening Peak Hours

40 35 30 25
Percent of Trips

20 15 10 5 0 -5
5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:0 11:0 12:0 1:00 2:00 3:00 4:00 5:00 6:00 7:00 8:00 9:00 10:0 11:0 AM AM AM AM AM 0 0 0 PM PM PM PM PM PM P M PM PM 0 0 AM AM P M P M PM

Percent trips at each hour

Time

Figure 5.1

Graph showing AM and PM peak hours of travel

77

Type of modes used by the commuters and time spent in each mode were also asked through the survey to analyze the vehicular speeds on roads and the average travel time. Table 5.3 shows the travel time and speed for each mode. Maximum numbers of trips take place by railways, followed by the buses. Thus it is seen that public transport is more popular among the citizens of Mumbai. Travel by railway turns out to be faster and economical than any other mode. Hence there is more demand f r trains in Mumbai. o Buses also form an important part of the transportation system of Mumbai. 55 per cent by number of trips take place by bus. Most economical short journeys on road are given by walking and long journeys are given by buses. It is interesting to note that vehicles with lesser occupancy give more average speed than the vehicles with higher occupancy. Buses which carry around 4.5 million journeys per day travel at an average speed of 17.5 km / hr during morning hours and 15.5 km / hr during evening hours. This not only increases the overall travel time and the emissions, but also encourages people to adopt private transportation for faster travel. Real distances between the origin and the destination were not available. The distances were directly measured from a map of Mumbai. On the basis of the measured distances and travel time, approximate speeds were calculated. A graph of percentile speed is plotted for all vehicles on the road, taken together (Figure 5.2 and Figure 5.3). It is found that 63 per cent of vehicles travel below 15 km / hr and more than 90 per cent of vehicles travel below 25 km / hr in the morning hours. During the evening hours, 72 per cent of vehicles travel below 15 km / hr and more than 91 per cent vehicles travel below approximately 25 km / hr. The average speed in the evening is found to be less than that in the morning. This may be accounted by the extra recreation trips during evening hours.

78

The average speeds of vehicles on roads are ranging from 9.5 km/hr for buses during evenings to maximum of 21.8 km/hr for two-wheelers during mornings. Vehicles in the peak hours are seen at crawling speeds. Average distance of travel for one way trip is approximately 23 km and 50 per cent of trip lengths are below 18 km. Average travel time per trip during morning hours is 62 minutes and that in the evening hours is 68 minutes.

Table 5.3

Percentage by number of trips, distance, and average AM and PM speeds for each mode of travel.

Modes

Percentage by number of trips 59.7 55 18.5 3.8 11.4 6.6 57.8 (considerable walk)

Percentage by distance 61.7 23.7 2.2 0.5 6.2 4 1.7

AM Average Speed in 30.5 17.5 12 17.9 19.6 21.8

PM Average Speed in km/hr 29.9 15.5 9.5 15.4 16.6 19.1

Train Bus Auto rickshaw Taxi Cars 2-Wheelers Walk

Here, considerable walk means walking distance of at least 100 meter on the road. 57.8 per cent seems to be an underestimated value. The reason might be that commuters consider it to be quite not worth to mention in their responses, or they are v much ery accessible to transportation modes at their origin and destination. Moreover, as discussed earlier, this questionnaire does not consider the poor people, for whom walking is the only affordable means to travel.

79

Graph of Percentile Speed (AM)

120

100

Percentage of vehicles

90

% 80
63
60

96 84 70 57

98

99

100 100

Percentile Speed Curve

40

20

24 2 5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

50

Speed in km/hr

Figure 5.2

Graph showing percentile speeds for AM Road Traffic

Graph of Percentile Speed (PM)

120

Percentage of vehicles

100

91
96

99

99

100

80 60 40 20

72
66

89 79

Percentile Speed

34

0 0

10

15

Speed (km/hr)

20

25

30

35

40

45

Figure 5.3

Graph showing percentile speeds for PM Road Traffic.

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Respondents also came up with the ideal travel time they would be satisfied with. This gave an idea about the social dissatisfaction with respect to the travel time. Since there are no posted speed limits in Mumbai, the ideal travel time is considered as the best tool to find out the level of congestion. The ratio of actual travel time to ideal travel time was found out. This ratio is defined as the congestion index for this study. Value greater than 1 denotes that the area is congested. The average value of congestion index from 218 responses is 2.1. This indicates that the system is highly congested. It is evident from the crush load of the trains and buses and crawling speed of vehicles on streets. This value of congestion index is not very reliable, as it only depends on the perception of the individual. But the concept can be used in the future, to get a realistic idea about congestion. Expenses per kilometer of travel are found out from the responses. Expenses for public transport (trains and buses) including a combination with intermediate means of transport is Rs. 0.64 / km and for private transport (cars and two-wheelers) is Rs. 2.01 / km. 80 per cent of commuters prefer public transport (58 per cent prefer trains and 22 per cent prefer buses), 14 per cent prefer cars, 4 percent opt for two-wheelers and 2 per cent prefer intermediate transport (auto rickshaws and taxis). Average delay per trip is fo und to be 9 minutes in the morning hours and 12 minutes in the evening hours. Thus a commuter on an average experiences approximately 111 hours of loss in working hours per year. In the end, a question seeking information about the overall performance of Mumbai Transportation System was asked. Eleven parameters were mentioned and respondents were asked to rate the satisfaction level. A five point Likert-Scale ranking

81

from Totally Unacceptable (rating 1) to Totally Acceptable (rating 5) was used to indicate the level of satisfaction based on the parameters. Percentage rating for each parameter is given in Table 5.4. Statistical Analysis Tests were then carried out to study how the parameters affect the overall satisfaction level of the commuters.

Table 5.4

Percentage rating for the acceptability of Mumbai Transportation System and the parameters Totally Fairly Average Unacceptable Unacceptable (%) (%) (%) Fairly Acceptable (%) 31.58 3.95 15.79 5.26 15.79 42.11 11.84 1.32 6.58 21.05 Totally Acceptable (%) 5.26 1.32 1.32 0.00 1.32 18.42 2.63 0.00 1.32 11.84

Mumbai Transportation System Pollution Road Quality Congestion Delay due to Speed of vehicles Frequency of buses and trains Pedestrian facilities Rush in public transport Parking Availability of other modes Comparison with transportation of other cities in India Cost of Travel

1.32 42.11 23.68 42.11 11.84 3.95 26.32 57.89 23.68 13.16

30.26 38.16 32.89 38.16 31.58 7.89 26.32 30.26 31.58 15.79

30.26 13.16 25.00 13.16 38.16 26.32 31.58 9.21 35.53 35.53

2.63

11.84

27.63

34.21

18.42

3.95

14.47

35.53

21.05

21.05

82

It can be seen from the table that commuters are highly dissatisfied with the pollution, rush in public transport and congestion. They are fairly dissatisfied with the road quality, delay due to low speeds and parking. Respondents seemed to have average satisfaction levels with respect to pedestrian facilities and the cost of the travel. Although most of the parameters are towards unacceptable levels, Mumbai Transportation System proves to be fairly acceptable. This might be due to the fact that there are various other parameters that influence peoples perception which are not accounted in this study. People prefer Mumbai Transportation System, cost of travel and various alternate modes available as compared to other cities in India. In order to measure the degree of satisfaction among commuters during their regular travel, concept of Commuter Satisfaction Index (CSI) is used.

5.2 5.2.1

Analysis Commuter Satisfaction Sustainable transportation demands maximum convenience of commuters with

minimum cost and least adverse effect on the environment and resources. Commuter satisfaction and convenience are the measures for determining sustainability from social aspect. An attempt is made to measure the effect of parameters on the performance of the transportation system of City of Mumbai. It is important to understand the quality dimensions to assess the sustainability level of a transportation system. As described earlier, Rating of 1 denotes minimum satisfaction (total unacceptability) and 5 denotes maximum satisfaction (total acceptability). The average rating for each parameter is calculated from the responses. The importance level for each

83

parameter is 5, since sustainability requires maximum satisfaction with respect to all parameters. In all there are 11 parameters, as shown in Table 5.4 above. The weight of each parameter is calculated as given in Table 5.5. The importance of satisfaction level of each parameter is considered maximum for sustainability. Thus the weight of each parameter is same. The product of average rating and weight gives the actual satisfaction level. Commuter Satisfaction Index is calculated as 2.52, considering the effect of all eleven parameters. In terms of percentage the index is 50.4 per cent.

Table 5.5

Commuter Satisfaction Index calculation Average Score Importance score 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 60 Weighting factor 0.091 0.091 0.091 0.091 0.091 0.091 0.091 0.091 0.091 0.091 0.091 Commuter Satisfaction Index 0.17 0.22 0.17 0.19 0.31 0.22 0.14 0.21 0.26 0.33 0.32 2.52

Pollution Road Quality Congestion Delay due to Speed of vehicles Frequency of buses and trains Pedestrian facilities Rush in public transport Parking Availability of other modes Comparison with transportation of other cities in India Cost of Travel Total

1.87 2.38 1.84 2.08 3.42 2.38 1.58 2.30 2.91 3.58 3.49

It is seen from Table 5.5 that overall CSI is 2.52 or 50.4 per cent. Although the overall satisfaction seems to be 50 per cent, it is essential to find out the causes for the

84

remaining 50 per cent dissatisfaction. Commuter Satisfaction Index of only 50 per cent shows that the system is unsustainable as far as the social aspect is considered. A

detailed statistical analysis is carried out in order to see how the parameters considered as independent variables affect the acceptability of the performance of Mumbai Transportation System.

5.2.2

Statistical Analysis The acceptability of the performance of the transportation system in Mumbai

depends mostly on peoples views. This research studies how the parameters discussed earlier, based on peoples perception affect the acceptability of overall performance of Mumbai Transportation System. Two parameters namely pollution and comparison with transportation systems of other cities are not considered. These two parameters give an overall idea of peoples views, but they do not necessarily affect the overall performance of the transportation system. Thus the remaining nine parameters are considered. These nine parameters are checked for normal distribution, in order to see if parametric tests could be applied. It is observed that seven out of nine independent variables are normally distributed, while two, namely rush in public transport and congestion are skewed. The dependent variable (Mumbai Transportation System) is also normally distributed. Figures 5.4 to 5.13 show the graphical distributions.

85

Mumbai_as_whole

40

30

Frequency

20

10

0 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Mean = 3.1053 Std. Dev. = 0.94628 N = 76

Mumbai_as_whole

Figure 5.4

Distribution of scores for Mumbai Transportation System as whole

Road_Quality

30

25

20

Frequency

15

10

5 Mean = 2.3816 Std. Dev. = 1.05789 N = 76 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

0 0.00

Road_Quality

Figure 5.5

Distribution of responses about Road Quality 86

Congestion

40

30

Frequency

20

10

0 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

Mean = 1.8421 Std. Dev. = 0.89521 N = 76

Congestion

Figure 5.6

Distribution of responses about Congestion

Delay_due_to_Speed

40

30

Frequency

20

10

0 0.00 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00

Mean = 2.2237 Std. Dev. = 0.85788 N = 76

Delay_due_to_Speed

Figure 5.7

Distribution of responses about Delay due to Speed

87

Frequency_buses_trains

30

25

20

Frequency

15

10

5 Mean = 3.4211 Std. Dev. = 1.06161 N = 76 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

0 0.00

Frequency_buses_trains

Figure 5.8

Distribution of responses about Frequency of Buses and Trains

Pedestrian_facilities

30

25

20

Frequency

15

10

5 Mean = 2.3816 Std. Dev. = 1.0828 N = 76 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

0 0.00

Pedestrian_facilities

Figure 5.9

Distribution of responses about Pedestrian Facilities

88

Rush_public_transport

50

40

Frequency

30

20

10

0 0.00

Mean = 1.5789 Std. Dev. = 0.82078 N = 76 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Rush_public_transport

Figure 5.10

Distribution of responses about Rush in Public Transport

Parking

30

Frequency

20

10

0 0.00

Mean = 2.3026 Std. Dev. = 0.95247 N = 76 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

Parking

Figure 5.11

Distribution of responses about Parking 89

Availability_other_modes

30

25

20

Frequency

15

10

5 Mean = 2.9079 Std. Dev. = 1.19083 N = 76 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

0 0.00

Availability_other_modes

Figure 5.12

Distribution of responses about Availability of alternate modes

Cost_of_Travel

30

25

20

Frequency

15

10

5 Mean = 3.4868 Std. Dev. = 1.13717 N = 76 1.00 2.00 3.00 4.00 5.00 6.00

0 0.00

Cost_of_Travel

Figure 5.13

Distribution of responses about Cost of Travel 90

Since most independent variables along with the dependent variable are normally distributed, parametric tests are carried out. SPSS 12.0, a statistical analysis tool is used to carry out the statistical analysis. There are 76 responses in all with nine independent variables and one dependent variable. A data reduction technique called as Factor Analysis is used to group these variables into fewer numbers of groups. This method is generally used to reduce a large number of overlapping variables to a much smaller set of factors. Thus nine independent variables are grouped into four factors. Table 5.6 shows the factor loadings. Loadings from rotated component matrix are studied for the factoring of the variables. Highest factor loadings of the independent variables are shown in bold. These factor loadings indicate the correlation of the independent variables to each of the factors formed. Thus congestion, rush in public transport, delay due to speed and parking are clubbed into one group (factor 1) called as crowding. Frequency of buses and trains and availability of alternate modes are categorized as availability of transportation modes (factor 2). Road quality and pedestrian facilities are factored as infrastructure (factor 3) and cost of the travel is grouped under cost (factor 4). Methods used are Extraction Method with Principal Component Analysis and Rotation Method (Varimax with Kaiser

Normalization). Only those cases are considered in this analysis where the acceptability level of Mumbai Transportation is average (rating 3).

91

Table 5.6

Loadings from Factor Analysis (Rotated Component Matrix) Component 1 2 -0.213 -0.236 0.152 0.944 0.270 -0.010 0.177 0.901 0.079 3 0.786 -0.204 -0.367 -0.072 0.761 0.211 0.112 0.130 0.137 4 0.367 0.358 0.489 0.023 -0.137 -0.057 0.021 0.057 0.899

Road Quality Congestion Delay due to Speed Frequency of buses, trains Pedestrian facilities Rush in public transport Parking Availability of alternate modes Cost of Travel

-0.041 0.668 0.647 0.128 0.151 0.866 0.790 -0.054 0.097

These four factors namely crowding, availability of modes, infrastructure and cost are again checked for distribution. Three out of four appear to be normally distributed (Figure 5.14 to 5.17). Hence linear regression is used to see which parameters affect the overall performance of the transportation system based on peoples views. The results are as tabulated in Tables 5.7 to 5.10.

92

Crowding

20

15

Frequency

10

0 -2.00000 -1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 2.00000 3.00000

Mean = -0.0045488 Std. Dev. = 1.01199717 N = 76 4.00000

REGR factor score 1 for analysis 1

Figure 5.14

Distribution of scores for Crowding

Availability of Transportation Modes

20

15

Frequency

10

0 -2.00000 -1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 2.00000

Mean = 0.3200328 Std. Dev. = 0.94640804 N = 76 3.00000

REGR factor score 2 for analysis 1

Figure 5.15

Distribution of scores for Availability of Transportation Modes

93

Infrastructure

12

10

Frequency

2 Mean = -0.2349266 Std. Dev. = 0.95380853 N = 76 4.00000

0 -4.00000 -2.00000 0.00000 2.00000

REGR factor score 3 for analysis 1

Figure 5.16

Distribution of scores for Infrastructure

Cost of the Travel

20

15

Frequency

10

0 -2.00000 -1.00000 0.00000 1.00000 2.00000

Mean = 0.0197289 Std. Dev. = 0.91251744 N = 76 3.00000

REGR factor score 4 for analysis 1

Figure 5.17

Distribution of scores for Cost

94

Summary of statistics for linear regression is as shown in Table 5.7 and Table 5.8. Table 5.7 shows the mean and standard deviation for the factor scores for each factor.

Table 5.7

Summary of basic statistics for the four factors

Mean 3.1053 -0.0045488 0.3200328 -0.2349266 0.0197289 Std. Deviation 0.94628 1.01199717 0.94640804 0.95380853 0.91251744 N 76 76 76 76 76

Mumbai_as_whole Crowding Availability of transportation modes Infrastructure Cost

Table 5.8

Model Summary
0.097 0.046 0.118 0.92412 1.917

R square Adjusted R Square Significance of the model Std error of the estimate F

The results for this analysis are tested at 90 per cent 1-tailed significance level. Thus for a parameter or the model to be significant the significance should be lesser than 10 per cent (0.1). From Table 5.8, it is seen that the model is not a significant model. The significance is 0.118, which is more than 0.1. Table 5.9 shows the significance and correlations of these independent variables with each other as well as with the dependent variable. Crowding is low moderately correlated and is statistically significant with the dependent variable, whereas Availability of transportation modes and Infrastructure are significant with Crowding. Availability of transportation modes is negatively correlated where as Infrastructure is positively correlated with the dependent variable. The

95

procedure of linear regression is again continued to get the best fit model with the most significant parameters affecting the acceptability.

Table 5.9

Correlations

Pearson Mumbai Correlation Transportation as whole Crowding Availability of transportation modes Infrastructure Cost Mumbai as whole Crowding Availability of transportation modes Infrastructure Cost

1 0.28 0.044 0.045 0.071 0.007 0.354 0.348 0.27

0.28 1 -0.219 0.239 -0.053 0.007 0.029 0.019 0.324

0.044 -0.219 1 -0.169 0.012 0.354 0.029 0.072 0.461

0.045 0.239 -0.169 1 -0.049 0.348 0.019 0.072 0.337

0.071 -0.053 0.012 -0.049 1 0.27 0.324 0.461 0.337 -

Sig. (1tailed)

Table 5.10

Coefficients from regression analysis

Sig. 0 0.011 0.351 0.961 0.447

(Constant) Crowding Availability of transportation modes Infrastructure Cost

Conceptually thinking, it is evident that crowding (congestion, delay, rush and parking) and infrastructure (road quality and pedestrian facilities) would affect the performance of the transportation system as a whole. Hence regression analysis is again carried out considering crowding, infrastructure and the interaction between them as the 96

independent variables. Interaction between crowding and infrastructure is the product of their individual factor scores. Results of Regression Analysis are tabulated in the following tables. Table 5.11 correlations and significance of independent variables with dependent variable and each other. Table 5.12 shows the model summary.

Table 5.11

Correlations and Significance

Pearson Correlation

Mumbai_as_whole Crowding Infrastructure Interaction Variable Sig. (1-tailed) Mumbai_as_whole Crowding Infrastructure Interaction Variable

Mumbai_ Interaction as_whole Crowding Infrastructure Variable 1 0.28 0.045 -0.222 0.28 1 0.239 -0.118 0.045 0.239 1 -0.327 -0.222 -0.118 -0.327 1 . 0.007 0.348 0.027 0.007 . 0.019 0.155 0.348 0.019 . 0.002 0.027 0.155 0.002 .

Table 5.12

Model Summary

R square Adjusted R Square Significance of the model Std error of the estimate

0.122 0.085 0.024 0.9051

97

Table 5.13

Coefficients and significance values for linear regression Constant Crowding Infrastructure 0 0.018 0.443 0.064

Interaction Variable

Dependent Variable: Mumbai_as_whole

1.0

0.8

Expected Cum Prob

0.6

0.4

0.2

0.0 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Observed Cum Prob

Figure 5.18

Graph of Linear Regression

From Table 5.11, it is seen that crowding and interaction variable are significant with the dependent variable. They also have a correlation with the dependent variable at a moderately low level. Thus, it is inferred from this statistical analysis that Crowding and Infrastructure significantly affect the performance of Mumbai Transportation System from peoples perspective. Table 5.13 shows their individual significance levels. Crowding and Interaction variable are statistically significant (values less than 0.1). 98

Figure 5.18 shows the graph for linear regression. Thus for reducing the dissatisfaction amongst the commuters, there should be reduction in congestion, rush, delay and parking problems, with an improvement in pedestrian facilities and road quality.

5.3

Environmental Aspect Pollution level in Mumbai is very high as discussed in Chapter 3. Emissions of

CO, NOx , soot, particulate matter, hydro carbon have started deteriorating the health of people. Bronchitis, Asthma and many other respiratory problems have become very common with the citizens of Mumbai. Environmental pollution is increasing with high growth in vehicular population, traffic congestion and due to very low speeds of vehicles. As seen in Table 5.3, vehicles on roads have low speeds. Speeds further decrease during evenings. As discussed earlier, it is found that 63 per cent of vehicles travel below 15 km / hr and more than 90 per cent of vehicles travel below 25 km / hr in the morning hours. During the evenings, 72 per cent of vehicles run below 15 km / hr and more than 91 per cent vehicles run below approximately 25 km / hr. Speeds of vehicles are seen ranging anything between 5 to 8 km/hr during the AM and PM peak hours. Apart from causing delay, these vehicles also cause very high emissions of pollutants. Figures 5.19, 5.20, 5.21 and 5.22 show the emission levels of different pollutants in gm/km for heavy vehicles running on diesel (buses and trucks), four wheelers running on gasoline (cars) and two wheelers with respect to speed [48]. The graphs show that at for the speeds of vehicles in Mumbai, emissions in gm/km are high. Moreover, if these vehicles continue to move on for long distances, the emissions increase further. Pollution levels in Mumbai

99

have already reached alarming values as discussed in Chapter 3, and the condition will worsen if the inventory of personal vehicles still continues.
Emission (gm/km)with respect to speed Buses / Trucks
800 Emission (gm/km) 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Speed (km/hr)
252.3 167.6 188.8 157 158.6 159.7 499.1 504.3 351.9 301.1 275.7 226.9 194.4 443.1 415.1 419.2 421.9 667.1

FC CO2 NO

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speed Buses / Trucks

7 Emission (gm/km) 6 5 4 3
3.2 4.6 4.6 4.6 3.8 3.4 3 2.8 3.9 2.9 4 6.1

CO SO2 PM

2.9

2 1 0 0 10

2.5

2.2

2.1

2.1

20

30

40

50

60

70

Speed (km/hr)

Figure 5.19 Source:

Emission levels (gm/km) for buses and trucks with respect to speed India Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India: Generation and Source [48]

100

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speed Four Wheelers (Gasoline)

350
287

300 Emission (gm/km) 250 200 150 100 50 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Speed (km/hr)

100 80 73.3 68 66 70 232 212.67 165.5 144.8 137

FC CO2

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speed Four Wheelers (Gasoline)

60 Emission (gm/km) 50
39 52

40 30 20 10 0 0
5.2 4.95 16 11.5 10.33 4.67

29.75

CO NO

1.05

0.66

0.47

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Speed (km/hr)

Figure 5.20 Source:

Emission levels (gm/km) for cars with respect to speed India Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India: Generation and Source [48]

101

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speed Two-Wheelers, Four Stroke

40 Emission (gm/km) 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Speed (km/hr) 12 8.2 7 7.8 24.2 20.5 22 10.8 13.4 35.3 28.6 FC CO2 36.9

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speed Two-Wheelers, Four Stroke

3.5 Emission (gm/km) 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 Speed (km/hr) 2.04 1.6 NO 1.4 1.1 1.2 1 1.4 0.8 0.9 0.55 CO 3.3

3.2

Figure 5.21

Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, four stroke with respect to speed

Source:

India Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India: Generation and Source [48]

102

Emission (gm/km) with respect to speed Two-Wheelers, Two Stroke

40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 0
36.20 27.90 18.30 8.84 10.30 26.10 26.80 26.68

Emission (gm/km)

25.15

FC CO2 CO NO HC

14.70

11.80 9.26 13.33 5.00 2.25 7.59 1.30 11.03 11.20 1.16 10.30 3.60 3.75 1.95 2.03 1.50 1.40 1.20 1.02

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

Speed (km/hr)

Figure 5.22

Emission levels (gm/km) for two wheelers, two stroke with respect to speed

Source:

India Anthropogenic Emissions from Energy Activities in India: Generation and Source Characterization [48]

It is observed that an increase in speed from 15 km / hr to 25 km / hr causes a considerable reduction in fuel consumption and pollutant emissions [48]. Thus vehicles moving at optimum speed produce economical as well as environmental gains. Table 5.14 shows the percentage of reduction in fuel consumption and emissions with an increase in speed from 15 km / hr to 25 km / hr in each mode of road transportation. 2W2S = Two Wheeler, Two Stroke 3W-2S = Three Wheeler, Two Stroke 4W-G = Four Wheeler, Gasoline (Cars) 2W-4S = Two Wheeler, Four Stroke 3W-4S= Three Wheeler, Four Stroke 4W-D = Four Wheeler, Diesel (bus, truck)

103

Table 5.14

Percentage decrease in fuel consumption and emission of pollutants with increase of vehicles from 15 km/hr to 25 km/hr
2W-2S ideal 2W-4S ideal 3W-2S ideal 3W-4S ideal 4W-G ideal 4W-D ideal Speed 30 to Speed Speed 30 Speed 30 Speed 40 to Speed 40 to 40 km/hr 30km/hr km/hr km/hr 60 km/hr 60 km/hr

Fuel Consumption CO CO 2 NO HC SO 2 Soot

17 36 11 9 46

23 22 23 21

20 20 17 18 56

25

25

16 16 16 20

78 79 22 22 Increase by Increase by 41% 46%

16 19

Table 5.15 gives the values of actual emissions at the average speeds of vehicles in Mumbai and the emissions that would have occurred at their ideal speeds (values taken from graphs in Figures 5.18 to 5.21). It shows that emissions exceed the ideal optimum values approximately 1.5 times. This information gives evidence that Mumbai traffic has been adversely affecting the environment and causing very high air pollution.

Table 5.15

Emission values in gm/km for the actual speed and ideal speed of vehicles in Mumbai

CO CO2 HC FC PM SO2 Emission Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual Ideal Actual at Speed 4W-D 4W-G 2W2S 2W4S 3W2S 3W4S

3.9 39 1.4 1 6.22 0.434

5.12 12.4 1.95 1.1 7 5.2

419.2 144.8 25.15 20.5 45.49 71.2

557.9 243 27.9 5 24.2 68.4 3.33 115.2

158.6 197.24 2.9 66 84 8.84 10.3 11.03 7 8.2 19.7 19.7 30.5 23 39.5

3.82

2.1

2.75

104

From the questionnaire responses, it is observed that 37 per cent of people regularly commuting by personalized vehicles prefer public transport for traveling. This might be due to lower cost of public transport, better speed by trains and less effort to drive through the traffic on the roads. Thus if public transportation is enhanced, there is a possibility that at least 37 per cent of all car and two wheeler trips will be reduced. This gives an idea about the reduction in pollution and traffic congestion. Fuel consumption will decrease with a reduction in CO2 and NOx emissions in particular. This modal shift will also increase the speed of vehicles on the road. These observations and results make it clear that public transportation and walking facilities should be improved to such an extent that people are encouraged to use these modes of transportation. At the same time it is imperative to curb private vehicles on the road. This is the most simplest and economical measure for a developing city like Mumbai.

105

Chapter 6 Results and Conclusions

6.1

Interpretation and Conclusions It is inferred from the analysis that crowding forms a significant parameter in

determining the sustainability of a transportation system. Crowding, which includes rush in public transport, congestion, delay due to vehicular speed and parking thus adversely affect the environment and the social well being of people. Rush in the public transportation facilities makes people dissatisfied in the form of inconvenience, noise and smell. Congestion hinders the smooth movement of people as well as the vehicles. It reduces the speed of travel, thereby wasting valuable time of the commuters. It also results into air pollution, vehicle- pedestrian conflict and unnecessary fuel consumption. Parking at wrong places due to unavailability of proper space, causes the vehicles to create traffic jams. Free parking further encourages the personalized vehicle use. Apart from crowding, people are seen to be dissatisfied with respect to infrastructure. Infrastructure in form of bad road quality and improper pedestrian facilities mainly contribute to peoples dissatisfaction. Although availability of transportation modes is not seen to be a statistically significant variable, people are not very satisfied with the frequency of buses and trains. People are seen to be fairly satisfied with the cost of travel. Although the commuter satisfaction index is found to be 50 per cent in this study, an overall analysis of the entire city will definitely reduce the CSI. This

106

is due to the fact that the survey reached to educated people only. These people have a better access to various means of transportation than the poor people. Attempt is made to develop a method of calc ulation of social well being that affects sustainability. Hence the mitigation measures take not only the parameters into consideration but also the overall condition of Mumbai Transportation System in general.

6.2 6.2.1

Suggestions for Mitigation Dispersion of Population and Employment Satellite Towns Problems arise in Mumbai due to high population and concentration of

employment and housing. With migration of more and more people from other places in India, settlements have started spreading all over the City of Mumbai in form of large numbers of residential complexes and slums. People come to Mumbai in search of employment and in the hope of getting a shelter. This has caused a strain on all transportation facilities. As discussed in Chapter 4, the slum formations have become very common on the road and highway sides, causing a high risk of road accidents. Concentration of employment is more in CBD area of Mumbai. As the city is growing northwards, many small scale factories and job opportunities are being created in these areas. Thus there is uncontrolled growth of population and slums in a haphazard way. Attempts are being made to shift employment to Bandra-Kurla Complex in the suburban area and in Navi Mumbai. This can prove to be an efficient measure if planned properly. The concept of satellite towns similar to Singapore can be used to evenly distribute the population and employment. These satellite towns should be connected by an efficient rail and bus network to each other and the city center. These satellite towns will have job

107

opportunities for the residents, thus avoiding long trips to the city center and to the other parts. Strategic planning of this kind has totally stopped the urban sprawl in Singapore, and can be an effective measure for Mumbai. An efficient development can be achieved only when the areas have a good transportation system for convenient movement of people. The satellite towns should be made self sufficient with proper pedestrian facilities and public transportation. Slum population needs to be rehabilitated away from the dangerous traffic and given some incentives like job opportunities, which will avoid their settlements again on roads and highways. Improvements like increasing the frequency of trains and buses, building flyovers and widening roads seem to be short term goals. These measures do not intend to curb the unplanned growth. Policy measures and efficient planning is needed to bring the situation in control. As discussed in the literature review, transportation planners can study the examples and experiences of demand management and land use planning in developed and developing countries.

6.2.2

Facilitation of Public Transportation It is seen from the online survey that 60 per cent of trips are within suburbs, 28

per cent from suburbs to the city, 11 per cent from the city to the suburbs while 2 per cent of trips are within the city. Although these figures do no necessarily give the exact percentage of trips taking place in the entire Mumbai, it gives a fair idea in terms of proportion. Of all the trips (rail and road) surveyed through the questionnaire, approximately 35 per cent of trips take place in the east-west direction. Out of all railway trips, 30 per cent of commuters have to transfer the train from Western Railway to

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Central Railway or vice versa at Dadar Station. This increases their travel distance to almost twice of the direct distance between the origin and destination. Thus commuters waste their time, energy and resources. A person traveling from eastern suburb to western suburb or vice versa by train has to travel in north-south direction at least once. This is due to the fact that there is no railway line connecting east to west directly. Presently there is a bus network, but buses often take longer times to travel due to the gridlocks on the roads. This explains the main cause of longer travel time and delays. To improve the direct east-west connection public transportation should be improved. Mumbai is experiencing construction of flyovers which is not going to help much, since it will attract more cars and two-wheelers. A common belief among people is that they can travel faster with their own modes of transport. In fact this causes more traffic and inconvenience to them as well as others. A rail system and priority to the public buses can help solve some of the congestion in Mumbai. A railway system running east-west can be then extended to Navi Mumbai, a proposed satellite town in order to grow trade and business. This will also alleviate the problem of excessive concentration of employment and population in Mumbai itself. Moreover, this will reduce the strain on already existing Central and Western Railway. In spite of the rush and inconvenience through railways and buses, it is found through online survey that 80 per cent of people still prefer them (58 per cent prefer trains and 22 per cent prefer buses). This might be due to the low costs (as discussed earlier, the cost per km for public transport modes is three times lesser than the personalized v ehicles). 18 per cent of respondents prefer to have personalized vehicles, in the form of cars or two-wheelers. 2 per cent of people prefer intermediate transport, which includes auto rickshaws and taxis. These statistics

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show the need to make improvements in public transport systems. Another improvement that can be suggested is laying new tracks or assigning separate tracks for intercity and goods trains. These trains running during peak hours create disturbance in the regular train schedule, causing inconvenience to people in form of longer waiting times and rush.

6.2.3

Parking Parking is seen to be another critical problem of Mumbai transportation system.

There are no appropriate spaces provided for parking in residential complexes and offices. Thus people are forced to park their vehicles on nearby streets. Parking if provided is generally free or at a reasonable rate, easily affordable by the car owners. This encourages more use of cars and two-wheelers. Parking at wrong places creates confusion to the drivers, occupies the narrow roads and results into vehicle pedestrian conflict, thus causing a dangerous situation for drivers and pedestrians. Parking should be made strict in Mumbai. Fines should be high for illegal parking and free parking should be totally eliminated. Multi-storey parking lots can be provided around big offices and large residential complexes, where the personalized vehicles are bound to be more. Special parking zones should be provided for bicycles around railway stations and other public places.

6.2.4

Pedestrian Convenience Another important development that Mumbai requires is improvement in

pedestrian facilities. Sustainability demands convenience of people, irrespective of their

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age and economical background. It is seen that roads are built or widened considering the convenience of vehicle owners, without giving enough thought to the pedestrians. Most trips involve walking and at least 60 per cent requires considerable amount of walk on roads. Accidents mostly involve pedestria ns, and hence there is a need to place them in a safer environment. Sidewalks, pedestrian signals and pedestrian crossings should be provided at all places. Special sound systems should be provided at the traffic signals especially for the blind.

6.2.5

Curbing personalized vehicles on roads Various suggestions have been given on the idea of curbing personalized vehicles.

Some people suggest that the cars be banned on roads a few days in a week, while some feel that higher taxes should be incurred on these vehicles and fuel. While all these measures contribute towards reduced use of cars and two wheelers on the road, it is not practically feasible to adopt these options without arranging alternate means of public transportation. Railway capacity which gets exceeded by almost 3 times, cannot be further strained by allowing no cars on the road. Banning cars and two-wheelers on roads will only add to the dissatisfaction of the commuters. Public transportation facilities should be enhanced to such an extent that people will prefer these modes more than their cars. Taxes on vehicles and fuel along with parking costs will definitely reduce the vehicle use provided people have better options for traveling. People will avoid their vehicles and shift to public transportation, only when the later offers faster means of travel. Hence bus priority and improvements in railways would be the best solutions to solve the transportation problems. Imposing stricter rules and policy norms on use of old

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vehicles, on emission standards and fuel quality, will further help in alleviating transportation problems in Mumbai.

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Chapter 7 Conclusion and Recommendation

7.1

Conclusion The mitigation measures suggested in the previous chapters are important steps

towards sustainable growth of transportation in Mumbai. These measures can definitely improve the quality of transportation, with a reduction in accidents, pollution, health problems and inconvenience. With the modal shift towards public transportation, traffic congestion will reduce, thereby increasing the speed. Improvement of speed from 15 km/hr to 25 km/hr will cause significant reduction of pollutant emission as discussed in Chapter 5. Bold steps that should be taken in making Mumbai a sustainable city are as follows: 1. Land Use Planning Population and employment should be dispersed, thus avoiding their concentrations in a particular area. The concept of satellite town as discussed in the previous chapter is an effective tool to reduce the travel distance, time, effort, pollution, fuel consumption, thereby reducing strain on the present transportation system. 2. Enhancement of Buses and Railways East-West connection should be provided in form of public transportation in order to increase the convenience of people traveling in East-West direction. Funds which are invested in developing flyovers can be directed towards improving the public

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transportation facilities in form of frequency and infrastructure. Buses should be given priority on roads as compared to the other vehicles. It is absurd to note that a transportation mode which carries maximum number of people in Mumbai travels with the lowest speed the roads. 3. Transportation Planning Long term and a comprehensive planning is required for Mumbai. Increasing the frequency of buses and trains, creating spaces for parking free of cost, building flyovers are short term improvements, as discussed earlier. These planning measures intend to cater to the present demand, without taking into consideration the high rate of growth in vehic les and population. Planning measures should not only include providing facilities for transportation, but should include measures which reduce the need to travel. 4. Restriction of personal vehicle use Taking into consideration the current scenario of existing pollution levels, traffic congestion and the travel speed, it becomes an urgent need to take some bold steps before the situation goes out of control. This can be achieved when the use of vehicles is decreased considerably. Norms should be made in order to curtail the car use, and provisions should be made simultaneously have a modal shift to walking and transportation.

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7.2

Recommendations Most results in this study are based on the online survey posted on the web site.

Further research is needed to consider the entire section of Mumbai population. For a sustainable transportation system, there should be a balance between the social, economical and environmental aspect. This study is more focused on the social aspect, as it mainly tries to quantify the social satisfaction. Detailed study is required to gauge the social, environmental and economical benefits taken together. Benefit cost study is to be carried out for comprehensive long term planning of the city. In order to measure the social satisfaction, eleven critical parameters were considered. There are many more secondary parameters that influence peoples acceptability which the study does not account for. Research should be carried out further with more influencing factors. This will increase the reliability of the results, thus giving a broader understanding of achieving sustainability.

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Accessed http://www.globaltelematics.com/lcp/nel3.htm on June 10, 2004 7. Assessing Transportation Contributions to the Economic Performance of Developing Countries, University of Arkansas Accessed http://www.uark.edu/depts/intagpro/tran_dev.html on June 10, 2004 8. Energy Consumption and the Environment - Impacts and Options for Personal Transportation, 1996 Accessed http://www.rqriley.com/energy.html on June 10, 2004 9. Deike P., Meeting the institutional challenges of sustainable transport: An NGO Perspective, Presentation notes for the UNEP Regional Workshop Deals on Wheels: Sustainable Transportation Initiatives in Developing Countries, San Salvador, Institute for Transportation and Development Policy (ITDP), 1999 Accessed http://www.itdp.org/read/DEALSINS.doc on June 10, 2004 10. Online Transportation Demand Management Encyclopedia, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2004 Accessed http://www.vtpi.org/0_tdm.htm on June 10, 2004 11. Phiu- nual K., Congestion and pollution in a rapidly expanding city of South-East Asia: The case of Bangkok, Transport, Land use and the Environment, edited by Hayashi Y and Roy J, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1996, pp 27-45 12. Hayashi Y., Economic development and its influence on the environment: urbanization, infrastructure and land use planning systems, Transport, Land use and the Environment, edited by Publishers, 1996, pp 3-25 Hayashi Y and Roy J, Kluwer Academic

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13. Litman T., The Costs of Automobile Dependency and the Benefits of Balanced Transportation, Victoria Transport Policy Institute, 2002, pp 1-30 Accessed http://www.vtpi.org/autodep.pdf on June 10, 2004 14. Black J., Higher Density Housing and Transport in Australian cities, Transport, Land use and the Environment, edited by Academic Publishers, 1996, pp 55-80 15. Gordon D., Steering a new course-Transportation, Energy and the Environment, Union of Concerned Scientists, 1991, pp 47-53 16. Implementing Sustainable Urban Transport Policies: National Reviews, European Conference of Ministers of Transport, 2003. 17. U.S Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration Accessed http://wwwcf.fhwa.dot.gov/planning/sgindex.htm on June 10, 2004 18. Fong C., Taking it to streets: Western European and American Sustainable Transportation Policy and Prospects for Community Level Change, Comparative Urban Planning Law: An introduction to urban land development law in United States through the lens of comparing the experience of other nations, edited by Kushner J., Carolina Academic Press, 2003, pp 286-291. 19. Cervero R., Growing smart by linking Transportation and Urban Development, Comparative Urban Planning Law: An introduction to urban land development law in United States through the lens of comparing the experience of other nations, edited by Kushner J., Carolina Academic Press, 2003, pp 279-284. 20. Pucher J. and Dijkstra L., Making Walking and Cycling safer Lessons from Europe, scheduled for publication in Transportation Quarterly Vol. 4, No. 3, 2000 Hayashi Y and Roy J, Kluwer

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Appendix

Online Survey I am Bhairavi Dhakras, a graduate student in the University of Toledo (USA), doing my masters in Civil Engineering. I am working on my thesis "Study of parameters in the development of sustainable transportation system in the City of Mumbai". I need your help in developing data about the current transportation scenario in Mumbai, the usual problems people face and their expectations from a good transportation system. If you are a regular traveler in Mumbai, please answer the following questions. The questionnaire will take only 5 to 10 minutes to answer. Your responses are important and valuable to me. If you have question(s) or suggestion(s) please feel free to email me at bdhakras@eng.utoledo.edu. I appreciate your feedback.

1. Your Profession

2. Where do you start your journey for going to work / school (Origin)?

3. Where do you go for your work / school (Destination)?

4. What time do you start your journey? In the morning In the evening Hours Hours Minutes. Minutes.

5. Indicate your time (in minutes) and distance (km) spent in each mode In the morning Train Bus

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Auto rickshaw Taxi Car Two-Wheeler Bicycle Walking

In the evening Train Bus Auto rickshaw Taxi Car Two-Wheeler Bicycle Walking

6. What is the average delay (in minutes) you usually experience? In the morning In the evening

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7. What is the duration of time you would be satisfied with for your one way journey?

8. What are your approximate travel expenses (in Rupees) per day?

9. Which mode of transport do you prefer?

10. How would you overall rate the following?

Totally Fairly Unacceptable Unacceptable 1. Pollution 2. Road Quality 3. Congestion 4. Delay due to Speed of vehicles 5. Frequency of buses and trains 6. Pedestrian facilities 7. Rush in public transport 8. Parking 9. Availability of alternate modes to 10. Comparison with transportation of other cities in India 11. Cost of Travel 12. Mumbai Transportation as a whole Average Fairly Acceptable Totally Acceptable

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