researdi process: an eight-sfep mocleJ

Steps in planning a research stucSy Step i: formulating a research problem Step n: conceptualising a research desgn Step ni: constracting an Instrument fot data collection Step iv: seieeting a saniple Step v: \vriring a research proposa} Steps In conducting a study Step vi: coliecting data Step vn: processng data Step vm: writifig a research report Summary

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16 Research MgThK

But much advantage Wifl occur f me! of sderace become thtrir own epiatesnoiogists, and show to the woril by critica! espositioa in Bon-technica terms the resuits

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and methods of their coasoructve vvork, chai more than mere nstinct is in volved in ir. the eommunity has indeed a right to expecr as much as ihs (Poincar 1952: 0.

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The research process: an eight-step modei

Research methodology is augh as a supporring subject in several ways in maay academic disciplines at varicras levis by peope comniitted to a varen' of research paradigmas. Tfaough paradigms vary in their contents and substance, ther broad approacjh to inquiry, n the author's opinin, is similar. Such ideas bave aiso been expressed by Fesringer and Kacg, who in the forevrord of her foook Research Methods in Behavioral Sciences say that "Aithoagh Ehe basic c^ic of scientific mehodology s the sarne in aJJ feids, is spedSe techuiques and approaches will vary, depending upon tie siubjeci matter1 (i 966: vi). Therefore, he modei developed here s generic n nature and can be applied to a number of disciplines in the social scieuees. It is based upon a practica! and step-by-step approach to a researcb inquiy aod each step provides a smorgasbord of methods, modes and procedures. Suppose you want to go ou for a drive. Befte you start, you must decide where you want to go and hen which route to take. If you kaow the route, you do or aeed to consult a street directory bm, if -you do noi, yon aeed to wse one, Your problera is compounded if there is more than one route, You oeed to decide which one to take. The research process is very similar to ndertaWng a jouriiey. As wth your drive, for a research journey tbere are aiso two important decisions to make. The first is to decide wkaty&u vxznt tofind ou ab&ut or,-iu otier words, what research questions you want to find answers lo. Having decided upon your research quesions or probiems, you then need to think how to go abouifinding their <mswer$. The path o fnding answers to your research questions coas litares research netliodiolQgy. JuSf as there are posts aloiag the way to your travel destinatiorj, so there are practica! seps through which you mus pass in your research joumey in order to the answers o your research questions (Figure 2.1), The sequence of these steps is not absolute. With experience you can change it. Ai each operational step ia the research process you are required o choose a muitiplicity of methods, procedures and models of research methodoogy which will help you to besi achieve your objeetives, This s where your knowkdge base of research mehodology plays a crucial role, The aim of this book is to provide j'ou vi knowledge that will enabJe you to select the most appropriate methods and procedures. The strength of his book es in anchoring the theoreticai knowledge to he posts of the research journey. A srnorgasbord choice at each operation step aims to

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The resesireh procesa: a quck gfance S 7

provide, at a beginner's levei, knowledge of rnethods and procedures used boh by quaiiative and quantitatve regearchers, though riie book is more inclined towards the quantitatve way of thiaking,
figura 2.1 The research jorneytouch each pose and setect methods and procedures appropriate or jfQw OMrnsrj'

Dcciding whist

Plano ing how

Actualiy doing

RESEARCH JOURNEY Stage I Stagell Smge III

Quamitative aod qualitstive research metihodologies differ in the philosophy that underpns their cnode of inquiry as well as, to some exteni, in methods,' models aid procedures sed. Though the research process is broadly he same in both, quaotative and qualitarive research are differentated in trras of the nsethods of data coliecrion, the procedures adopted for data processing and analysis, and he styie of communicaion of the findinp. If your research problem lends iself to a quaiitative mode of jjiquiry, you are more likely to vsse che umtrucmred interview or obseraation as your caethod of data collection. When anaiysing data in quaiiative research you go darough the process of ideatifying theraes aod describing \vhat you have fouad out duriug yoas interviews or observatkm rather than. subjecting your data to statistieal procedieres. Tabie 2.1 swminarises the differences between quaiitative and quantitatve research. Tabie 2. i Differaices beween quafetjve and quantitave research
1 Qws&ttativi RaneoataoK "That hutnan tngs acbieve teowicdge because of titeir capachy to reawn' (Broaard J994: 2) Qaaitattve research Empiricism: "The ony knowledge that bwnan beiogs acqiaire s firarn sensory espEEiences' (Bssroard 1Q94: 2} Unstroctured/fieibietapen

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Oifference wth respect to: Underpinncig philosophy

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IS Research Mchocoogy Tabte 2,1Qintinucd Dffference ffc respeff o: Qifantitatfve rteseaxh BiiBpKias ras aosae fonn of eiths1 measursnent or cfassficatios of variables Enjpfatss on ^-eatcr aampie sus Nairows focus in Kstns of ian?nl ef inqaiij, trat freza a ^-eaier siimber of respoadents Dominant research alue Dominam ressarch topk ReifebHty wd objeoirate (iralue-free) QitafSatve researeh Hmphasis on descripnon of sarisbies Fewercass Covers mltiple issues buj *-***

Mefisarement of variables

Sampie size Focusof inquy

AwJiEEnicity but doss not cS5>a to be ralue-free

Bufete presaloice, iacdence, exceut, naure <rf ssaes3 perceptons and feeiings disccrcws zsguiarities and forannteres ibesjries

Analysis of data

Sa&jets ?anab!es to requency Ssjbfects xspoasss, aasratives or ofostu vsjot dsts ?o jd^atfessojt or eiher staiistc^ piocediires of lieraes and describes hcse OsgaRsslon more anaytcal iii ti^zisrc;. ckr&wi&g jo&r^nccs aad concTusJons, and cesng BMgniiide and stteagh o a islsSjQDStifp OrgsepisaiioB more descnprive ' arad nairanve ia natiffe

ConHuuDcaton of ndtegs

Siace, ai a aiunber of steps of (he researdh process he choice of methods tocedyres is infliiejiced by qaantsatjve/qualtatve disriacrioiis the Enethods and proeedures discussed la some chspters are dferenatedi howeve?, haw tried to keep his dstacon o the mnimtmi as the mode! is appicable o both. Note bal this book s for begioijers. There is not eaowgi K)ace o c^er exteusiyey tfie appiicabfliry and use of each mediod, model and procedire. have eiaborated on those associated with quaottatrre researcfe 0ior ibas OH tisose fioked to cpaEstrse research. For a deeper wderstasdijig of a metbod or procedure relang to eiher3 you may wish to coasi oher boote fgntoed m the tea:. Figure 2.2 shows rhe proposed model. llie tasks identjfed in arrotos are the operaional steps yon aeed to folow la order to coaduct a stydy, qiiantitsrtiye or quaiitatve. Topcs identfied n reatantes are !he reqiiired eoretlcal taiowledge xseeded to cany ou feese steps. Ule taste idenified j arete are dte ntensediary steps that yom oeed to complete to go froia one step to snotber. It fe iapartaat jfor a beginna- to work througb tese STfips in tfae proposed sequence, tiiougs witi esperience you do not seed to foilow ie sequence.

Sl.tX. fta SeOTtH procesa

The researeh
Reswi'fch cksign; fiuMttions Meihods and tools fjfdatn coliecdon

Sarapitng ineuy

Methods o data U*e of compuMra and stittlstcs

Prweiplea scjenffie wrMas

CobceptuaJisins awscnrch

for dar coUection

wnting 11 re8B!uch ptoposnl

Writins oisearch repott

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S.fe!!M*,ll fet isst afths fosearch lool Validiiy and reliabillty ofthe reaearch tool
J V.

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Comenta ofthe research proposl Dsveloping a cada baolt [

Qpemional Steps Required j theoreucal knowledge

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Conuctng D/the stutly

rcequireo imermetHary knowledge

How

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28

This book is written arownd the theoretical ksowledge required to adertske each operational step and foilows the saine sequenta progresson as is aeeded o underca&e a research investigation. For eacfa operatonal step5 the reqtred tieoretical kaowledge is fuither organised, in dferent ehapers, around the operationa! step to wfaich, in he author's opimos, t is JBGSI !ogca% related (Fgwe 23). Again, for a begkmer,, it is important to study this diagram to reiate he eoretical kaowledge to the opeatioBai steps, The foilowng sectioss of this chapter provide & quick ^aace at e whoe proce$s to acquaett you with tiae vaiious tasks you aeed to underake to cairy o yowr smdy3 tiius gviag yon som idea of what he research jouiaey
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Steps in pianning a research study Step I: ommating a research probtefn

Fonnulatsjg a reseaith probien* j's tie first asd aaost imporaat step in he research proeess. A research problem identifies your destiuation: it should te you, your research supervisor aad your readers mhat you iatend to researdi. The more specific aad clear you are the better, as evecythmg tiat folows ia he researefa proeess-stiidy desga. iBeasureiaest procedwes,, samplag strategy, frame of auaiysis aad the style of writiag of your dissertatioa or repoitJs greatiy infliieneed by the way in whieh you formlate your resesrch problein. Henee, you shouid gire it considerable and darefil thowght at this stage. The mgin functon of foronilating a research problem is to decide what you want to Snd out abona. Chapter 4 deais tj deta with vgiious aspeis of fonnulaaag a research probemIt s extrerseiy importaot o evaiuate the research problem in he lght of the financia! resources at yoiw disposal, tie time avaflable, aad your own aad your Jsseaieh superror's espeitise snd kaowledge a the Seld of srudy. It is equaJIy importgjB to idenitify any gaps in your knowkdge of relevant disciplQes, such as statstcs reqired for aaalyss. Aiso5 ask yourself whetiier you ave sifficieat too^edge about cojupwtejs aad software if yon plan to use thejn.

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Step fl: cooceptuallslng a research dtesige

n esffismefy iaporrant feature of a^esidi istibeuse of appropriate methods. Kesesrch iavoh'es systeaaatic, controlled5 valid,and rigorous exploratioa aad descripcin of what is not biown and establisluaent of associations and csasaon tiaat persoit the aceurate prediooa of oitcomes under a gr?en set of codiiQOis. It aiso ovotes dent^?Bg m toowledge, verificaton of wfaat s aready taaowu, aud deutfication of past errors and limitations. The strengtii ofiohat you find Isrgely tests on fe?lt was fowi&. The mam fimctioa of a research desga s|to explain hozo you wl fnd answers to your research qwestons, The research desgn sets oist he Jogic

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in tlie teok in retstion to the perntlonal staps

Operatonal sleps assd re$earch methodology

Chspter 7 The reacnrch design ChaptcrS Selccting a sjudy design Chaptcr 14 Cunsictering ethical ssKues in data coection Chupter 17 Writing a i-cseiirch rtport

Chnpr 12 Snfflping 35"

t-Wevp4v- 3 fctritvfJ* iwj iKft lterature thop4^r H ?oTWW\-Wng 4 research pYt>ic%.m c-Hc^s-Vtr S TdenVtNi^ Wtfablcs thqpHrfe to^S^dina hypothese '(

Chapter 9 Seleciing a method of data collection Chapier 10 Collecting data using attitulinal scale Cbapter 1 1 Estflblishing the vnlidity and reDbility o'your rasearch iostrument

Chaptcr J 3 Writing a research proposal

Chapier 15 Processing dura Chflptcr 16 Displaying data

i?''

22 Rssean* Methodotegr

of your mquiry, A research desigo. shouid inciude he folowiag: the study design per se and the logstica] arrangements that yoa propose to undertake, he measurement pracedwes-, tae sampling straregy, the fraroe of aaaiysis and the tinae-frame, For any investigacin;, the seleccin of an appropriate research desgn is anucsl in enabiing yon to arrive ar valid findags, comparisons ajid coaclusioas, A fauity desjgn results m misieading Sndings aad is herefore tasit&nioHit to wgsieg husjao and financia! resources. In $cientifc crcles3 he strexjgth of aa emprical investigacin is primarily evaluaied ia the H^I of the research.design adopted. WheJ selectiag a research design it is mportaa to ensure that it is valid, workable and manageable, Chapter 7 provides detais about researda des%n. Thers s as eraormoas variety of study designs and yon need o be acquainied wth some of ti*e most common o0es. Chapter 8 espiaras some of hese degjgiEjs, Seiecj ar d^eiop the desiga that as most suied to your study, You must ha^e strong reasoas for seiecting a parricuiar desiga; you irast be able lo justff yovtr s^ectosj and yon should be awsre of ite streagths, weafcnesseg aad limitadons. la addition., you wi aeed to explan he logstica! detais needecS to implemem the su^ested design.

Step l: constracting an Instrurnent for data coection

Aayhiag that becomes a aaeans of coilecCuig oformation for your study is caEed a "research ool' or a 'research insJrameat'. For esample^ obserratioB forras, interview schedJes3 quesaonnaires sud icterview guides are al classified as researcfa tools, The constnacton of s research too! is the first 'practica!' step in carrying out a study. You wil need to decide how you are going to coiect data for the proposed study and then construct a research instrument for data collecoa. Chapter 9 detais dae various methods of data colecrioB and Chapier 10 deals %vith aiethods for eollectng daca using attitndiaal scaies, if you are panaing to coilect data sperfically for your study (primary data), you need to ether constracr a research nstrument or select an aready cosostmeted oae. The process of eterelopiag a research ijistrameat is aiso dscussed in Chapter 9. The concepta of vadiQ? aad reliablity in rdaton o a research instrumet are discwssed in Chapter 11. If yon are sisg seoondary data (infonnatoc aiready collected for other purposes), dsevelop forra to extraer the required data. In order to determine what Information JS reatiired, go through he same process as described for prRary data above, Field testog, alsofcoownas pre-tesag, a research tool is an iniegra pan of msmniieot constructoii. As a role, tise field test shotd not be canied out on ie sampie of yoiw study bwt oa a similar populacin. If you are panniag o ase a eompwer for data analysis, yo siay wish o provide spaee for coding the data on the research nsrumeni.

 . - $>;>.! . The research process: a cjuick gUmce

23

Step V: seiecting a sample

The accuracy of your findings largely dependa apon the way you select your sarnple. The basic objective of any sampiing design s to minirnise, within he limitaion of cos3 the gap berween the vales obtaiaed from your sample and those prevalent in the popuiation. The underiying premise in sampiing is that, if a relariveiy small number of unis is selected, it can providewith a suffidentiy high degree of probability a feirjy true reflecrion of the sampiing populaticn that is being studied. Sampiing theory is guided by two principies:

1 the avoidance of bas in the sdection of a saoiple; and

2 the attainment o mximum precisin for a given outiay of resources. There are three categories of sampiing design (Chapter i 2):

1 random/probability sampling designs;

2 non-randoia'probability sampiing designs; and 3 'mixed3 sampiing design. There are severa! sampJng strategies widxin the rs two categories. You need to be acquainted with bese sarapling designs to seect the one most appropriate for your study. You aeed to know the srengtiis and weaknesses of each and he situatons ia which hey can or cannot be applied in order to select the most appropriate design. The type of sampiing strategy you use aiso determines your ability to generalise from the sample to he total popuiation and the type of satistiea tests yon can perforen on the data.

Step V: writing a ressarch proposal

New, step by step, you have done al! the preparatory work. Next put everythtng together ia a way that provides adequate Information, for your research supervisor and others, abou your research study. This overail plan telis a reader abouc your research problem and how you are platming to investgate, and is calied a research proposal. Broadly., a research proposal's main foncdon is to detall the operationai pian for obtainiug answers to your research questions, In doing so it ensuresand reassures the readers of the validity of die metbodology to obtain answers accurateiy and ob)ecvely. Universities and other instituions may have dirlering requirements regarding the sryie and content of a research proposal, but he majority of institutions would require most of what is set out here. Requirements may also vary within an institution, from discipline to discipline or from supervisor to supervisor. However, the guidslines set ou in Chapter 13 provide a framework which wl be acoeptable to most. A research proposal must teli you, your research supervisor and a reviewer the foliowing information about your study: tcha you are proposing to do;

l '

24 Resasndh MehofiQtog/

a ssosmeot o the objectivss of he study; a s of hypotheses, If you are esting any; tfae .#4}j es^K you are proposing to me; the setng for your snadyj the researeh insmtment(s) you are plauning to use; iafonaaoo OB sompk me aad mmpling design; mformaion on dota-processing procederes; aa oulne of me proposed chaptm for die report; the stndy's probleens and Kmttaonsr, and the proposed me-frame.

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Steps in cooductiog a study Step Vi: coliectng data

Haviag fonmulated a regearch problesa, developed a sudy desigs, coastructed a research instnaneat aad seected a sarnpe, yon en collect he data from whid you will dimy ifereaces and coBclusioiis for your study. Many meiisods could-be i^sed to gather tiie required iufoniiation. As a par of he researeh desge, you decided opon the procedure you wanted to adopt to colect your data. Ai ikis stage you aemally coBect tke data. For exazaple3 dependiag wpon your pians, you sright cosansence iaterviews, rnaU ot a questiounare, conduct aoniaai/bcused group dlscussions or make obser?stioBS, Col^ctag data tiroii^s any cae of he metiods may Involve sojae ehcal isswes, wlach re <Jseussed n Chapter 14.

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Step VH; processng data

ITie way you analyse tie Infonoarion yow coUeeted iargely depeads iipon two things: 1 ype of iofdnBatkmdscriptive3 quaatitative3 guaitatve or attkudinal; 2 the way you wat EO coBMniicae your fiacags to yor readeis. There are wo broad categories of report; quaatiame and qualitative. As mentioEed earler, tlg dstnctioii s more aeadesic thaa real as in most studies you need to combine giiantitatre and qualitative sdiis. Neveihekss, there are soiae SQely quajitatiye and soxne solely quantitative studes. Chapter 15 describes dfisreat ways of asialysiag quantiati-ve data aad Chapter 16 details various meiods of displaying analysed data. In additoe to tae qiaaltative-qtiantiatjve distincton, it is equaiy important for 4sa aaalygis tha yon consider whether he data is to be analysed manially or by a computen. If yoor study is purely deseriptivs, you cau write your dissertation/report on the basis ofyoir fieid aotes> usoualiy aaalyse the 'Coateots of your notes (conten analysis}, or use a coBpater program suida as NUD*DIST N6, NVIVO or Ethaop^aph for dais purpose. If you want quaattstve analysis, it is aiso aecessary to decide uposi the type of anaiysis reqmired (i.e, frequency dstnbution, cross-tabulations or

C? .apfer 2 Tfie rseardi procos: a qwick giancs 23

odier statistkal procediares3 such as regyesson. aaalysis, factor aiialysis and analysis of wriance) and how it shoaid be presented. Also identiy the variables o be $ubjected to tese smstical proeedures.

Step VIH: writnf a research report

WritBg tie rqport is fae as and, for manj, the raost diScuit step of the research proeess. TMs repon lafonas fes world what yvu have doBe5 what you have dscovered and what oonchisious you have drawn frora your fedo^. If you aire clear boat the whole process., you wi siso be clear about tiie way you want to vmte yowr report. YOIT report shoud be wntten in an academic style and fes dwded into dfferen chapters and/or seetions based upon the maa tbeajes ofyour study. Chapter 17 suggests some of the ways of wririBg a rgsearcb repott. cont the idy. As a edto . For iews, as or , rnay

upon dinai; radve. i as in skiiis. itative 'e data qualiy to be

Ths chapter has prcmded aa ovemew of the research procos, which has been broken into eight steps5 the deails of which are covered in he reinainder of ths book Ai each step the modei provides a smorgasbord of methods, modesa tecmiques and procedures so you can seiect the one most appropriate for yoiar swdy. It is like a buffet party with eight tables, egch with different dshes3 but the dishes- are made out of similar ingredients, You go to aJl eight tabes aad seec the dish that you like most froni eacfa table. The suaia diSetenee between the modd and the example given is tiat in the EBodei you seec what is most appropriate for ycmr study and not what you ke the saost, as in a buffet. For a beginaer it is inaportant to go through ali the steps, slthough peihaps not ia the saine seqwmce. Wifc esperieace yo ca take a number of shoit cuts. The egbst steps co?er die total spectrum of a research esdeaTOur3 starting from problem formulatoa hnsi^a to miting a research repon, The steps are opexatoas n nature, followiag a lo^ca! sequence, and detafliug the yarious methods and procederes in a sinapc step-by-step manner.