Effect of minimum tillage and mulching on maize (Zea mays L.

) yield and water content of clayey and sandy soils Walter Mupangwa1,2, Steve Twomlow1, Sue Walker2 and Lewis Hove1
1

ICRISAT Bulawayo, Matopos Research Station, PO Box 776 Bulawayo, Zimbabwe

2

Department of Soil, Crop and Climate Sciences, University of Free State, Bloemfontein, South Africa.

Abstract Rainfed smallholder agriculture in semi-arid areas is subject to numerous constraints. These include low rainfall with high spatial and temporal variability, and significant loss of soil water through evaporation. An experiment was established at Matopos Research Station, Zimbabwe, to determine the effect of mulching and minimum tillage on maize (Zea mays L.) yield and soil water content. The experiment was run for two years and set up at two sites: clay (Matopos Research Station fields) and sand (Lucydale fields) soils, in a 7 x 3 factorial combination of mulch rates (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 10 t ha-1) and tillage methods (planting basins, ripper tine and conventional plough). Each treatment was replicated three times at each site in a randomised complete block design. Maize residue was applied as mulch after tillage operations. Two maize varieties, a hybrid (SC 403) and an open pollinated variety (ZM 421) were planted. Maize yield and soil water content (at 30 and 60 cm depth) were measured under each treatment. On both soil types, neither mulching nor tillage method had a significant effect on maize grain yield. Tillage methods significantly influenced stover production with planting basins giving the highest stover yield on sandy soil and conventional ploughing on clay soil. The three tillage methods had no significant effect on soil water content although planting basins collected more rainwater during the first half of the cropping period. Mulching improved soil water content in both soil types with maximum benefits observed at 4 t ha-1 of mulch. We conclude that minimum tillage, even in combination with mulching, gives only small yield benefits in the short term. Mulching helps conserve soil water, but the benefits level off at 4 tha-1 of mulch application.

Key words: Conservation agriculture, minimum tillage, mulching, planting basin, semi-arid areas.

1. Introduction

Rainfed agriculture is a potential key to food production in the semi-arid areas (Rosegrant et al., 2002). Ninety-five percent of the current population growth occurs in developing countries and a large proportion of these people rely on rainfed food production (Rockstrom et al., 2003). Fifty-eight percent of the worlds food production comes from rainfed agriculture (Rosegrant et al., 2002). Irrigation development assistance from major International donors has been on the decline over the years as a result of high capital costs, water scarcities, limited benefits to the poor rural communities and negative environmental impacts (Postel, 1989). Thus food production and rural livelihoods will continue to rely on rainfed agriculture for the foreseeable future. To achieve this, water productivity and crop yields have to be improved in rainfed farming systems. Analysis of on-farm water balances in SubSaharan Africa indicates that there is a great potential to improve crop and water productivity in the region. There is an opportunity to redirect unproductive green and blue water flows to productive green water (crop transpiration) (Rockstrm et al., 1999). In view of this several studies have been conducted on water and soil management in semi-arid regions (Nyamudeza et al., 1992; Klaij and Vauchad, 1992; Chuma, 1993; Twomlow and Dhilwayo, 1999; Twomlow and Bruneau, 2000; Rockstrm et al., 2003; Barron, 2004). Water harvesting techniques can improve water supply to the crops in rainfed cropping systems.

Rainfall in semi-arid areas of Zimbabwe occurs from November to March followed by a cool to warm period from May to October. Rainfall is erratic and highly variable both spatially and temporally. Variations in semi-arid rainfall patterns also include delayed on-set and premature end of the rainy season. The rainfall often occurs as high intensity, short duration convective storms (Nonner, 1997) giving rise to severe soil erosion especially early in the cropping season when the ground is still bare. During the cropping season intra-seasonal dry spells are now a common feature and their impact on crop production is often severe, especially if they coincide with critical stages of crop development (Oosterhout, 1996; Rockstrom et al., 2003). In the 2

semi arid areas severe crop reductions due to dry spells occur once or twice in every five years (Rockstrom et al., 2002). The long-term annual average rainfall in southern Zimbabwe is 590 mm with an estimated 70-85% of rainfall being lost through soil evaporation, surface runoff and deep percolation (Rockstrom et al, 2002).

Continuous cropping without addition of nutrients and organic matter is a major threat to sustainable crop production in sub-Saharan Africa (Waddington et al., 1994). About 70% of Zimbabwes soils are derived from granite and have limited inherent agricultural potential (Grant, 1981). These soils are light textured, infertile and deficient in nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur (Grant, 1981). Water holding capacity and organic matter status of these granite-derived soils are poor (Twomlow and Bruneau, 1999). These low fertility soils are susceptible to degradation upon cultivation especially where management is not appropriate (Burt et al., 2001).

Conservation tillage (no till and reduced tillage) practices simultaneously conserve soil and water resources, reduce farm energy and increase or stabilise crop production. Conservation tillage leads to positive changes in the physical, chemical and biological properties of a soil (Bescanca et al., 2006). Soil physical properties that are influenced by conservation tillage include bulk density, infiltration and water retention (Osunbitan et al., 2004). Improved infiltration of rainwater into the soil increases water availability to plants, reduces surface runoff and improves groundwater recharge (Lipiec et al., 2005). Reduced soil cultivation reduces farm energy requirements and overall farming costs as less area has to be tilled (Monzon et al., 2006). This is crucial for the semi arid areas of Zimbabwe where draught animals are weak at a time when land preparation has to commence.

Infiltration and soil evaporation are among the key processes that determine soil water availability to crops in semi arid agriculture. The presence of crop residue mulch at the soil-atmosphere interface has a direct influence on infiltration of rainwater into the soil and evaporation from the soil. Mulch cover reduces surface runoff and holds rainwater at the soil surface thereby giving it more time to infiltrate into the soil. Trials conducted in the higher potential areas of Zimbabwe between 1988 and 1995 indicated that mulching significantly reduced surface runoff and hence soil loss (Erenstein, 2002). Mulch cover shields the soil from solar radiation thereby reducing 3

evaporation from the soil. Soil biota increase under mulched soil environment thereby improving nutrient cycling and organic matter build up over a period of several years (Holland, 2004).

This study was established to determine maize (Zea mays L.) yield and soil water responses to minimum tillage and mulching on clay and sandy soils and identify optimum rates of mulch application for low potential areas of southern Zimbabwe. This paper focuses on the initial maize yield and soil water responses to the establishment of 3 tillage and 7 mulching treatments under two different rainy seasons, and the cumulative effects of tillage and mulching for clay and sandy soils.

2. Materials and methods

2.1. Experimental sites

The experiment was run at the International Crops Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (ICRISAT), Matopos Research Station, during 2004/05 and 2005/06 cropping seasons. Matopos experimental site (28030.92E, 20023.32S, 1344m above sea level) is on a clay soil (Lithic Ustochrept USDA, 1992) that has a high water holding capacity. The internal drainage of Matopos clay soil indicates saturation for short periods during rainy season and external drainage is characterised by slow runoff (Moyo, 2001). Lucydale experimental site (28024.46E, 20025.64S, 1378m above sea level) is located on a sandy soil (Typic Ustochrept USDA, 1992), well drained with low water holding capacity and poor soil fertility. Internal drainage of Lucydale sand is rapid to very rapid and external drainage is characterised by slow runoff (Moyo, 2001). Chemical and physical properties of the two soil types are shown in Table 1.

Matopos Research Station is located in Natural Farming Region IV. This farming region is characterized by semi-arid climatic conditions with annual rainfall ranging between 450 and 650 mm. Rainfall season is monomodal and begins in November/December and ends in March/April. The long-term average rainfall for Matopos and Lucydale is 590 mm. The cropping season experiences periodic dry spells particularly in January. It is followed by a cool to warm dry season from May to September. 4

2.2. Experimental layout The experiment was set up with a factorial treatment structure consisting of 3 tillage methods (conventional ploughing, ripping and planting basins) and 7 rates of mulch cover (0, 0.5, 1, 2, 4, 8 and 10 tha-1). The experiment is still on going for 2 more cropping seasons. The treatments were arranged in a randomised complete block design with 3 replications at each site. Plots measuring 8m x 8m were pegged out in October of the first year, and then maintained in subsequent season. Seven different quantities of mulch cover were applied randomly to plots under each tillage method. At Matopos research site a new block was established for the experiment in 2005/06 as cowpea was planted on the 2004/05 block. Cowpea results will not be reported here. At Lucydale the same block was used in the 2 seasons but there was no fresh application of mulch cover in 2005/06 season, as it was not logistically possible to obtain additional residues to repeat the initial mulching treatments. Digging of planting basins and ripping were carried out before applying mulch cover. Planting basins were dug at 0.6m x 0.9m spacing using a hand hoe and each basin measured 0.15m (length) x 0.15m (width) x 0.15m (depth). Rip lines were opened at 0.9m interrow spacing using a ripper tine attached to the beam of a donkey-drawn mouldboard plough. The ripping depth achieved on both soils varied between 0.15 and 0.18m. Cattle manure was applied in October each year at a rate of 3 tha-1 in all plots under the 3 tillage treatments as basal soil fertility amendment. Conventional ploughing was done soon after the first effective rain (20 to 30 mm) in December each year using a donkey drawn VS10 mouldboard plough. inter-row spacing of 0.9m. Planting furrows were then opened at

Planting in all plots was done by mid-December each season. At Matopos a hybrid maize variety SC403 was planted in both seasons while at Lucydale an open pollinated variety ZM421 was planted in 2004/05 season and SC403 in 2005/06. An open pollinated variety had to be planted at Lucydale in 2004/05 season in order to avoid contamination of breeding trials that were established nearby. Plant spacing was 0.9m x 0.6m with 3 kernels per-station for planting basins. In-row spacing was 0.3m with 2 kernels per-station for the ripping and conventional tillage treatments. Plants were thinned to 2 per basin in planting basin and 1 plant per station in the ripping and

conventional tillage treatments 2 weeks after planting to achieve a population of 37 000 plants per hectare. Ammonium nitrate (34.5% N) applied to all plots at 50 kgANha-1 as topdressing when the maize had reached the 6 leaf stage. Weeds were controlled by handhoe weeding in all plots throughout the two seasons.

2.3. Data collection At harvest grain and stover (above-ground biomass minus grain) yields were estimated from a net plot consisting of the 5 middle rows with a length of 6m. The weights of cobs and stover from the netplot of each treatment were determined in the field before taking subsamples for moisture correction. Grain and stover samples were dried at 60oC for 48 hours for moisture adjustment. The maize shelling percentage was determined for each treatment for converting cob weight into grain weight. Grain mass was converted to a per hectare basis at 12.5% moisture content as final grain yield.

Gravimetric soil water was determined by collecting soil samples between basins, along riplines and between rows in the planting basins, ripping and conventional tillage treatments respectively. For bulk density determination soil samples were collected by stainless steel cores of 50mm internal diameter and 50mm long. Soil samples for bulk density determination were collected before planting from outside the plots but within the same field. The soils were oven dried at 105oC for 48 hours before determining gravimetric water content. Bulk density and gravimetric water content for each soil layer were calculated using the procedure outlined by Anderson and Ingram (1993). Gravimetric water content was converted to volumetric water content for each respective depth using the measured bulk density for each soil layer. Soil water content in millimetres was determined by multiplying volumetric water content by thickness of each layer from which soil water was measured.

2.4. Statistical analysis

Analysis of Variance (Anova) was conducted to determine the effect of tillage practice and mulching on maize yield and soil water content using Genstat version

8.1. Probability levels of 0.001 to 0.05 were used to determine level of significance between means.

3. Results

3.1. Seasonal rainfall

The 2004/05 and 2005/06 cropping seasons were characterized by different rainfall patterns. Total seasonal rainfall for 2004/05 was less than half of that received in 2005/06 cropping period at Matopos and Lucydale (Fig. 1 and 2). During 2004/05 cropping period rainfall distribution was poor between mid-January and the beginning of March. Most of the rain for 2005/06 season fell in December and January. This coincided with the vegetative stage of the hybrid maize variety grown at both sites. More than 290 mm had been received at both sites by the time of planting in midDecember 2005. Planting in 2005/06 cropping season was delayed because of the incessant rains that were received during December.

3.2. Maize yield

3.2.1. Matopos site

The 3 tillage methods significantly (p = 0.015) influenced maize stover production with planting basins giving the lowest yield during 2004/05 season (Fig. 3). During the 2005/06 season conventional and basin tillage methods had a similar effect (p>0.05) on maize stover production. In the 2 seasons of experimentation neither tillage nor mulching or a combination of the two had a significant effect on maize grain yield and harvest index at Matopos.

3.2.2. Lucydale site During the lower rainfall 2004/05 cropping season (Fig. 2) the highest (p = 0.003) grain yield was achieved from the planting basin tillage treatment (Fig. 4). Planting basins out yielded ripper and conventional tillage by 153 and 178 kgha-1 respectively. Maize crop under planting basin tillage produced more (p = 0.007) total biomass than

the other 2 tillage treatments. During the 2005/06 season grain yield was weakly (p = 0.07) influenced by the tillage treatment. Maize stover production was not influenced by mulching and tillage treatment. The three tillage methods had a significant (p = 0.03) effect on the harvest index of the hybrid maize variety grown in 2005/06 season (Fig. 5). Ripper and planting basins achieved similar harvest indices with conventional plough giving a significantly (P<0.05) lower index. 3.3. Soil Water Content 3.3.1. Matopos site (2004/05 season) Soil water content in the top 0.30 m varied significantly (P<0.001) at different sampling days after planting (Fig. 6). Soil water content decreased between 56 and 86 days after planting. The lowest soil water content was recorded at 86 days after planting, a time that coincided with grain filling of the hybrid SC 403 maize variety and coincide with a period of low rainfall. Soil water content varied significantly (P<0.001) under the different mulch covers (Fig 7). Soil water content increased with increase in mulch cover under the 3 tillage treatments. As the cropping season progressed soil water content remained significantly (P<0.001) higher under 4, 8 and 10 tha-1 mulch treatments. The 3 tillage methods had no significant influence on soil water content observed during the season.

3.3.2. Lucydale site (2004/05 season) Soil water content in the top 0.30 m of the profile varied significantly (P<0.001) between the days of measurement (Fig. 8). The lowest soil water content in all tillage treatments was recorded at 56 days after planting. Fluctuations in soil water content were small as the cropping period neared its end (between 98 and 112 days after planting). Soil water content significantly (P<0.001) increased with an increase in mulch cover (Fig. 9). Further increase in mulch cover beyond 4 tha-1 did not give additional benefits in soil water content under the 3 tillage treatments.

3.3.3. Matopos site (2005/06 season)

Soil water content in the top 0.30 m of the profile gradually declined as the season progressed (Fig. 10). Soil water content in the profile was significantly high between the day of planting and 20 days after planting. Thereafter soil water content decreased (p < 0.001) especially between 14 and 52 days after planting. Mulching and tillage had no significant (p>0.05) influence on soil water content observed in the top 0.30 m depth during the season. Planting basins started with marginally higher soil water content in the top 0.30 m soil depth (Fig. 10).

3.3.4. Lucydale site (2005/06 season)

Under all tillage practices soil water content in the 0-0.60m profile decreased rapidly between 83 and 97 days after planting (Fig. 11). The period between 41 and 69 days after planting also experienced soil water decline (P<0.001) in the 0.60m soil profile. The soil profile under conventional tillage experienced a faster drying than planting basin and ripper tillage profiles between 24 and 69 days after planting. Mulching and tillage method had no significant influence on soil water content in the profile.

4. Discussion The rainfall patterns of 2004/05 and 2005/06 farming seasons were quite distinct. Total seasonal rainfall for 2004/05 was below the long term average of 590 mm. In 2004/05 season Lucydale received 291 mm and Matopos recorded 320 mm between October and April. Poor distribution of rainfall during 2004/05 season negatively impacted maize growth at both Matopos and Lucydale sites. The higher crop stand under basin tillage was probably a result of more soil moisture availability than under ripper and conventional tillage. Soil water measurements showed that planting basins start off with marginally higher soil water although this changed as the season progressed. The maize biomass yield was significantly suppressed under basin tillage on the clay soil during 2004/05 season. Two plants in each planting basin competed for soil water especially during the dry spells that were experienced between January and March of 2004/05 season. Maize is usually more sensitive to soil moisture deficit between tasseling and silking stages of growth (Cakir, 2004). However, during the

2005/06 cropping period soil water was not limiting throughout all the sensitive stages of crop development.

During the second season harvest index from sandy soil site was influenced considerably by the tillage practice with planting basin and ripper tillage giving higher index than conventional ploughing. This was probably a result of marginally better soil water and nutrient supply to crops under minimum tillage practices. The placement of basal manure in each planting basin and banding along the ripped furrow could have ensured a better availability of nutrients to plants compared to broadcasting of manure under conventional tillage practice. Studies conducted in Zimbabwe have shown that nutrients like N from manure become more available to crops in the second season (Nyamangara et al., 2003).

Total soil water content differed significantly between 2004/05 and 2005/06 cropping seasons at both Matopos and Lucydale experimental sites. In both seasons soil water fluctuations were characterised by a gradual decline as the season progressed. In 2004/05 season there were sporadic periods of soil profile refilling in response to rainfall received. The soil profile refilled on day 74 after planting following a 28mm of rainfall event at Lucydale. There was a sharp decline in soil water content between days 76 and 84 after planting in the sandy soil profile. This notable decline in soil water in the top 0.30 m could have been a result of water extraction by the maize crop. This period coincided with grain development stage of the maize crop. At this stage of development demand for water by the crop can be substantial leading to increased water extraction from the soil. A study by Qin et al. (2006) showed that up to 80% of maize roots can be concentrated in the 0-30 cm layer under no-till tillage systems. The sharp decline in soil water in sandy soil can also be attributed to drainage out of the sampling depth. During 2005/06 cropping period close to 50% of the long term rainfall average for Matopos had been received by the time of planting in December 2005. The soil profile especially at Matopos was nearly saturated during the first half of the season. Crop demand for water was met even at the sandy soil site during the 2005/06 cropping period.

Mulching helped in conserving soil water during 2004/05 cropping season at both Lucydale and Matopos experimental sites. Soil water content consistently increased 10

with increase in surface cover across the 3 tillage practices. Treatments that received 4, 8 and 10 tha-1 mulch cover had the highest soil water content at the end of the cropping season. One of the major roles played by mulch cover during 2004/05 season was probably reducing soil evaporation. The season had long periods without rain especially after January 2005. Hatfield et al. (2001) reported a 34-50% reduction in soil water evaporation as a result of crop residue mulching. Under the heavy textured Matopos soil, water content did not increase significantly at mulching rates greater than 4 tha-1 under ripper and conventional tillage practices while it continued to increase under planting basins treatment. However, with sand soil water benefits of mulching continue to increase insignificantly beyond 4 tha-1 under ripper and basin tillage practices. Understandably during 2005/06 season mulching had no notable effect on soil water across all tillage systems and soil types because of the continuous rainfall received.

5. Conclusion In poor rainfall seasons there is greater competition for soil water by maize grown in planting basins compared to ripper and conventional tillage. Planting basins harvest more rainwater at the beginning of the season than ripper and conventional tillage. Minimum tillage, even in combination with mulching, gives only small maize yield benefits. The study showed that in the short term soil water could not be significantly influenced by minimum tillage but by mulching over the 2-year period of experimentation. Soil water benefits increase linearly with increase in mulch cover but beyond 4 tha-1 benefits derived from mulching begin to decline on both clayey and sandy soils.

References Anderson, J.M., Ingram, J.S.I., 1993. Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility. A handbook of methods. 2nd Edition. C.A.B. International, Wallingford, UK, 221pp. Barron, J., 2004. Dry spell mitigation to upgrade semi-arid rainfed agriculture: Water harvesting and soil nutrient management for smallholder maize cultivation in Machakos, Kenya. PhD Thesis in Natural Resources Management. Department of Systems Ecology, Stockholm University, Sweden. Bescansa, P., Imaz, M. J., Virto, I., Enrique, A., Hoogmoed, W. B., 2006. Soil water retention as affected by tillage and residue management in semi-arid Spain. Soil and Tillage Research, 87, 19-27

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Burt, R., Wilson, M. A., Kanyanda, C.W., Spurway, J.K.R., Metzler, J.D., 2001. Properties and effects of management on selected granitic soils in Zimbabwe. Geoderma, 101, 119-141 Cakir, R., 2004. Effect of water stress at different development stages on vegetative and reproductive growth of corn. Field Crops Research, 89, 1-16 Chuma, E. 1993. Effects of Tillage on Erosion-related Soil Properties of a Sandy Soil in Semi-Arid Zimbabwe. In: Kronen, M. (Ed.). Proceedings of the Fourth Annual Scientific Conference, SADC Land and Water Management Research Programme, SACCAR, Gaborone, Botswana. Erenstein, O., 2002. Crop residue mulching in tropical and semi-tropical countries: An evaluation of residue availability and other technological implications. Soil and Tillage Research, 67, 115-133 Grant, P.M., 1981. The fertilization of sandy soils in peasant agriculture. Zimbabwe Agric. J., 78 (5), 169-175 Hatfield, J. L., Sauer, T. J., Prueger, J. H., 2001. Managing soils to achieve greater water use efficiency: A review. Agron. J., 93, 271-280. Holland, J.M., 2004. The environmental consequences of adopting conservation tillage in Europe: Reviewing evidence. Agriculture Ecosystems and Environment, 103, 1-25. Klaij, M. C., Vauchad, G., 1992. Seasonal water balance of a sandy soil in Niger cropped with Pearl Millet, based on profile moisture measurements. Agricultural Water Management, 21: 313-330. Elsevier Science Publishers. Lipic, J., Kus, J., Slowinska-Jurkiewicz, A., Nosalewicz, A., 2005. Soil porosity and water infiltration as influenced by tillage methods. Soil and Tillage research, 89, 210-220 Monzon, J. P., Sadras, V. O., Andrade, F. H., 2006. Fallow soil evaporation and water storage as affected by stubble in sub-humid (Argentina) and semi-arid (Australia) environments. Field Crops Research, 98, 83-90 Moyo, M., 2001. Representative soil profiles of ICRISAT research sites. Chemistry and Soil Research Institute. Soils Report NoA666. AREX, Harare, Zimbabwe, 97pp Nonner, J., 1997. Principles of Hydrogeology. IHE Lecture Note. IHE. Delft, The Netherlands. Nyamangara, J., Bergstrom, L. F., Piha, M. I., Giller, K. E., 2003. Fertilizer use efficiency and nitrate leaching in a tropical sandy soil. J. Environ. Quality, 32, 599-606 Nyamudeza, P., Mazhangara, E., Kamba, E., 1992. Adoption of tied furrow technique and effects of the technique and previous crop on residual moisture and yields of sorghum and maize. Paper Presented at the Annual Review Meeting of the IBSRAM Vertisol Management Network in Africa. June 1992. Accra, Ghana. P69-81 Oosterhout van, S.A.M., 1996. Copying strategies of smallholder farmers with adverse weather conditions regarding seed deployment of small grain crops during 1994/1995 cropping season in Zimbabwe. Volumes 1 to 3. SADC/GTZ, Harare. Osunbitan, J.A., Oyedele, D. J., Adekalu, K.O., 2004. Tillage effects on bulky density, hydraulic conductivity and strength of a loamy sand soil in south western Nigeria. Soil and Tillage Research, 82, 57-64. Postel, S., 1989. Water for Agriculture: Facing the Limits. Worldwatch Report 93. Worldwatch Institute.

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Qin R., Stamp P., Richner W. 2006. Impact of tillage on maize rooting in a cambisol and luvisol in Switzerland. Soil and Tillage Research, 85, 50-61 Rockstrom, J. Gordon. L., Folke, C., Falkenmark, M., Engwall, W., 1999. Linkages among water vapor flows, food production, and terrestrial ecosystem services. Conservation Ecology, 3(2): 5. Rockstrom, J., Barron, J. and Fox, P., 2002. Rainwater management for increased productivity among smallholder farmers in drought prone environments. Phys. Chem. Earth. 27: 949-959. Elsevier Science Ltd. Rockstrom, J., Barron, J. and Fox, P., 2003. Water productivity in rainfed Agriculture: Challenges and opportunities for smallholder farmers in drought prone agroecosystems. In: Kilne, J.W., Barker, R. and Molden, D. Water Productivity in Agriculture: Limits and Opportunities for Improvement. CAB International. Twomlow, S.J., Dhliwayo, H., 1999. Semi-arid maize yield responses to conservation tillage and weeding. Brighton Crop Protection Conference Weeds, November 1999. Farnham, Surrey, UK : BCPC. Twomlow, S.J., Bruneau, P.M.C., 2000. The influence of tillage on semi-arid soilwater regimes in Zimbabwe. Geoderma, 95, 33-51. Waddington S. R., Edmeades, G. O., Chapman, S. C., Barreto, H. J., 1994. Where to with agricultural research for drought-prone maize environments. A Paper Presented at the Fourth Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Maize Conference, 28 March 1 April 1994. Harare, Zimbabwe. 32pp.

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Figure 1: Rainfall distribution at Matopos between 1 November and 31 March during 2004/05 and 2005/06 cropping seasons.

Figure 2: Rainfall distribution at Lucydale between 1 November and 31 March during 2004/05 and 2005/06 cropping seasons.

Figure 3: Maize yield response to tillage treatments at Matopos during 2004/05 and 2005/06 cropping seasons. Bars indicate standard error.

Figure 4: Grain and stover yield responses to 3 tillage methods at Lucydale during 2004/05 season. Bars indicate standard error.

Figure 5: Effect of conventional ploughing and reduced tillage on hybrid maize harvest index at Lucydale. Bars indicate standard error.

Figure 6: Soil water content in the 0-0.30m profile of Matopos during 2004/05 cropping season.

Figure 7: Soil water content in the 0 0.30m profile under different mulching treatments at Matopos during 2004/05 season. Bars indicate standard error.

Figure 8: Soil water content in the 0 - 0.30 m profile at Lucydale during 2004/05 cropping season.

Figure 9: Soil water content in the 0 - 0.30 m soil profile under different mulching treatments at Lucydale during 2004/05 season.

Figure 10: Soil water content in the 0 - 0.30 m profile at Matopos during 2005/06 cropping season.

Figure 11: Soil water content in the 0 - 0.60 m profile at Lucydale during 2005/06 cropping season.

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Seasonal rainfall totals 2004/05: 320 mm 2005/06: 844 mm 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Planting date

Rainfall (mm

2004/05 2005/06

113

127

Day (starting from 1 November)

Figure 1

141

15

29

43

57

71

85

99

15

Seasonal rainfall totals 2004/05: 291 mm 2005/06: 787 mm 80 70 60 Rainfall (mm 50 40 30 20 10 0 113 127 Day (starting from 1 November) 141 1 15 29 43 57 71 85 99 2004/05 2005/06
Planting date

Figure 2

16

8000 7000 6000 Maize yield (kgha-1) 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 Plough Ripper Tillage method Basins Grain04/05 Stover04/05 Grain05/06 Stover05/06

Figure 3

17

4500 4000 3500 Maize yield (kgha-1) 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 Plough Ripper Tillage method Basins Grain04/05 Stover04/05 Grain05/06 Stover05/06

Figure 4

18

0.4 0.35 0.3 Harvest index 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 Plough Ripper Tillage method Basins 2004/05 2005/06

Figure 5

19

18 16 Soil water content (mm 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 50 100 150 Days after planting Plough Ripper Basins

Figure 6

20

18 16 Soil water content (mm 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8

-1

Plough Ripper Basins

10

12

Mulch rate (tha )

Figure 7

21

18 16 Soil water content (mm 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 40 80 120 Days after planting Plough Ripper Basins

Figure 8

22

14 12 Soil water content (mm 10 8 6 4 2 0 0 2 4 6 8

-1

Plough Ripper Basins

10

12

Mulch rate (tha )

Figure 9

23

Plough 140 120 Soil water content (mm) 100 80 60 40 20 0 0 20 40

Ripper

Basins

60

80

100

120

Days after planting

Figure 10

24

80 70 Soil water content (mm 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 25 50 75 100 125 150 175 Days after planting Plough Ripper Basins

Figure 11

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Table 1: Physical and chemical characteristics of Matopos and Lucydale soils, after Moyo (2001) Soil property Depth (cm) Clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%) Gravel (%) PH (CaCl2) O.C. (%) Ca (Cmolckg-1) Mg (Cmolckg-1) K (Cmolckg-1) Effective depth (cm) Slope (%) Matopos 0-6 41 20 38 7.5 0.46 40.2 14.8 1.98 130 0.5 1 (nearly level, concave) 6-16 38 23 39 7.6 0.80 40.9 15.4 1.77 16-40 47 17 36 7.7 0.37 32.3 16.6 1.64 40-60 52 17 31 7.8 0.48 33.4 19.7 1.67 Lucydale 0-12 4 4 91 5 5.0 0.00 1.2 0.40 0.02 90 3 (straight) 12-24 5 5 91 7 4.9 0.00 0.80 1.00 0.03 24-35 6 4 99 8 4.8 0.04 0.70 0.70 0.03 35-57 10 3 87 17 5.5 0.00 3.1 2.2 0.04

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