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(c)
2
5
2
n
n
'' ;;
Solutions:
1.
This sequence is a decreasing sequence (and hence monotonic) because,
for every n.
Also, since the sequence terms will be either zero or negative this sequence is bounded
above. We can use any positive number or zero as the bound, M, however, its standard
to choose the smallest possible bound if we can and its a nice number. So, well choose
since,
This sequence is not bounded below however since we can always get below any
potential bound by taking n large enough. Therefore, while the sequence is bounded
above it is not bounded.
As a side note we can also note that this sequence diverges (to if we want to be
specific).
2.
The sequence terms in this sequence alternate between 1 and -1 and so the sequence is
neither an increasing sequence or a decreasing sequence. Since the sequence is neither an
increasing nor decreasing sequence it is not a monotonic sequence.
The sequence is bounded however since it is bounded above by 1 and bounded below by
-1.
Again, we can note that this sequence is also divergent.
3. This sequence is a decreasing sequence (and hence monotonic) since,
The terms in this sequence are all positive and so it is bounded below by zero. Also,
since the sequence is a decreasing sequence the first sequence term will be the largest and
so we can see that the sequence will also be bounded above by . Therefore, this
sequence is bounded.
We can also take a quick limit and note that this sequence converges and its limit is zero.
Convergence:
A sequence {
a
n
}of real (or complex) numbers is said to converge to a real (or complex)
number c if for every > 0 there is an integer N > 0 such that if n > N then
| an - c | <
The number c is called the limit of the sequence {
a
n
}and we sometimes write a
n
c.
If a sequence {
a
n
}does not converge, then we say that it diverges.
Consider the sequence {1/n}. It converges to zero.
The sequence {(-1)
n
}does not converge.
The sequence converges to zero.
Series|
Definitions: Let{ }
1
n
n
a
+
for 2 n .
This new sequence of partial sums is called the series of
n
a
s, and it is denoted by
1
n
n
a
.
For each 1 n ,
n
s
is called the
th
n partial sum for the series
1
n
n
a
. The number
n
a
is called
the
th
n term of the series (as well as the
th
n term of the sequence).
For 2 n ,
1 n n n
s s a
+
. This means
1 1
s a
2 1 2 1 2
s s a a a + +
3 2 3 1 2 3
s s a a a a + + +
4 3 4 1 2 3 4
s s a a a a a + + + +
M
1 1 2 3 n n n n
s s a a a a a
+ + + + + L
So we often write
1 2 3
1
n n
n
a a a a a
+ + + + +
L L
Sometimes the index for the sequence{ }
1
n
n
a
+ + + + +
L L
; while if
the sequence is{ }
3
n
n
a
+ + + + +
L L
.
Examples: Below are some examples that illustrate the difference between a sequence
and the corresponding series and the sequence of partial sums.
1) Consider the sequence{ }
0
n
n
ar
+ + + + +
L L
.
Calculating the sequence of partial sums:
0 0
s a a
1 0 1 0 1
s s a a a a ar + + +
2
2 1 2 0 1 2
s s a a a a a ar ar + + + + +
2 3
3 2 3 0 1 2 3
s s a a a a a a ar ar ar + + + + + + +
M
( ) ( )
2 1
1 0 1 2
1 1
n n
n n n n
s s a a a a a a ar ar ar a r r
+
+ + + + + + + + + L L
(This last equation is verified in class!)
So the sequence of partial sums is
( ) ( )
{ }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
1 2 1
0
1 1 , 1 , 1 , , 1 1 ,
n n
n
a r r a a r a r r a r r
+ +
+ + + K K .
The sequence{ }
0
n
n
ar
is called the Geometric Series, and will be used often in this course. The term
a
is called the first term (for obvious reasons) and the number
r
is called the
common ration since the ratio of consecutive terms is
r
.
2) Consider the sequence
( )
1
1
1
n
n n
' ;
+
.
Observe that
( )
( ) { }
1
1
1 2,1 6,1 12, ,1 1 ,
1
n
n n
n n
+ 1
' ;
]
+
K K . The
corresponding series is
( ) ( )
1
1 1 1 1 1
1 2 6 12 1
n
n n n n
+ + + + +
+ +
L L
. For any
integer 1 k , the following equality holds by partial fractions decomposition
(remember the technique of integration?)
( )
1 1 1
1 1 k k k k
+ +
. We apply this
equality to compute the partial sums as follows:
1 1
1 1 1 1
1
1 2 1 2 2
s a
2 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1
1 2 2 3 1 2 2 3 3
s s a
1 1 1
+ + +
1 1 1
] ] ]
3 2 3
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
3 3 4 3 3 4 4
s s a
1 1 1
+ + +
1 1 1
] ] ]
4 3 4
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
4 4 5 4 4 5 5
s s a
1 1 1
+ + +
1 1 1
] ] ]
M
( )
1
1 1 1 1 1 1
1 1 1
1 1 1
n n n
s s a
n n n n n n n
1 1 1
+ + +
1 1 1
+ + +
] ] ]
So the sequence of partial sums is
1
1
1
1
n
n
' ;
+
. Notice that the equality from
the partial fractions decomposition allows for the simplification of the partial
sums. Because of the fact that the intermediate terms add out, this series is
called a telescoping series.
Definitions: Let{ }
1
n
n
a
converges.
The series
1
n
n
a
diverges.
The series
1
n
n
a
.
Examples: The examples from above are reconsidered in the context of
convergence/divergence.
1) Consider the Geometric Series
2
0
n n
n
ar a ar ar ar
+ + + + +
L L
; 0 a , 1 r .
From above, the sequence of partial sums is
( ) ( )
{ }
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
{ }
1 2 1
0
1 1 , 1 , 1 , , 1 1 ,
n n
n
a r r a a r a r r a r r
+ +
+ + + K K .
So ( ) ( ) ( )
( )
1 1 1
lim lim 1 1 lim 1 1 lim
1 1
n n n
n
n n n n
a a
s a r r r r
r r
+ + +
. From
our discussions on convergent sequences,
1
lim
n
n
r
+
for
1 r <
, the series
1
n
n
ar
converges
if and only if
1 r <
. In this case
1
1
n
n
a
ar
r
+ + + + +
+ +
L L
.
From above, the sequence of partial sums is
1
1
1
1
n
n
' ;
+
. So
1 1
lim lim 1 lim1 lim 1 0 1
1 1
n
n n n n
s
n n
_
+ +
,
and the sequence of partial
sums converges to one. So the series
( )
1
1
1
n
n n
+
converges and
( )
1
1
1
1
n
n n
.
Now the question is- What properties of the terms
n
a
determine whether the series
n
a
converges or diverges? This question is answered by stating a number of tests that can
be applied to the terms
n
a
. The first such test is the following:
The Divergence Test: Consider the series
n
a
. If
lim 0
n
n
a
diverges.
There are several observations one must keep in mind when applying the
Divergence Test.
A. The test does not say that if
lim 0
n
n
a
converges.
B. If
lim 0
n
n
a
converge or diverge?
Since
2 2
2 1 1
2 2
3 3 9
n n
n
_ _
, ,
for all n, the series
2
2
2
3
n
n
is a Geometric Series
with first term
( ) 4 2 2
2 2 2
3 81 3
a
and common ratio
1
1 1
9
r < < . So the
series
2
2
2
3
n
n
converges and
2
2
2
2 1
81
1
3 1 36
1
9
n
n
a
r
.
3) Does the series
2
2
0
2 1
2 3 4
n
n
n n
converge or diverge?
Since
2 2 2
2 2 2
2 1 2 1
lim lim
2 3 4 2 3 4
n n
n n n
n n n n n
+ +
2
2
1
2
2 1
lim 0
2 3
4 2
4
n
n
n n
+
,
the series
2
2
0
2 1
2 3 4
n
n
n n
converge or diverge?
Since
( ) ( ) ( )
1 1
2
1 3 2 3 1 3 2 3
3
n
n
n n
n n n
_
,
for all n, the series
( )
1
1
1 3 2
n
n n
n
converges and
( )
1
1
2 6
1 3 2
2 1 5
1
3
n
n n
n
a
r
_
,
is called p series.
A p series is convergent if p>1 and divergent if p<=1.
Comparison Test:
Let
1
n
n
u
and
1
n
n
v
is convergent. Then
1
n
n
u
is convergent if
i) There exist an integer N such that u
n
<= k v
n
, for all n>=N , where k is a
constant, or if
ii)
lim
n
x
n
u
l
v
. Then if l<
1, the series is convergent, if l > 1, the series is divergent, while if l = 1, the test gives no
information.
Example: Let a
n
= . Then a
n
is convergent.
Solution. We look the ratio of adjacent terms in the series (of positive terms).
= =
= = as n .
Since the ratio of adjacent terms in the series tends to a limit which is < 1, the
series converges by the ratio test.
Example: Determine if the following series is convergent or divergent.
Solution
Heres the limit.
Again, the ratio test tells us nothing here. We can however, quickly use the divergence
test on this. In fact that probably should have been our first choice on this one anyway.
By the Divergence Test this series is divergent.