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channel Mapping Mapping channels to the resource Block channel Mapping on a 10MHz channel uplink Mapping of Physical channels uplink Mapping of the control channel overall Picture of uL Mapping Physical channels and Modulation Schemes Synchronisation and reference Signals Primary and Secondary Synch Sequences PSS and SS in the Frame Structure reference Signals LTE reference Signals dL cell Specific rS dL uE Specific rS uL uE Specific rS demodulation reference Signals (dM rS) Sounding reference Signals (SrS) Modulation, channel coding and Link Adaptation channel coding HArQ (Hybrid Automatic request) reporting of uE Feedback Power control in LTE The user Plane and control Plane Protocols
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inTRODuCTiOn TO OFDM/OFDMA
Requirements of Modern Communication systems
recent fixed and mobile broadband statistics suggest that the demand for data is increasing at an ever accelerating rate. Services such as Facebook, Youtube and other Web 2.0 type applications have traditionally been accessed from fixed broadband connections, however with the rising popularity of the smart phone, these applications are moving swiftly in to the mobile domain. This puts pressure on the operators of mobile networks to ensure there is sufficient capacity for the existing voice traffic as well as all the new multimedia and social networking applications. The demand for high capacity makes the radio engineer look to the radio channel to find additional capacity. In recent years the bandwidth of the channel has grown significantly from 200KHz GSM to 5MHz uMTS/HSPA and the modulation and coding schemes have grown steadily more complex and efficient. Given the current bandwidth and complexity of systems like HSPA it would be difficult to gain more capacity by simply increasing the channel bandwidth without making the technology prohibitively complex.
Receiver
b) Flat Fading
Power Expected signal Actual signal
Frequency
Frequency
Fig. 2
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Receiver
Power
t2 t3
t4 t5
Time
narrowband or WideBand?
Ts
Td
Fig. 3
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Coherence Bandwidth
coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered flat (i.e., a channel which passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase). In other words, coherence bandwidth is the range of frequencies over which two frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude correlation. coherence bandwidth is a function of the delay spread environment and can be calculated using the following expression; Bc = 1 2rms
Where; rms is the rms delay spread of the channel. The table below shows typical delay spreads for various environments and their coherence bandwidth. Knowing the coherence bandwidth for typical deployment environments allows an estimation of the probability that frequency selective fading will occur if the channel bandwidth of the system is know.
Environment
Hilly area urban Suburban open area Indoors
Coherence Bandwidth
53KHz-16KHz 160KHz-53KHz > 160KHz > 795KHz 16MHz-3.2MHz
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Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the channel can be considered flat (i.e., a channel which passes all spectral components with approximately equal gain and linear phase) 1 2rms
Coherence Bandwidth
53KHz-16KHz 160KHz-53KHz > 160KHz > 795KHz 16MHz-3.2MHz
Bc =
Environment
Hilly area urban Suburban open area Indoors
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Multi-Carrier solution
Given the problems outlined above the solution for todays broadband wireless systems is to utilise multi-carrier systems known as oFdM (orthogonal Frequency division Multiplexing) or oFdMA (orthogonal Frequency division Multiple Access). FDM (Frequency Division Multiple Access) Multi-carrier systems split the high speed stream of serial baseband data in to lower speed parallel streams. The lower bit rate on each sub-carrier results in a narrower radio channel that is resistant to the frequency selective fade. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing) However, these multi-carrier systems need to exhibit good spectral efficiency, each sub carrier must be placed close to its adjacent carrier with out causing interference. The channel spacing is 1/Ts where Ts is the symbol time of information modulated onto the carrier. Spacing the channels in this manner ensures that the centre of each carrier corresponds with a zero crossing point for each of the neighbouring sub-carriers. This means that the centre of the sub-carriers can be sampled, free from interference of the adjacent sub-carriers.
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1/Ts
Fig. 5
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Coherence Time
An important performance attribute when considering the systems sensitivity to effects of frequency offset is the coherence time. The coherence time is a function of the amount of frequency offset present in the channel and is defined as; The time over which a channel can be assumed to be constant. 9 Tc = 2 16.fd2 Therefore a system that uses a symbol time which is less than the coherence time will not be distorted by the effects of doppler shift.
e.g. Find the coherence time for a radio channel operating at 2.6GHz and a mobile travelling at 140kph. The angle of arrival is 0o 140kph = 38 m/s fd = cos. 2.6 x 109 . 3.8 3 x 108
fd = 329.33 Hz Tc = 2
9 16.329.332
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Coherence Time
The time over which a channel can be assumed to be constant
Fig. 8
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T cp= 4.7 S
CPB A CPB
CPC B CPC
Fig. 9
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Symbol time 2
Symbol time 3
Symbol time 4
Carrier 1
Carrier 2
Carrier 3
Carrier 4
Composite signal
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Q -1,1 1,1 I -1,-1 1,-1 1,1 -1,-1 -1,1 1,-1 -1,-1 1,1 1,-1 -1,1
Sequence of QPSK data symbols to be transmitted
V
SC sy -FD m M bo A l
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CP
e m O sy FD m MA bo l Ti
CP
e SC sy -FD m M bo A l Ti m
fc
15kHz
Frequency
fc
60kHz
Frequency
OFDMA
SC-FDMA
Sc-FdMA signal generation begins with a special pre-coding process. The diagram opposite shows the first steps, which create a time-domain waveform of the QPSK data sub-symbols. using the four colour-coded QPSK data symbols from the previous diagram, the process creates one Sc-FdMA symbol in the time domain by computing the trajectory traced by moving from one QPSK data symbol to the next. This is done at M times the rate of the Sc-FdMA symbol such that one Sc-FdMA symbol contains M consecutive QPSK data symbols. once an IQ representation of one Sc-FdMA symbol has been created in the time domain, the next step is to represent that symbol in the frequency domain using a dFT. To complete Sc-FdMA signal generation, the process follows the same steps as for oFdMA. Performing an IdFT converts the frequency-shifted signal to the time domain and inserting the cP provides the fundamental robustness of oFdMA against multipath. The diagram opposite shows the stages in common with oFdM.
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V(I)
+1
M data bits in
Time domain
Frequency domain
Time domain
Generate constellation
Fig. 12
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One radio frame, Tf = 307200, Ts = 10 ms One slot, Tslot = 15360, Ts = 0.5 ms #0 #1 #2 #3 #18 #19
One subframe
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 66.67S Symbols
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sub-frame number 0
d d d d d d d
1
S S S S S S S
2
u u u u u u u
3
u u d u u d u
4
u d d u d d u
5
d d d d d d d
6
S S S d d d S
7
u u u d d d u
8
u u d d d d u
9
u d d d d d d
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DL or UL symbol
Resource block
RB Nsc = 12 (180 kHz)
Frequency
RB
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channel bandwidth (MHz) number of resource blocks (nrB) number of occupied subcarriers IdFT(Tx)/dFT(rx) size Sample rate (MHz) Samples per shot
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Trafc channel
Control channel
MAC
Logical channels Dened by Type of information i.e. trafc, control, e.g. BCCH, PCCH, CCCH, MCCH, DCCH
PHY
Transport channels Dened by Transport attribute i.e. channel coding, CRC, interleaving, size of radio data packets, e.g. BCH, PCH, DL-SCH, MCH
Physical channels Dened by actual physical layer characteristics, bandwidth, FFT size, e.g. PDSCH, PDCCH, PMCH, PBCH
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Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH) System Information Messages Paging Control Channel (PCCH) Paging Messages, UE Location not known Common Control Channel (CCCH) Early communication, no RRC connection Multicast Control Channel (MCCH) Multicast control signalling Dedicated Control Channel (DCCH) Bi-Directional signalling, RRC connection, RRC and NAS Signalling
Dedicated Trafc Channel (DTCH) Point-Point bi-directional channel, User data and application level signalling (SIP) Multicast Trafc Channel (MTCH) Point-Multi-point channel supporting data transfer for the MMBS service
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Broadcast Channel (BCH) xed, pre-de ned transport format; broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell. Downlink Shared Channel (DL-SCH) HARQ; dynamic link adaptation by varying the modulation, coding and transmit power; broadcast in the entire cell; beamforming; dynamic and semi-static resource allocation; UE discontinuous reception (DRX) to enable UE power saving; MBMS transmission. Paging Channel (PCH) UE discontinuous reception (DRX) to enable UE power saving broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell; mapped to physical resources which can be used dynamically also for traf c/other control channels. Multicast Channel (MCH) broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell; MBSFN combining of MBMS transmission on multiple cells; support for semi-static resource allocation e.g. with a time frame of a long cyclic
Uplink Shared Channel (UL-SCH) beamforming dynamic link adaptation by varying the transmit power and potentially modulation and coding; HARQ; dynamic and semi-static resource allocation. Random Access Channel (RACH) limited control information; collision risk;
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Physical broadcast channel (PBCH) BCH transport block is mapped to four subframes within a 40 ms blindly detected, there is no explicit signalling indicating 40 ms timing; the BCH can be decoded from a single reception. Physical control format indicator channel (PCFICH) Informs the UE about the number of OFDM symbols used for the PDCCHs; Transmitted in every subframe. Physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) resource allocation of PCH and DL-SCH, and Hybrid ARQ information related to DL-SCH; Carries the uplink scheduling grant. Physical Hybrid ARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) Carries Hybrid ARQ ACK/NAKs Physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH) Carries the DL-SCH and PCH. Physical multicast channel (PMCH) Carries the MCH. also for traf c/other control channels. Multicast Channel (MCH) - broadcast in the entire coverage area of the cell; - MBSFN combining of MBMS transmission on multiple cells; - support for semi-static resource allocation e.g. with a time frame of a long cyclic
Physical uplink control channel (PUCCH) Carries Hybrid ARQ ACK/NAKs ; Carries Scheduling Request (SR); Carries CQI reports. Physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH) Carries the UL-SCH. Physical random access channel (PRACH) Carries the random access preamble.
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Channel Mapping
The diagram opposite shows the possible mapping of channels between logical, transport and physical channels. It can be noted that, whilst the logical channels carry specific types of information, they can be mapped to common transport channels and in the case of the multicast control and traffic channels different transport channels can be used to carry the data. In the case of the BccH logical channel, it will be noted that both the BcH and dL-ScH may be used to carry the system information. This depends on the type of system information being transmitted. critical system information messages such as those that carry scheduling information and need to be transmitted on a regular basis are transmitted as a fixed format message via the BcH and PBcH. Mapping system information to the dL_ScH allows some flexibility and additional capacity for less time dependant information. The rAcH channel carries only the access preamble and has no instance above the MAc layer, therefore the channel is not mapped to a logical channel. once an rrc connection has been granted the rAcH is no longer used. Some physical channels do not carry information above the physical layer therefore have no transport channel equivalents. Examples include PuccH, PdccH, PcFIcH, PHIcH, these carry information related to the coding of the physical blocks and HArQ mechanism.
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Logical
PCCH BCCH CCCH DCCH DTCH MCCH MTCH
Transport
PCH BCH UL-SCH DL-SCH MCH RACH
Physical
PRACH
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Fig. 23 Mapping of Downlink Control and sCh physical Channels to a Resource Block
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One radio frame = 10 ms One subframe = 1 ms Slot 0 Slot 1 Slot 2 Slot 10 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Slot 19 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 RB Ant 0/Ant 1 reference channel estimation channel quality measurement 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306
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Time
Frequency n PUSCH n PUCCH n Demodulation reference signal (for PUSCH) n Demodulation reference signal for PUCCH format 0 & 1
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Full name
Physical broadcast channel Physical multicast channel Physical downlink control channel Physical downlink shared channel Physical control format indicator channel Physical hybrid ArQ indicator channel
purpose
carries cell-specific information carries the McH transport channel Scheduling, AcK/nAcK Payload defines number of PdccH oFdMA symbols per sub-frame (up to 4) carries HArQ AcK/nAcK
uL channels
PrAcH PuccH PuScH
Full name
Physical random access channel Physical uplink control channel Physical uplink shared channel
purpose
call setup Scheduling, AcK/nAcK Payload
Full name
Primary synchronisation signal
purpose
used for cell search and identification by the uE. carries part of the cell Id (one of three orthogonal sequences) used for cell search and identification by the uE. carries the remainder of the cell Id (one of 168 binary sequences) used for dL channel estimation. Exact sequence derived from cell Id (one of 3 x 168 = 504) pseudo random sequences)
S-ScH*
rS
uL signals
rS
Full name
reference signal (demodulation and sounding)
purpose
used for synchronisation to the uE and uL channel estimation
Fig. 28
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1. 2. 3.
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Initial synchronisation
SSS Detection Radio Frame Timing Cell ID CP Length Detection TDD/FDD Detection
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pss and sss Frame and slot structure in Time Domain in the FDD Case
10 ms radio frame 2 3 4 5 7 8 SSS 9 10 PSS
Normal CP Extended CP
pss and sss Frame and slot structure in Time Domain in the TDD Case
10 ms radio frame 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 SSS 9 10 PSS
Normal CP Extended CP
Fig. 31
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pss and sss Frame structure in Frequency and Time Domain for an FDD Cell
10 ms radio frame 6 RB
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
1 ms subframe
Fig. 31
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Reference signals
Any information transmitted in to a radio channel will experience attenuation and distortion of the information as well as the additive accumulation of noise and ISI caused by the multipath radio environment. Therefore any information transmitted from A B will require some decoding or equalisation to be applied to it. The detection processes can either be coherent or non-coherent. coherent processes use explicit knowledge of the channel measured from known information passed through the channel. This advantage of this detection process is the simplicity of implementation at the expense of overhead data, which reduces the spectral efficiency of the channel. non-coherent detection relies on some prior knowledge of a parametric model of the channel, exploiting the correlation properties of the channel or using blind estimation. Whilst these techniques may be more spectral efficient they are generally complex to implement. LTE uses a coherent detection method by passing, so called, reference Signals (rS) through the channel at specific time and frequency intervals.
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Noise
Channel, H
Attenuation, distortion, ISI, fading
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R0
R0
Frequency
R0
R0
R0
R0
R0
R0
Time
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DL Cell specific Rs
The figure opposite shows how the reference signals are arrange in the frequency and time domain. The actual separation of the rS in the time domain is determined from the maximum doppler spread expected in the channel. LTE is designed to work up to 500Kph, assuming 2GHz spectrum the maximum doppler shift would be ~950Hz, according to the nyquist sampling theorem the signal should be sampled with an interval no less than twice the inverse of the frequency shift. Therefore there should be at least 2 rS per slot (where a slot in 0.5mS) in the time domain. The separation of the rS in the frequency domain is related to the amount of delay spread present in the channel. The rMS delay spread is assumed to be no worse that 991nS therefore the coherence bandwidth for 90% and 50% of the rMS spread expected is somewhere between 20KHz and 200KHz. The rS are distributed every 3rd sub-carrier (over 2 symbols), therefore the expected frequency variations may be resolved. The LTE dL has been designed to work with multiple antennas, therefore there are different rS patterns for each antenna ports that may be in use. The position of the rS in the time and frequency domains is carefully chosen to ensure there is no overlap between the antenna ports. This allows the receiver to take up to 4 separate dL channel estimates. The rS its self is a pseudo random sequence from a length 31 Gold sequence with different initialisation values depending on the type of rS. The rS can also carry one of 501 different cell identities and each rS has a cell specific frequency shift applied to it, to reduce the time-frequency collisions that may occur in a frequency re-used system.
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R0
R0
R1
R1
Frequency
R0
R0
R1
R1
R0
R0
R1
R1
R0
R0
R1
R1
(a) Time
Pattern of RS Depends on the Antenna Port used Time and Freq separation determined from Doppler and Delay Spread RS is formed from a length-31 Gold sequence
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DL uE specific Rs
rS which are specific to uE may also be used, they are embedded in the resource Blocks (rB) which are transmitted to a specific uE. More accurately they occur in the rB to which the PdScH is mapped for uE which are configured to operate in this mode. The mode is configured by higher layer rrc signalling. uE specific rS may be used to enable the application of beam-forming antennas, where a single beam is formed to transmit data to the uE. Where beam-forming antennas are used the channel response for different uEs will be different there for the use of Eu specific rS is very useful. The position of the uE specific rS in the rB is shown in the diagram opposite, the location of the rS in the frequency and time domain is chosen so as not to collide with the cell specific rS.
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R5 R5 R5 R5 R5 R5 R5 R5 R5
R5
Frequency
R5
R5
Time
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uL uE specific Rs
As with the downlink (dL), the uplink (uL) specifies the use of reference signals to enable the coherent detection of the channel. The rS can be used to support channel estimation, channel quality estimation for uL scheduling, power control, timing estimation and direction-of-arrival estimation for downlink beam-forming. There are two types of rS: demodulation rS (dM rS) associated with transmission of data on the PuScH and control data on the PuccH. Primarily used to derive the channel estimate for coherent demodulation Sounding rS (SrS) used to determine the uL channel quality and derive the frequency selective scheduling on the uL
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UE allocation
ZC Seq U0 ZC Seq U1 ZC Seq U2
PUSCH
PUSCH
PUSCH
Frequency
Resource block
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 Symbol
Time
Fig. 36
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PUSCH
DMRS
DMRS
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PUSCH
PUSCH
4 5
DMRS
Frequency
Resource block
3 Symbol
SRS
6
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80
QPSK 2 bits/Baud
16QAM 4 bits/Baud
64QAM 6 bits/Baud
10-1
10-2
10
SNR
15
20
25
Fig. 38
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Modulation
no transmission QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK QPSK 16QAM 16QAM 16QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM 64QAM
Fig. 38
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Channel Coding
Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) A crc coding process is applied to each Transport Block (TB) 24-bit crc applied to dLScH, PcH, and McH transport blocks and 16-bit crc applied to BcH and dcI code blocks. segmentation code block segmentation is applied to dL-ScH, PcH, and McH transport blocks (i.e., data that are turbo encoded), with an additional 24-bit crc computed on each code-block (in cases where segmentation produces more than one code-block). Encoding A Turbo code is applied to dL-ScH, PcH, and McH data to be carried over a downlink physical channel is scrambled prior to modulation. convolutional code is applied to BcH and dcI data (single code block). channel coding used over the LTE air interface is based on the uTrAn release 6 turbo-coding schemes. other schemes are under consideration with the main drivers being Improvement in power efficiency (low Eb/no) Lower complexity decoder in the uE code rates lower than 1/3. Extension of maximum code block size removal of tail
All the above objectives are in pursuit of a reduction in overhead, an improvement in rF performance, and reduction in equipment costs. coding schemes being studied by 3GPP include: duo-binary turbo codes Inter-block permutation turbo code (IBPTc) rate-compatible/quasi cyclic LdPc code (rc/QcLdPc) concatenated zigzag LdPc code Turbo single parity check (SPc) low-density parity check (LdPc) code Shortened turbo code by insertion of temporary bits
Rate Matching rate matching is applied on a code-block basis to dL-ScH, PcH, McH, BcH, and dcI data. This function performs appropriate puncturing according to the AMc parameters. Figure 39 is a schematic diagram of the above processes.
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UE UE1 TB2 PDSCH Transport block (TB) processing TB CRC Codeblock (CB) Segmentation #CB #CB CB CRC Turbo encoder (internal interleaver) #CB Subblock interleaver Subblock interleaver Subblock interleaver #CB Rate matching HARQ functionality Layer Mapping Scrambling Modulation # layers Precoding
TB1
No. of antennas
RF Front-End
CP Insertion
IFFT
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ARQ data #1
CRC Data #1
x Discard data
hybrid-ARQ Operation
CRC Data #2 CRC Data #1 CRC Data #1
ARQ data #1
CRC Data #1
x Buffer data
CRC Data #1 buffered
CRC
Data #1 combined
UL-SCH, DL-SCH support HARQ 1 Bit HARQ Field Downlink Asynchronous ACK/NACK on PUCCH and PUSCH uplink Synchronous ACK/NACK on PHICH
Fig. 40 LTE hARQ
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Reporting of uE Feedback
The uE can be configured to report the quality of the channel to assist the enB with selecting the most appropriate modulation and coding scheme. The reports are derived from the downlink signal quality based o the downlink reference signals. The report signal quality is not a direct indication of the SInr in the channel, instead the chanel Quality Indicator (cQI) refers to the highest level of modulation and coding it can decode with an error rate not exceeding 10%. This method of reporting allows any advanced signal processing and channel decoding techniques to be employed. The reporting may consist of the following elements: cQI(channel quality indicator) is an indication of the downlink mobile radio channel quality as experienced by this uE. Essentially, the uE is proposing to the enB an optimum modulation scheme and coding rate to use for a given radio link quality, so that the resulting transport block error rate would not exceed 10%. 16 combinations of modulation scheme and coding rate are specified as possible cQI values. The uE may report different types of cQI. A so-called wideband cQI refers to the complete system bandwidth. Alternatively, the uE may evaluate a sub-band cQI value per sub-band of a certain number of resource blocks which is configured by higher layers. The full set of sub-bands would cover the entire system bandwidth. In case of spatial multiplexing, a cQI per code word needs to be reported. PMI(precoding matrix indicator) is an indication of the optimum precoding matrix to be used in the base station for a given radio condition. The PMI value refers to the codebook table. The network configures the number of resource blocks that are represented by a PMI report. Thus to cover the full bandwidth, multiple PMI reports may be needed. PMI reports are needed for closed loop spatial multiplexing, multi-user MIMo and closed-loop rank 1 precoding MIMo modes. rI(rank indication) is the number of useful transmission layers when spatial multiplexing is used. For transmit diversity the rank is equal to 1. The reporting may be periodic or aperiodic and is configured by the radio network. Aperiodic reporting is triggered by a cQI request contained in the uplink scheduling grant. The uE would send the report on PuScH. In the case of periodic reporting, PuccH is used if no PuScH is available.
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Ri Rank indication
Number of useful transmission layers for spatial multiplexing TX diversity Rank is 1 Periodic or aperiodic CQI request on DL UE reports on PUSCH UE reports on PUCCH if no PUSCH available
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PMAX is the maximum allowed power that depends on the UE power class MPUSCH(i) is the bandwidth of the PUSCH resource assignment expressed
in number of resource blocks valid for subframe i
PO_NOMINAL_PUSCH(j) is a 8-bit cell specic signalled from higher layers PO_UE_PUSCH(j) is a 4-bit UE specic component PPUSCH(i) = min {PMAX, 10log10 (MPUSCH(i)) + PO_PUSCH(j) + (j).PL + TF(i) +(i)}
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TCP/UDP IP
RRC
36.331 RRC Protocol Speci cation
PDCP-user
36.323 PDCP Protocol Speci cation
PDCP-control
Transport channels
36.201 PHY General 36.211 PHY Channel and Modulation 36.212 Multiplexing and Channel Coding 36.213 PHY Procedures 36.214 Measurements
PHY
Physical channels
Fig. 43 LTE protocol stack
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