1

PHYS 476/576: Lecture 1

January 27, 2011

Optics can be divided into three areas:
1. Geometric optics where light is considered to travel in a straight line. It has just two laws:
law of reflection and law of refraction. The most insightful derivation of these laws is
based on Fermat principle.
2. Wave optics where light is treated as an electromagnetic wave. The interaction between
light waves and matter explains most optical phenomena.
3. Modern optics deals with light interaction with quantum systems.

We begin with a short introduction to geometric optics. We use Fermats principle to derive the
laws of reflection and refraction. Fermats principle states that light takes the path that requires the
least time. Mathematically, it can be expressed as
0
B
A
ds
v
o =

where ds is the element of arc

length along the path and v is the speed of light along the element. Lets consider reflection of
light by a mirror. Light begins at point A. After it is reflected by the mirror, it reaches point B.
The following figure shows an arbitrary path that light takes going from A to B. The total path
length is
Figure 1
2 2 2 2
( ) L d x d D x = + + +


Since the speed of light is the same along all possible paths, the least travel time means the shortest
distance. We differentiate and set 0
dL
dx
= . We have
2 2 2 2
0
( )
dL x D x
dx
d x d D x

= =
+ +

2 2 2 2
( )
x D x
d x d D x

=
+ +

2
2 2
2 2 2 2
( )
( )
x D x
d x d D x

=
+ +

We cross multiple and obtain
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
( ) ( ) ( ) x d x D x d D x x D x + = +
2 2
( ) x D x =

Take the square root of both sides and obtain
x D x =

For the negative sign we have D = 0 which is not a solution.
For the positive sign we have
2
D
x = . The light path is shown in Figure 2

Figure 2

We have the law of reflection.

We can see Fermats principle better by the following construction (from Feynmans QED: The
Strange Story of Light and Matter, London; Penguin, 1985). Light begins from S and reaches P by
various paths. Light only takes the one with the least time. That path is denoted by G.
3


Consider light begins in the medium with index of refraction n
1
and refracts in the medium with n
2
,
as shown in Figure 3.

4
We calculate the time necessary for light to go from point A to B. We take the speed of light in
vacuum as c. The speed of light in the first medium is equal to
1
c
n
and that in the second medium
is
2
c
n
. The total amount of travel time can be expressed as

2 2 2 2
1 2
( )
/ /
d D x d x
t
c n c n
+ +
= +
2 2 2 2
1 2
( ) ct n d x n d D x = + + +
We differentiate and then set 0
dt
dx
= . We have
1 2
2 2 2 2
( )
0
( )
n x n D x
d x d D x

=
+ +

1
2 2
2
2 2
sin
( )
sin
( )
x
d x
D x
d D x
u
u
=
+

=
+


As a result, we have
1 1 2 2
sin sin n n u u = , the law of refraction.

We apply geometric optics to understand the basic principle of optical tweezers and optical
trapping. Optical tweezers are used to move molecules and to measure forces generated by
proteins. When dealing with such small systems, geometric optics is no longer valid.
Nevertheless, it can illustrate the physical principle as an approximation.

Light can exert a force onto an object. Consider a photon with momentum p striking a wall.

After striking the wall, there is a change in the momentum of the photon. Since the collision is
elastic, the magnitude of the momentum does not change. According to Newtons second law of
5
motion the wall exerts a force on the photon in the direction of p A . According to Newtons third
law of motion the photon exerts the same force but in a direction opposite to p A . The net result is
that the force between the photon and the wall is repulsive. Optical trapping requires an attractive
force. How can we generate an attractive force between the light beam and the object? Instead of
using a planar object we use a curved object, like a sphere. Consider a transparent sphere
illuminated by a narrow beam of light.

The change in the momentum of the photon points to the right. As a result, the sphere exerts a
force on the photon drawing it toward the center of the sphere. According to Newtons third law
of motion the light beam pulls the sphere toward it. As a result, the force is attractive. At
equilibrium the sphere rests at the center of the light beam. Therefore, it is trapped. If the beam
moves to the right, the sphere would follow. If the sphere is attached to a molecule, the movement
of the light beam would move the sphere which in turn would move the molecule. We have
optical tweezers.

We now turn to wave optics.
James Maxwell was first to recognize that light is a bundle of electromagnetic waves. In 1865 he
summarized all electric and magnetic interactions into 4 equations, the so-called Maxwells
equations. These equations relate
1. Electric field and charge (Coulombs law or Gausss law of electricity)
2. Magnetic flux (Gausss law of magnetism)
3. Amperes Law (relation between the change in electric field over space and the change
with magnetic field over time)
4. Faradays law (relation between the change in electric field over time and the change with
magnetic field over space)
6
Combining these 4 equations, he derived a wave equation which describes the propagation of an
electromagnetic wave. He showed that the speed of propagation was equal
4
o
o
k t
u
. Note that k
o

= 8.9875 x 10
9
Nm
2
/C
2
and u
o
= 4t x 10
-7
Tm/A. Therefore ,
4
o
o
k t
u
= 3.0 x 10
8
m/s, which is
the speed of light (c). Therefore, Maxwell concluded that light is an electromagnetic wave.

French scientist Louis Fizeau in 1849 made an accurate measurement of the speed of light. His
experiment is illustrated below.

A light beam is reflected by a semitransparent mirror to pass through one of many holes on a
spinning wheel. The beam then travels a large distance (8.6 km in this example) and strikes a
mirror. The reflected again travels a large distance back to the semitransparent mirror. An
observer tracks the reflected beam. If the wheel is rotating at the correct angular speed, the
returning light beam would pass through the adjacent hole of the spinning wheel and strike the
observers eye. Knowing the correct angular speed of the spinning wheel, the observer can
calculate the equivalent time interval (At ~ 60 us) between two adjacent holes on the spinning
wheel. The, the speed of light is equal to
3
(2)(8.6 10 ) m
c
t

=
A
. Fizeau measured the speed of light
to be 3.0 x 10
8
m/s.

Electric and magnetic fields are related by relative motion. Actually, with special relativity
Maxwells equations can be derived from Coulombs law and the principle of superposition. See
article by Donald H. Kobe, entitled Generalization of Coulombs law to Maxwells equations
using special relativity, published in American Journal of Physics, Volume 54, July, page 631
(1986). As you know, the mathematical foundation of special relativity is based on the Lorentz
transformation. If one forces Maxwells equations to be invariant under the Lorentz
transformation, one can show that the speed of light must remain the same in all inertial frames
(Einsteins second postulate of his theory of special relativity). This was suggested by the French
mathematician, Poincar, in 1904. Maxwells wave equation relates three fundamental constants,
k
o
, u
o
and c, together. Therefore, among the three constants only two are significant. We
arbitrarily take u
o
= 4t x 10
-7
Tm/A. Thats why u
o
does not look like a fundamental constant!

7
We now know that light is a bundle of electromagnetic waves. How does light interact with
matter? The interaction is divided into two major categories: classical optics and modern optics.
Classical optics is divided into two realms: geometric optics and wave optics. If light has
wavelengths that are small compared to the size of the objects it illuminates, we are in the realm of
geometric optics. There are only two rules in geometric optics: the law of reflection and Snells
law of refraction. If the wavelength is comparable to the size of the objects it illuminates, we are
in the realm of wave optics. Usually, wave optics covers polarization, diffraction and interference.
Here, we are more interested in how electromagnetic waves interact with matter in terms of
quantum physics. Nevertheless, we will begin with a short discussion on classical theory of optics.
This theory is known as the dispersion theory.

Classical Dispersion Theory
We use the word, classical to describe phenomena that can be explained using Newtons laws of
motion and Maxwells equations. Dispersion means spreading. If we have a light pulse that
travels through a medium, the shape of the signal would spread or broaden. We say that the
medium is dispersive. Mathematically, dispersion can be described by e(k), where e is the
angular frequency and k is the wavevector of the wave. As you probably know, k 2t/ where
is the wavelength of the wave. Understanding the effects of dispersion in important in optical fiber
communication. Every light pulse can be described as the sum of an infinite number of waves of
different wavelengths (Fourier analysis). Waves of different wavelengths travel at different speeds
in a dispersive medium. Consequently, the light pulse spreads in shape as it travels through the
medium or an optical fiber.

In optics, dispersive effects can be easily observed. For example, a beam of sunlight that passes
through a glass prism gives rise to a rainbow of colors.

Sunlight consists of electromagnetic waves with a broad spectrum of wavelengths. As it passes
through a glass prism which is a dispersive medium, waves with different wavelengths travel at
different speeds and consequently refract at different angles at the air/glass interface. Huygens
used this principle and derived the Snell law.

A light beam interacts with the medium as it travels through it. It components propagate at
different speeds because the medium is dispersive. We ask what is the physical quantity that
governs dispersion for a given medium. Since light waves are electromagnetic waves, we begin
the Maxwells equations to investigate the classical dispersion theory.

8
Maxwell equations are
V-D = p V-B = 0
B
E
t
c
V =
c

D
H J
t
c
V = +
c

(Bold means vector)
D = electric displacement
B = magnetic induction = magnetic flux density
E = electric field
H = magnetic field intensity
J = current density

Lets assume that the matter is an isotropic medium. We can write
D = cE where c = dielectric permittivity (in general c is a tensor)
B = uH where u = magnetic permeability (in general it is a tensor)
J = oE where o = conductivity (in general it is a tensor)

We assume that the matter has no free changes and is non-magnetic. Then, the Maxwell equations
become

V-D = 0 V-B = 0 VE = - cB/ct VH = cD/ct

D = cE = c
o
E + P
P = polarization = number of induced electric dipole moments per unit volume
c
o
= permittivity constant = 8.85 x 10
-12
C
2
N
-1
m
-2


B = uH = u
o
(H + M)
M = magnetization = number of induced magnetic dipole moments per unit volume
u
o
= permeability constant = 4t x 10
-7
TmA
-1
. Note that 1/(c
o
u
o
) = c
2
.

For a non-magnetic medium the magnetization is zero or u = u
o
.
B = u
o
H. We eliminate D, B, and H in the Maxwell equations and obtain an equation just for E.

We have
2 2
2
2 2 o o o
E P
E
t t
c u u
c c
V =
c c
[1]

The above equation is called the inhomogeneous wave equation. The interaction between the
electromagnetic wave and matter lies in P. Without polarization there is no interaction between
light and the medium. The polarization in general is expressed as
o
P E c ; = - where ; is the
electric susceptibility and is, in general, a tensor, which leads to nonlinear optics. Here, we treat ;
as a scalar because we assume the medium is isotropic. We use the relationship, D = cE = c
o
E +
P and obtain P = (c - co)E. Then, we have
o
P E c ; = - = (c - co)E and c
o
; = c - c
o
.
Using P = (c - co)E, we differentiate to obtain

9
2 2
2 2
( )
o
P E
t t
c c
c c
=
c c
[2]

Substitute this relationship into the inhomogeneous wave equation, we have

2 2 2
2
2 2 2
( )
o o o o o
E P E
E
t t t
c u u u c c
c c c
V = =
c c c



and
2
2
2
0
o
E
E
t
cu
c
V =
c
[3]

Note that when there is no interaction, P = 0, and c = c
o
and the inhomogeneous wave equation
becomes

2
2
2
0
o o
E
E
t
c u
c
V =
c

No interaction implies light travels in free space and its speed is equal to
1
o o
c u
.
Similarly, the speed of light in the medium is equal to
1
o
c u
. We define the refractive index (n)
of the medium as the ratio between the speed of light in vacuum or free space (c) divided by the
speed of light in the medium (v). Then, we have

o
o o o
c
n
v
u c c
k
u c c
= = = = [4]

where k is the dielectric constant. Refractive index is equal to the square root of the dielectric
constant. With c
o
; = c - c
o
we have 1
o
c
;
c
= + and 1 n ; = + .
If a medium has a high polarizatibility, c is large and n is large. Consequently, v = c/n is small.
Light travels slower when it interacts strongly with the medium.

Our dispersion equation is
o
n
c
c
= where c is the electric permittivity of the medium. How do we
determine c? How does light interact with the medium?
We use a model called the Electron-oscillator model. It assumes that the medium is made up many
atoms but each atom has only one effective electron moving in a circular orbit around the nucleus.
The orbit has a radius of r
o
. The electric field of the incoming light waves displaces the electron
away from its equilibrium position, r
o
. The displacement is defined as x, which is equal to r

- r
o
.
10
Applying Newtons second law of motion, F = ma, we have for the equation of motion of the
electron in the rotating coordinate system (the use of a rotating coordinate system reduces the
problem to one dimension).
2
2
d x dx
m Kx b eE
dt dt
= + [5]

where m is the mass of the electron, Kx the restoring force between the electron and the nucleus,
dx
b
dt
the frictional force, and eE the electric force. When b = 0 and E = 0, K = me
o
2
where e
o
is
the natural frequency of oscillation. When the electron moves away from its stable orbit, the
nucleus exerts a restoring force on the electron.
dx
b
dt
is the frictional force on the electron.
When the electron moves away from its stable orbit, it interacts with its surroundings and loses the
excess energy. In terms of quantum mechanics, the incoming photons can promote electrons from
the ground state to excited states. The excited electrons can return to the ground state by giving
their excess energy to the crystal lattice. This interaction is known is electron-phonon relaxation.
Some of the excess energy associated with the electron in the excited state is converted to heat.
dx
b
dt
leads to energy dissipation. eE is the electric force on the electron due to the electric field E
of the incoming electromagnetic wave. e is the charge of the electron which is equal to 1.6 x 10
-
19
C.

We assume the electric field of the light wave is expressed as E(t,z) =E
o
e
i(et kz)
(plane wave). We
assume that, x, the displacement of the electron from its equilibrium position is

x(t,z) = Ae
i(et kz)
[6]

where A is the response to the incoming light wave.
( , )
( , )
o
E t z
x t z A
E
= or ( , ) ( , )
o
E
E t z x t z
A
=
We substitute the assumed solution, [6] into the equation of motion,
2
2
d x dx
m Kx b eE
dt dt
= +
2
2 2
2
( )
d x
m m i x m x
dt
e e = = ( )
dx
b b i x
dt
e =

Substituting the above expressions in the equation of motion [5], we get
2 2
o o
x
m x m x ib x eE
A
e e e = +
We define b = m and solve for A

2 2
1
o
o
eE
A
m i e e e
=
+
[7]

--- Lecture 1 ends here ---