FOREWORD

As part of the college curriculum, I under took Practical training at Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited, Jammu, Indias largest telecommunication company. It was a great opportunity for novices like me to work with hard working professional people at BSNL Jammu and learn the tools of trade. Bharat Sanchar Nigam is the largest telecommunication company in India and, the third largest in Asia and the seventh largest in the world. Being a student of Electronics and communication, my practical training was supposed to be primarily concerned with the applications computers in the field of communication and networking as a whole in a large organization such as BSNL itself. But what I would like to add here is what I learnt at BSNL wasnt just computers all the way along. My interaction with the people at BSNL, the administrators and the technicians, whom I found to be practical and prosaic, minded, was really an eye opener. It was my experience of the kind .It was for the first time that I came in one to one correspondence with the in the business of computer networks and communication. And I found out that the field of computer networks is a vast one and the people who are associated with it need to put a lot of effort. The primary usage of computers at BSNL is in accessing a central database containing information about the various region of concern to the organization such as the customer telephone numbers ,customer details ,synchronizing the working of various departments ,viz. Commercial, Outdoor,MDF ,Indoor and text desk etc.What I found very interesting is that BSNL is maintaining a fairly big and complex computer network. It has the state of art computer installation equipment such as multi line modems, Ethernet, switches, hubs, routers and so on. Also the network cabling installation is very intriguing. So, I decided to make Computer Networks as the subject of my practical training and I had other reasons for it: 1. Computer Networks form the back bone of modern day computing and is a subject of highest relevance. 2. Networking is one such field, no matter how much we know about networking, we just dont seem to get enough of it. Keeping this in view I decided to explore the wonderful world of computer network installations by doing a case study of the computer network maintained by Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited at Jammu

CONTENTS WEEK 1: Layer Oriented Approach and Network Cabling Technology

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. OSI reference Model TCP/IP reference Model Comparison of OSI and TCP/P model Data encapsulation Introduction to Network Cabling Golden Rules of Cabling Importance of Network Cabling Cable Design

WEEK 2: Communication Media

1. 2. 3. 4. Types of Communication Media Problems Encountered Network Topologies Ethernet, Token Ring ,ATM

WEEK 3: Network Connectivity Devices

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Repeaters Hubs Bridges Switches Routers

WEEK 4: Routers
1. Overview of Cisco router installed at BSNL 2. Router installation 3. Network module installation

WEEK 5: Modems and IP Addressing

1. Synchronous High Speed short Range modem (ASM 20) 2. Installation and Operation 3. IP Addressing

WEEK 6: BSNL Wide Area Network AT Jammu

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1. The BSNL Computer Network at Jammu

PREFACE
Computers are found in every walk of life: in the home in the office, in banks, in schools and colleges, in industry and so on. Although in some instances the computers carry out their intended function in a standalone mode, in the other it is necessary to exchange information with other computers. This means that an essential consideration in the design of most forms of computing installed today is the type of data communication facility that is to be used to allow it to communicate with other computers. In many instances, this necessitates the knowledge of not only of the alternatives types of data transmission circuits that may be used but also an understanding of the interface requirements to the many different types of computer communication networks available for the purpose. Data communication and the allied subject of computer networks that have thus become essential topics in all modern courses on computer system design, are the subject of Practical Training Report.

WEEK 1

Layer Oriented Approach and Network Cabling Technology

i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. vii. viii. OSI reference Model TCP/IP reference Model Comparison of OSI and TCP/P model Data encapsulation Introduction to Network Cabling Golden Rules of Cabling Importance of Network Cabling Cable Design

Layer Oriented Approach

This section explained how standards ensured greater compatibility and interoperability between various types of network technologies. I learned how the OSI reference model networking scheme supports networking standards. In addition, I came to know how information or data makes its way from application programs (such as spreadsheets) through a network medium (such as wires) to other application programs located on other computers on a network. I learned about the basic functions that occur at each layer of the OSI model In order for computers to send information through a network, all communications on a network originate at a source, and then travel to a destination.

As illustrated in the Figure, the information that travels on a network is referred to as

data, packet, or data packet. A data packet is a logically grouped unit of information that moves between computer systems. It includes the source information along with other elements that are necessary in order to make communication possible and reliable with the destination device. The source address in a packet specifies the identity of the computer that sends the packet. The destination address specifies the identity of the computer that finally receives the packet.

In order for data packets to travel from a source to a destination on a network, it is important that all the devices on the network speak the same language or protocol. A Protocol is a set of rules that make communication on a network more efficient One technical definition of a data communications protocol is: a set of rules, or an agreement, that determines the format and transmission of data. Layer n on one computer communicates with layer n on another computer. The rules and conventions used in this communication are collectively known as the Layer n protocol. The process of breaking down complex communications into smaller discrete tasks could be compared to the process of building an automobile. When taken as a whole, the design, manufacture, and assembly of an automobile is a highly complex process. Its unlikely that one single person would know how to perform all the required tasks to build a car from scratch. This is why mechanical engineers design the car, manufacturing engineers design the molds to make the parts, and assembly technicians each assemble a part of the car. The OSI reference model is the primary model for network communications. Although there are other models in existence, most network vendors, today, relate their products to the OSI reference model, especially when they want to educate users on the use of their products. The OSI reference model allows us to view the network functions that occur at each layer. More importantly, the OSI reference model is a framework that we can use to understand how information travels throughout a network. In addition, we can use the OSI reference model to visualize how information, or data packets, travels from application programs (e.g. spreadsheets, documents, etc.), through a network medium (e.g. wires, etc.), to another application program that is located in another computer on a network, even if the sender and receiver have different types of networks. In the OSI reference model, there are seven numbered layers, each of which illustrates a particular network function. This separation of networking functions is called layering. Dividing the network into these seven layers provides the following advantages: It breaks network communication into smaller simpler parts. It standardizes network components to allow multiple-vendor development and support. It allows different types of network hardware and software to communicate with each other. It prevents changes in one layer from affecting the other layers, so that they can develop more quickly.

It breaks network communication into smaller parts to make learning it easier to understand. Each individual OSI layer has a set of functions that it must perform in order for data packets to travel from a source to a destination on a network. Below is a brief description of each layer in the OSI reference model as shown in the Figure.

LAYER 7: THE APPLICATION LAYER The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user; it provides network services to the users applications. It differs from the other layers in that it does not provide services to any other OSI layer, but rather, only to applications outside the OSI model. Examples of such applications are spreadsheet programs, word processing programs, and bank terminal programs. The application layer establishes the availability of intended communication partners synchronizes and establishes agreement on procedures for error recovery and control of data integrity. If we want to remember Layer 7 in as few words as possible, think of browsers.

LAYER 6: THE PRESENTATION LAYER The presentation layer ensures that the information that the application layer of one system sends out is readable by the application layer of another system. If necessary, the presentation layer translates between multiple data formats by using a common format. If we want to think of Layer 6 in as few words as possible, think of a common data format. LAYER 5: THE SESSION LAYER As its name implies, the session layer establishes, manages, and terminates sessions between two communicating hosts. The session layer provides its services to the presentation layer. It also synchronizes dialogue between the two hosts presentation layers and manages their data exchange. In addition to session regulation, the session layer offers provisions for efficient data transfer, class of service, and exception reporting of session layer, presentation layer, and application layer problems. If we want to remember Layer 5 in as few words as possible, think of dialogues and conversations. LAYER 4: THE TRANSPORT LAYER The transport layer segments data from the sending hosts system and reassembles the data into a data stream on the receiving hosts system. The boundary between the session layer and the transport layer can be thought of as the boundary between media-layer protocols and host-layer protocols. Whereas the application, presentation, and session layers are concerned with application issues, the lower three layers are concerned with data transport issues. The transport layer attempts to provide a data transport service that shields the upper layers from transport implementation details. Specifically, issues such as how reliable transport between two hosts is accomplished are the concern of the transport layer. In providing communication service, the transport layer establishes, maintains, and properly terminates virtual circuits. In providing reliable service, transport error detection-andrecovery and information flow control are used. If we want to remember Layer 4 in as few words as possible, think of quality of service, and reliability. LAYER 3: THE NETWORK LAYER The network layer is a complex layer that provides connectivity and path selection between two host systems that may be located on geographically separated networks. If we want to remember Layer 3 in as few words as possible, think of path selection, routing, and addressing. LAYER 2: THE DATA LINK LAYER The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across a physical link. In so doing, the data link layer is concerned with physical (as opposed to logical) addressing, network topology, network access, error notification, ordered delivery of frames, and flow control. If we want to remember Layer 2 in as few words as possible, think of frames and media access control.

LAYER 1: THE PHYSICAL LAYER The physical layer defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the physical link between end systems. Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other, similar, attributes are defined by physical layer specifications. If we want to remember Layer 1 in as few words as possible, think of signals and media.

DATA ENCAPSULATION
We know that all communications on a network originate at a source, and are sent to a destination, and that the information that is sent on a network is referred to as data or data packets. If one computer (host A) wants to send data to another computer (host B), the data must first be packaged by a process called encapsulation. Encapsulation wraps data with the necessary protocol information before network transit. Therefore, as the data packet moves down through the layers of the OSI model, it receives headers, trailers, and other information. (Note: The word header means that address information has been added.) To see how encapsulation occurs, lets examine the manner in which data travels through the layers as illustrated in the Figure. Once the data is sent from the source, it travels through the application layer down through the other layers. The packaging and flow of the data that is exchanged goes through changes as the networks perform their services for end-users. Networks must perform the following five conversion steps in order to encapsulate data:

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1. BUILD THE DATA. As a user sends an e-mail message, its alphanumeric characters are converted to data that can travel across the internetwork. 2. PACKAGE THE DATA FOR END-TO-END TRANSPORT. The data is packaged for internetwork transport. By using segments, the transport function ensures that the message hosts at both ends of the e-mail system can reliably communicate. 3. APPEND (ADD) THE NETWORK ADDRESS TO THE HEADER. The data is put into a packet or datagram that contains a network header with source and destination logical addresses. These addresses help network devices send the packets across the network along a chosen path. 4. APPEND (ADD) THE LOCAL ADDRESS TO THE DATA LINK HEADER. Each network device must put the packet into a frame. The frame allows connection to the next directly-connected network device on the link. Each device in the chosen network path requires framing in order for it to connect to the next device. 5. CONVERT TO BITS FOR TRANSMISSION. The frame must be converted into a pattern of 1s and 0s (bits) for transmission on the medium (usually a wire). A clocking function enables the devices to distinguish these bits as they travel across the medium. The medium on the physical internetwork can vary along the path used. For example, the e-mail message can originate on a LAN, cross a campus backbone, and go out a WAN link until it reaches its destination on another remote LAN. Headers and trailers are added as data moves down through the layers of the OSI model. In order for data packets to travel from the source to the destination, each layer of the OSI model at the source must communicate with its peer layer at the destination. This form of communication is referred to as Peer-to-Peer Communications. During this process, each layers protocol exchanges information, called protocol data units (PDUs), between peer layers. Each layer of communication, on the source computer, communicates with a layer-specific PDU, and with its peer layer on the destination computer as illustrated in the Figure.

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THE TCP/IP REFERNCE MODEL

Although the OSI reference model is universally recognized, the historical and technical open standard of the Internet is Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). The TCP/IP reference model and the TCP/IP protocol stack make data communication possible between any two computers, anywhere in the world, at nearly the speed of light. The TCP/IP model has historical importance, just like the standards that allowed the telephone, electrical power, railroad, television, and videotape industries to flourish. As we read about the TCP/IP model layers, keep in mind the original intent of the Internet; it will help explain why certain things are as they are. The TCP/IP model has four layers: the application layer, the transport layer, the Internet layer, and the network

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layer. It is important to note that some of the layers in the TCP/IP model have the same name as layers in the OSI model. Do not confuse the layers of the two models, because the application layer has different functions in each model. APPLICATION LAYER Designers of TCP/IP felt that the higher level protocols should include the session and presentation layer details. They simply created an application layer that handles highlevel protocols, issues of representation, encoding, and dialog control. The TCP/IP combines all application-related issues into one layer, and assumes this data is properly packaged for the next layer. TRANSPORT LAYER The transport layer deals with the quality-of-service issues of reliability, flow control, and error correction. One of its protocols, the transmission control protocol (TCP), provides excellent and flexible ways to create reliable, well-flowing, low-error network communications. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol. It dialogues between source and destination while packaging application layer information into units called segments. Connection-oriented does not mean that a circuit exists between the communicating computers (that would be circuit switching). It does mean that Layer 4 segments travel back and forth between two hosts to acknowledge the connection exists logically for some period. This is known as packet switching. INTERNET LAYER The purpose of the Internet layer is to send source packets from any network on the internetwork and have them arrive at the destination independent of the path and networks they took to get there. The specific protocol that governs this layer is called the Internet protocol (IP). Best path determination and packet switching occur at this layer. Think of it in terms of the postal system. When we mail a letter, we do not know how it gets there (there are various possible routes), but we do care that it arrives. NETWORK ACCESS LAYER The name of this layer is very broad and somewhat confusing. It is also called the hostto-network layer. It is the layer that is concerned with all of the issues that an IP packet requires to actually make a physical link, and then to make another physical link. It includes the LAN and WAN technology details, and all the details in the OSI physical and data link layers. At the application layer, we will see different network tasks we may not recognize, but as a user of the Internet, probably use every day. These applications include the following:

FTP - File Transport Protocol HTTP - Hypertext Transfer Protocol

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SMTP - Simple Mail Transport protocol DNS - Domain Name Service TFTP - Trivial File Transport Protocol

The TCP/IP model emphasizes maximum flexibility, at the application layer, for developers of software. The transport layer involves two protocols - transmission control protocol (TCP) and user datagram protocol (UDP). The lowest layer, the network layer, refers to the particular LAN or WAN technology that is being used. In the TCP/IP model, regardless of which application requests network services, and regardless of which transport protocol is used, there is only one network protocol internet protocol, or IP. This is a deliberate design decision. IP serves as a universal protocol that allows any computer, anywhere, to communicate at any time.

COMPARISON OF OSI AND TCP/IP MODEL

Similarities Both have layers Both have application layers, though they include very different services Both have comparable transport and network layers Packet-switched (not circuit-switched) technology is assumed Networking professionals need to know both

Differences TCP/IP combines the presentation and session layer issues into its application layer TCP/IP combines the OSI data link and physical layers into one layer TCP/IP appears simpler because it has fewer layers TCP/IP protocols are the standards around which the Internet developed, so the TCP/IP model gains credibility just because of its protocols. In contrast, no networks are built around specific OSI-related protocols, even though everyone uses the OSI model to guide their thinking

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NETWORK CABLING
Not only does cabling carry data across network, it can also carry voice, serial communication, alarm signal and audio transmissions. In the past, people took their cabling system for granted. However over the past few years, the information technology world has begun to understand the importance of a reliable and well designed structured cabling system. Over the past five years or so, there has been an explosion in the number of registered structured cabling installers. With the increase in complexity of todays LANs the number of people that need to know the basics of cabling has increased accordingly. I had a great time exploring this wonderful world. Many distributors, manufacturers and cabling contractors provided necessary information through the most widely acclaimed of all the networks, the internet. Even as I am writing the report, I have to review newsgroups, cabling FAQs and other internet resources to find out what people wanted to know about cabling.

Golden Rule of Cabling

As I began to explore this World of networked computers, the thoughts of exploring the Backbone of the network as BSNL and indeed of all other networks, the cables, intrigued and fascinated me. Initially the words like attenuation, cross talk , twisted pair, and multimode optical fiber cable connector seemed completely foreign. A correspondence with Mr. V.K.Sharma, SDE and consulting other technical manuals that were made available at BSNL by the maintenance staff, a set of golden rule of data cabling can be framed as under: 1. Networks never get smaller or less complicated. 2. Build one cabling system that will accommodate voice and date. 3. Always install more cabling than we currently require. The extra outlets will come handy someday 4 Use structured cabling standards when building a new cabling system. Avoid any thing proprietary. 5. Qualtity counts! Use the highest quality cabling and cabling components. Cabling is the foundation of our network; if the cabling fails to perform nothing else will matter. 6. Dont scrimp on installation costs. Even quality components and cables must be installed correctly; 7. Plan for higher speed technologies than are commonly available today. Just because a technology seems unnecessary today does not mean it wont be a requirement in five year. 8. Documentation, while dull, is necessary evil that should be taken care of while we are setting up the cabling system. If we wait, more pressing concerns may cause we to ignore its importance later.

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The Importance of network Cabling

I cannot stress enough the importance of reliable cabling. Some recent statistics observed vindicated sometimes-evangelical approach to data cabling. The study of this aspect has given three facts about data cabling. 1. Data cabling typically accounts for less than 10% of the total cost of network infrastructure. 2. The life span of a typical cabling system in upward of 16 years: cabling is the second most long lived asset we have (the first being the building where the network is setup in) 3. Nearly 70% of all network related problem are due to poor cabling techniques and cable components problems. These statistics emphasize the importance of reliable cabling and the relatively low cost of installing the proper cabling infrastructure in the first place. Regardless of how we look at it, cabling is the foundation of our network. Is the cable to blame For Can faulty cable cause intermittent problems? Contrary to the public opinion, it certainly can. In addition to being vulnerable to outside interference from sources such as electric motors, flourscenent lighting, elevators, cellular phones, copiers, and microwave ovens, there are other problems that cabling can have. These problems usually revolve around substandard components (patch panels, connectors and cable) and poor installation techniques, and they can subtly manifest themselves as performance problems in the form of dropped or incomplete packets. These lost packets cost the network adapters to have a time-out and retransmit the data. I visited the 3Com website for additional help of this. Robert Metcalfe (inventor of the Ethernet and the founder of the 3Com company, famous for manufacturing world class routers) helped coin a term drop-rate magnification. Drop-rate magnification is used to describe how dropping a few packets can cause significant network problem. Metcalf found that a 1% drop in the Ethernet packets could correlate to an 80% drop in bandwidth. Modern network protocols that send multiple packets and expect only a single acknowledgement(such as TCP/IP or Novells IPX/SPX )are especially susceptible to this sense a single dropped packets, as opposite to collision are more difficult to detect because they areloston the wire. When the data is lost on the wire, the data is transmitted properly but, due to problems with the cable the data never arrives at the destination or it arrives in an incomplete format.

Historical Overview of Network Cabling

PC LANs came on to the scene in the mid 1980s: these systems usually consisted of thicknet cable, thinnet cable, of a combination of the two. These cabling systems were also limited to only certain types of hosts and network nodes. As PC LANs became popular, some companies demonstrated the extremes of data cabling. Looking back, its surprising to think that ceilings, walls and floor trenches could hold all cable that was necessary to provide connectivity to each system used. As one company prepared to install a 1000-node PC LAN, they were shocked to find all the different type pf cabling system being in use. Each of these cabling systems was wired to a different wiring closet or computer room and included the following: 16

1. Wang dual coaxial cable for Wang word processing terminals. 2. IBM twinax cable for IBM 5250 terminals. 3. Twisted pair cable connecting one or two pairs that were used by digital phone system. 4. Thick Ethernet from the DEC VAX to terminal servers 5. RS-232 cables for wiring closets connecting to the DEC VAX terminal servers 6RS-232 cable from certain secretarial workstations to a proprietary NBI word processing system. 7. Coaxial cables connection a handful of PCs to a single NetWare server The new LAN was based on a twisted pair Ethernet system that used UTP cabling called Synopsis Lattisnet that was a precursor to the 10Base-T standards. Due to the budget considerations, when the LAN cabling was installed, this company often used spare pairs in existing phone cables. When extra pairs were not available, addition cables were installed .Networking standards such as the 10Base-T were but a tinkle in the IEEEs eye, and the guidelines such as the TIA/EIA-568- A cabling standard were not yet formulated. Companies deploying twisted pair LANs had little guidance, to say the least. Much of the cabling that was used at this juncture was sub-Category 3,which means that it did not meet the minimum Category 3 performance requirements.Unfortunately,since the cabling was not even Category 3 ,once the 10Base-T specifications was approved, many of the installed cables would not support the 10Base-T cards on most of the network. This meant that the companies network deployments had to be revamped. During the course of discussion with Mr.V.K.Sharma, SDE, I came across certain key terms in the field of CABLING. Often the term application is used when referring to cabling. Anybody would think of application as a software program that runs on our computer, and so did I. However when discussing cabling infrastructures, an application is the technology that will take advantage of the cabling system. Applications include telephone systems (analog voice and digital voice), Ethernet, token ring, ATM, ISDN and RS-232 -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Cabling and Need for Speed

The past few years have seen some tremendous advances not only in the networking technologies, but also on the demands placed on those networking technologies. In the past 15 years, there has been the emergence of standards for the 10Mb Etherner\t, 16Mb Token Ring,100Mb FDDI,100Mb Ethernet,155Mb ATM,655Mb ATM,1Gb Ethernet, and 2.5Gb ATM.Network technology designers are already planning technologies that may support data rates of more than 10Gbps,such as 10Gb Ethernet. The average number of nodes on a network segment has decreased dramatically while the number of applications and size of data transferred has increased drastically. Applications are becoming more complex and the amount of network bandwidth required by the typical user is increasing. Is the bandwidth provided by some new ultra high speed

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network applications (such as the 1GB Ethernet) required today? May be not, but there is no doubt that networks and applications will require such throughput in the future.

Cable Design
During the course of practical training at BSNL under the network maintenance staff, an important point came up all the way trough. Whether we are a network engineer or a cable installer, a good understanding of the design and components of data cabling is essential. For example, one must be aware of what type of cables can be run above the ceiling? What do the markings on the cable means? Can we safely untwist a twisted pair cable? What is the difference between a single mode and a multimode fiber optical cable? All these questions come in the mind time and again. Fortunately enough, the network equipment available with BSNL and the Internet provided the necessary answers. The U.S. National Electrical Code (NEC) article 800 defines five levels of cable for use with LAN cabling and telecommunications: Plenum use Riser General Purpose Residential use Under-Carpet cable Cables are rated based of their flammability, heat resistance, and how much visible smoke (in case of Plenum cable) they generate when exposed to a flame. A plenum cable is certified for use in both the riser(a connecting path between two floors of a building)as well as the plenum(air duct spaces usually above the false ceiling).Plenum cable can be substituted for any of the other levels of cabling.

Cable Jackets
The best place to start observing the cable design is to look what is on the outside. Each type of cable (twisted pair, fiber optic or coaxial) will have different designs with respect to the cable covering or the jacket. Jacket and Sheaths The cables jacket is the plastic covering of the cable; this holds true for both the UTP and the STP cables. The sheath includes not only the jacket of the cable, but also any outside covering (such as braided copper or foil) that may be surrounding the inner wire pairs. With the UTP, the sheath and the jacket refer to the same thinf.With ScTP and STP cables; the sheath includes the outer layer of the shielding. One of the most common materials used in the jackets is polyvinyl chloride (PVC).Other substances that are used commonly in the cable jackets include ethylenechlorotriflouroethylene (ECTFE or HALAR). Inside some UTP cable jackets is a nylon or polyester string that is the slitting cord or slitting string. The purpose of this cord is to assist with slicing the jacket back for removal.

Plenum

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There are two entirely different definitions of plenum. According to the building engineers and constructors contractors, and air conditioning people, the plenum is the space between the false ceiling or the drop sown ceiling and the structural ceiling. This space is the often used for the air circulation, heating, ventilation and air conditioning. Occasionally the space between false flour (such as raised computer room floor) and structural floor is also called the plenum. Cable design engineers refer to the plenum as a type of cable that is rated for use in the plenum spaces of a building. In most environments, and so is the case in BSNL, the plenum space is used to hold data and voice cables. I have been told that the ordinary cable often produces toxic fumes in the event of fire, but plenum cable is made of materials that are more resistant to flames and produce smoke when burning.

Riser
The riser is a vertical shaft used to route cable between two floors. Often, this is a nothing but a hale thats drilled in the floor and allows cables to pass through. However a hole between two floors (of with cables in it) introduces a new problem as I observed. In case of hazard such as fire, the fire can spread from floor to floor through the building cabling. This implies that the riser cable must have fire resistance capabilities.

Cable Markings
A lot of markings are observed on the various types of cables that were shown and can be deceptive with respect to the fact that there is no standard for cable markings, so one must be very careful while trying to interpret the markings on the cable. I looked for some help on the internet regarding getting a brief if not elaborate description of the various cable marking schemes and the interferences that can be drawn from them. Some cable manufacturers such as Superior Essex (www.superioressex.com) had references for interpreting cable markings but again these were for cables manufactured by some specific companies and again no standard could be evolved. Nonetheless, the material was too extensive and was not downloadable. So I was unable to include the text related to markings identifications. Wire Insulations Inside the cable jacket are the wire pairs. The material used to insulate these wires must have excellent dielectric propertites.there are a variety of materials including Polyolefin (Polyethylene and Polypropylene), fluorocarbon polymers, and even PVC.

Insulation Colors
The insulation around each wire in a UTP cable is color-coded. These are standardized color codes that help to make sure that each wire is connected correctly with the connecting hardware. Each pair of wires is assigned a specific color; one wire in a pair is colored solid using that color, and the other wire is white with a strip of assigned color. Sometimes, neither wire will be completely solid; instead, one wire will have a small stripe of white and the other wire will be mostly white with a small stripe of associated color. These ones are a little more difficult to identify. The color codes for four pair UTP and 25- pair UTP Binder groups are given.

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Pair Number 1 2 3 4

Solid Color (Primary) Blue Orange Green Brown

Stripe Color(Secondary) White White White White

Pair Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25

Solid Color (Primary) Blue Orange Green Brown Slate Blue Orange Green Brown Slate Blue Orange Green Brown Slate Blue Orange Green Brown Slate Blue Orange Green Brown Slate

Stripe Color(Secondary) White White White White White Red Red Red Red Red Black Black Black Black Black Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Yellow Violet Violet Violet Violet Violet

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Twists
When I sliced open many type of copper-based communication cables, I noticed that the individual pairs of wires are twisted around one another. One first thought, I really did not realize how important these twists are. However the secrets were soon revealed on a query issued by me to Mr. V.K.Sharma, SDE. Twisted pair cable is any cable that contains a pair of wires that are wrapped or twisted around one another between each other 2 to 12 times per foot-sometimes even greater than 12 times per foot. The twists help to cancel out the electromagnetic interference (EMI) generated by the high speed data communication over the wire. The interference can cause problems for adjacent wore pairs, which is called crosstalk. The type of communication media explored during the practical training have been discussed in the next section.

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WEEK 2
Communication Media
Types of Communication Media Problems Encountered Network Topologies Ethernet, Token Ring , ATM

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Types of Communication Media

Four types of communication media have been analyzed and discussed under

Twisted Pair Cable

Twisted pair cabling is by far the most economical of all in the present network cabling installations. It is cheaper than the other media and installation is simple. The tools that are required are also shown and I found the tools fairly simple. I am told that the tools are cheap as well. Two varieties of the Twisted pair cable were shown, one, the Shielded twisted pair (STP) and the other being the unshielded twisted pair (UTP).A newer variety pf twisted cable called the Screened Twisted pair (ScTP) was also shown to me, though this particular variety of the twisted family has not bee put to use in the BSNL Jammu computer network. The BSNL computer network uses Cat5 Cabling whose specifications are given in the later section of the report .Nonetheless I have been told that this ScTP is going to be used in the Call Center Subnet that is going to be setup soon in the Jammu exchange office.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

Unshielded twisted-pair cable (UTP) is a four-pair wire medium - composed of pairs of wires - used in a variety of networks. Each pair of wires is insulated from the others. This type of cable relies solely on the cancellation effect, produced by the twisted wire pairs, to limit signal degradation caused by EMI and RFI. To further reduce crosstalk between the pairs in UTP cable, the number of twists in the wire pairs varies. Like STP cable, UTP cable must follow precise specifications as to how many twists or braids are permitted per foot of cable. When used as a networking medium, UTP cable has four pairs of either 22 or 24 gauge copper wire. UTP used as a networking medium has an impedance of 100 ohms. This differentiates it from other types of twisted-pair wiring such as that used for telephone wiring. Because UTP has an external diameter of approximately .43 cm, its small size can be advantageous during installation. Since UTP can be used with most of the major networking architectures, it continues to grow in popularity. Unshielded twisted-pair cable has many advantages. It is easy to install and is less expensive than other types of networking media. In fact, UTP costs less per meter than any other type of LAN cabling, however its real advantage is its size. Since it has such a small external diameter, UTP does not fill up wiring ducts as rapidly as other types of cable. There are, however, a number of disadvantages in using twisted-pair cabling. UTP cable is more prone to electrical noise and interference than other types of networking media. Also, UTP was once considered slower at transmitting data than other types of cable. However, this is no longer true. In fact, today, UTP is considered the fastest copper-based media. The distance between signal boosts is shorter for UTP than it is for coaxial cable.

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP)

Shielded twisted-pair cable (STP) combines the techniques of shielding, cancellation, and twisting of wires. As specified for use in Ethernet network installations, STP provides resistance to both electromagnetic interference and radio frequency interference without significantly increasing the weight or size of the cable. Shielded twisted-pair cable has

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all of the advantages and disadvantages of unshielded twisted-pair cable. STP affords greater protection from all types of external interference, but is more expensive than unshielded twisted-pair cable. Unlike coaxial cable, the shield in STP is not part of the data circuit; therefore the cable needs to be grounded at both ends. Usually, installers ground STP at both the wiring closet and the hub, even though it is not always easy to do, particularly if the installers attempt to use older patch panels that were not designed to accommodate STP cable. If improperly grounded, STP can become a major source of problems, because it allows the shield to act like an antenna, absorbing electrical signals from other wires in the cable and from electrical noise sources outside the cable. Finally, STP cable cannot be run as far as other networking media (such as coaxial cable) without the signal being repeated.

Coaxial Cable
By personal experience, I believe that the coaxial cable is the easiest of all to identify, since it is being used for transmission of video signals by the cable vendors. Coaxial cable consists of a hollow outer cylindrical conductor that surrounds a single inner wire made of two conducting elements. One of these elements - located in the center of the cable - is a copper conductor. Surrounding it is a layer of flexible insulation. Over this insulating material is a woven copper braid or metallic foil that acts as the second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor. This second layer, or shield, can help reduce the amount of outside interference. Covering this shield is the cable jacket. For LANs, coaxial cable offers several advantages. It can be run, without as many boosts from repeaters, for longer distances between network nodes than either STP or UTP cable. Repeaters regenerate the signals in a network so that they can cover greater distances. Coaxial cable is less expensive than fiber-optic cable, and the technology is well known. It has been used for many years for all types of data communication. Can we think of another type of communication that utilizes coaxial cable?

Optical Fiber Cable

As per the network installation and maintenance staff, fiber optic cable is touted as the ultimate answer to all voice, data; video transmission needs and continues to make inroads in the LAN market. The distinct advantages are: 1. Transmission distances can be much greater than the copper cable. 2 Potential bandwidth is dramatically much greater than copper cable 3. Fiber optic cable is not susceptible to outside EMI or cross talk interference. Nor does it generate EMI or cross talk. 4. Fiber optic cable is much more secured than copper cable because electrical monitoring equipment cannot be used to eavesdrop on the data being transmitted through a fiber optic cable. I was introduced to the fiber optic technology and shown some of the fiber optic cables and cabling manuals by JTO, SDE computers-I. First of all he made me aware of the term Dark Fiber. No, it is not a special type of fiber cable. When telecommunication companies and private businesses run fiber optic cable, they never run the exact number of pairs they need. That I told is foolish. Instead they run two or three times the amount 24

of fiber they currently require. These spare pairs of fiber are called Dark Fiber, because they are not currently in use. Telecommunication companies often leave out these pair to other companies. Details of two of the fiber optic cable are listed under:

Single Mode Fiber Optic Cable:

Single mode fiber(SMF) is also called monomode.Single mode Fiber Optic cable is not used as horizontal cable to connect computers to hubs. The light in a Single Mode Fiber Optic fiber travels straight down the fiber and does not bounce of the surrounding cladding as it travels. Typical Single mode fiber wavelengths are 1310 and 1550 nanometers.

Multimode Fiber Optic Cable:

Multimode fiber (MMF) is used in applications that require optical fiber cable for use as a horizontal cable and backbone cable. Multimode cable allows more than mode of light to propagate through the cable. Typical Multimode Fiber Wavelengths are 850 and 1300 nanometers. Diagrams have been given for reference. There are two types of MMF optic cable, step index and graded index. Step index multimode fiber optic cable indicates that the refractive index between the core and the cladding is very distinctive. The grade index fiber optic cable, which is more common type, has a core that contains many layer of glass: each has a lower index as we go outward of the core of the fiber.

The Problems Encountered

External Interference Attenuation Crosstalk Attenuation to Crosstalk Ratio

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Network Topologies
The network topology refers to the physical lay out of the nodes and hubs that make up the network. Choosing the right topology is important because the topology affects the type of networking equipments, cabling, growth path, and network management. The network architectures essentially fall into one of the following categories; 1. Bus Topology 2. Ring Topology 3. Star Topology 4. Tree Topology 5. Complete Topology Topologies can be tricky because some networking architectures such as the one at Jammu exchange of BSNL appears to be of one type but in reality fall into other category. A typical example is of token ring. Token ring architectures use hubs. All stations are connected centrally to a hub so it appears to be a star topology, but in reality it is still a ring topology. Often two topology types are used together to expand a network and it is the case of BSNl, Jammu.

Tree Topology

Complete Topology

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Mathematical Perspective The bus topology has all of its nodes connected directly to one link, and has no other connections between nodes Physical Perspective Each host is wired to a common wire. In this topology, the key devices are those that allow the host to join or tap into the single shared medium. One advantage of this topology is that all hosts are connected to each other, and thus, can communicate directly. One disadvantage of this topology is that a break in the cable disconnects hosts from each other. Logical Perspective A bus topology enables every networking device to see all signals from all other devices. This can be an advantage if we want all information to go to every device. However, it can be a disadvantage because traffic problems and collisions are common.

Bus Topology

Mathematical Perspective A ring topology is a single closed ring consisting of nodes and links, with each node connected to only two adjacent nodes. Physical Perspective The topology shows all devices wired directly to each other in what is called a daisychain. This is similar to the manner in which a mouse on an Apple PC plugs into the keyboard and then into the PC. Logical Perspective In order for information to flow, each station must pass the information to its adjacent station.

Ring Topology

Mathematical Perspective A star topology has a central node with all links to other nodes radiating from it and allows no other links. Physical Perspective A star topology has a central node with all links radiating from it. Its primary advantage is that it allows all other nodes to communicate with each other, conveniently. Its primary disadvantage is that if the central node fails, the whole network becomes disconnected. Depending on the type of networking device used at the center of the star network, collisions can be a problem. Logical Perspective The flow of all information would go through one device. This might be desirable for 27

Star Topology

security or restricted access reasons, but it would be very susceptible to any problems in the star's central node.

Mathematical Perspective The tree topology is similar to the extended star topology; the primary difference is that it does not use one central node. Instead, it uses a trunk node from which it branches to other nodes. There are two types of tree topologies: the binary tree (each node splits into two links); and the backbone tree (a backbone trunk has branch nodes with links hanging from it). Physical Perspective The trunk is a wire that has several layers of branches. Logical Perspective
The flow of information is hierarchical.

Tree Topology:

Mathematical Perspective In a complete, or mesh topology, every node is linked directly to every other node. Physical Perspective This wiring has very distinct advantages and disadvantages. One advantage is every node is physically connected to every other node (creating a redundant connection). Should any link fail to function, information can flow through any number of other links to reach its destination. Another advantage of this topology is that it allows information to flow along many parts on its way back through the network. The primary physical disadvantage is that for anything more than a small number of nodes, the amount of media for the links, and the amount of connections to the links become overwhelming. Logical Perspective The behavior of a complete, or mesh topology depends greatly on the devices used.

Complete topology:

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NETWORK ARCHITECTURES
Three network architectures were thoroughly explained by Mr. Neeraj Sharma. However, little could be done practically in terms of implementing these architectures since the BSNL installation could not be tampered with. These architectures were explained theoretically. IBM developed the first Token Ring network in the 1970s. It is still IBM's primary LAN technology, and is second only to Ethernet (IEEE 802.3) in terms of LAN implementation. The IEEE 802.5 specification is almost identical to, and completely compatible with, IBM's Token Ring network. The IEEE 802.5 specification was modeled after IBM's Token Ring and continues to shadow its ongoing development. The term Token Ring refers both, to IBM's Token Ring and to IEEE's 802.5 specification. The chart in the main graphic compares and contrasts the two standards. Tokens Tokens are 3 bytes in length and consist of a start delimiter, an access control byte, and an end delimiter. The start delimiter alerts each station to the arrival of a token, or data/command frame. This field also includes signals that distinguish the byte from the rest of the frame by violating the encoding scheme used elsewhere in the frame. Access Control Byte The access control byte contains the priority and reservation field, and a token and monitor bit. The token bit distinguishes a token from a data/command frame, and a monitor bit determines whether a frame is continuously circling the ring. The end delimiter signals the end of the token or data/command frame. It contains bits that indicate a damaged frame, and a frame that is the last of a logical sequence. Data/Command Frames Data/command frames vary in size depending on the size of the information field. Data frames carry information for upper-layer protocols; command frames contain control information and have no data for upper-layer protocols. In data/command frames, a frame control byte follows the access control byte. The frame control byte indicates whether the frame contains data or control information. In control frames, this byte specifies the type of control information. Following the frame control byte are two address fields that identify destination and source stations. As with IEEE 802.5, their addresses are 6 bytes in length. The data field follows the address field. The length of this field is limited by the ring token that holds the time, thus defining the maximum time a station may hold the token. Following the data field is the frame check sequence (FCS) field. The source station fills this field with a calculated value dependent on the frame contents. The destination station recalculates the value to determine whether the frame has been damaged in transit. The frame is discarded if it has been damaged. As with the token, the end delimiter completes the data/command frame.

IBM Token Ring Network

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Token Passing Token Ring and IEEE 802.5 are the primary examples of token-passing networks. Token-passing networks move a small frame, called a token, around the network. Possession of the token grants the right to transmit data. If a node that receives a token has no information to send, it passes the token to the next end station. Each station can hold the token for a maximum period of time, depending on the specific technology that has been implemented. When a station passes a token that has information to transmit, it seizes the token and alters 1 bit of it. The token becomes a start-of-frame sequence. Next, the station appends the information to transmit to the token and sends this data to the next station on the ring. There is no token on the network while the information frame is circling the ring, unless the ring supports early token releases. Other stations on the ring cannot transmit at this time. They must wait for the token to become available. Token Ring networks have no collisions. If early token release is supported, a new token can be released when the frame transmission has been completed. The information frame circulates the ring until it reaches the intended destination station, which then copies the information for processing. The information frame circles the ring until it reaches the sending station and is then removed. The sending station can verify whether the frame was received and copied by the destination.

Ethernet is the most widely used local area network (LAN) technology. Ethernet was designed to fill the middle ground between long-distance, low-speed networks and specialized, computer-room networks carrying data at high speeds for very limited distances. Ethernet is well suited to applications where a local communication medium must carry sporadic, occasionally heavy traffic at high peak data rates. Ethernet network architecture has its origins in the 1960s at the University of Hawaii, where the access method that is used by Ethernet, carrier sense multiple access/collision detection (CSMA/CD), was developed. Xerox Corporations Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) developed the first experimental Ethernet system in the early 1970s. This was used as the basis for the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE) 802.3 specification released in 1980. Shortly after the 1980 IEEE 802.3 specification, Digital Equipment Corporation, Intel Corporation, and Xerox Corporation jointly developed and released an Ethernet specification, Version 2.0 that was substantially compatible with IEEE 802.3. Together, Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 currently maintain the greatest market share of any LAN protocol. Today, the term Ethernet is often used to refer to all carrier sense multiple access/collision detection (CSMA/CD) LANs that generally conform to Ethernet specifications, including IEEE 802.3. Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 specify similar technologies; both are CSMA/CD LANs. Stations on a CSMA/CD LAN can access the network at any time. Before sending data, CSMA/CD stations listen to the network to determine if it is already in use. If it is, then they wait. If the network is not in use, the stations transmit. A collision occurs when two stations listen for network traffic, hear none, and transmit simultaneously. In this case, both transmissions are damaged, and the stations must retransmit at some later time. Back off algorithms determine when the colliding stations can retransmit. CSMA/CD stations

Ethernet

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can detect collisions, so they know when they must retransmit. Both Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 LANs are broadcast networks. This means every station can see all of the frames, regardless of whether they are the intended destination of that data. Each station must examine the received frames to determine if they are the destination. If so, the frame is passed to a higher layer protocol within the station for appropriate processing. Differences between Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 LANs are subtle. Ethernet provides services corresponding to Layer 1 and Layer 2 of the OSI reference model. IEEE 802.3 specifies the physical layer, Layer 1, and the channel-access portion of the data link layer, Layer 2, but does not define a Logical Link Control protocol. Both Ethernet and IEEE 802.3 are implemented through hardware. Typically, the physical part of these protocols is either an interface card in a host computer or circuitry on a primary circuit board within a host computer. There are at least 18 varieties of Ethernet, which have been specified, or are in the specification process. The table in the main graphic highlights some of the most common and important Ethernet technologies. The table below lists some of the Ethernet technologies. The first number in an Ethernet designator indicates the speed of the network, the second portion (the base portion) indicates baseband, and the third indicates the maximum distance or the media type. Designation 10Base-2 10Base-5 10Base-36 10Base-T 10Base-FL Description 10Mbps Ethernet over thinnet coax(RG-58)with a maximum of 185meters(they rounded up and call it 10Base-2instead of 10Base185) 10Mbps Ethernet over thick (50-ohm) coax a maximum segment distance of 500 meters. 10Mbps.This is actually broadband implementation of Ethernet with a maximum segment length of 3600 meters 10Mbps Ethernet over UTP cable. Maximum cable length(hub to cable) is 100meters 10Mbps Ethernet over multimode optical fiber cable. Designed for connectivity between network interface cards on the desktop and a fiber optic Ethernet hub. Maximum cable length is 2000meters 10Mbps Ethernet over multimode optical fiber cable. Designed to use signaling technique that allows a 10 Base-FB backbone to exceed the maximum number of repeaters permitted by Ethernet. Maximum cable length is 2000meters 10Mbps Ethernet over multimode optical fiber cable designed to allow linking multiple computers without a reapeater.Maximum of 33 computers per segment and the maximum cable length is 500 meters. 100Mbps Ethernet over UTP cable using two pairs. Maximum cable length is 100 meters. 100Mbps Ethernet over UTP cable using four wire pairs. Maximum cable length is 100 meters 100Mbps Ethernet over multimode optical fiber cable. Maximum cable length is 400 meters More of a first cousin of Ethernet. This actually 100VG-AnyLAN.

10Base-FB

10Base-FP

100Base-TX 100Base-T4 100Base-FX 100Base-VG

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1000Base-SX 1000Base-LX 1000Base-CX 1000Base-T

Gigabit Ethernet over single-mode optical fiber cable designed for workstation to hub implementations. Gigabit Ethernet over single-mode optical fiber cable designed for workstation to backbone implementations. Gigabit Ethernet over STP cable designed for equipment interconnection. Gigabit Ethernet over UTP cable where installation has passed performance test specified by TSB-95.Maximum distance is 100 meters for network interface card to hub.

ATM (Asynchronous Transfer Mode)

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a cell relay, packet switching network and data link layer protocol which encodes data traffic into small (53 bytes; 48 bytes of data and 5 bytes of header information) fixed-sized cells. ATM provides data link layer services that run over SONET (Synchronous Optical Networking) Layer 1 links. This differs from other technologies based on packet-switched networks (such as the Internet Protocol or Ethernet), in which variable sized packets (sometimes known as frames) are used. ATM is a connection-oriented technology, in which a logical connection is established between the two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins. ATM Addressing A Virtual Channel (VC) denotes the transport of ATM cells which have the same unique identifier, called the Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI). This identifier is encoded in the cell header. A virtual channel represents the basic means of communication between two end-points, and is analogous to an X.25 virtual circuit.[1] A Virtual Path (VP) denotes the transport of ATM cells belonging to virtual channels which share a common identifier, called the Virtual Path Identifier (VPI), which is also encoded in the cell header. A virtual path, in other words, is a grouping of virtual channels which connect the same end-points. This two layer approach results in improved network performance. Once a virtual path is set up, the addition/removal of virtual channels is straightforward.

Successes and failures of ATM technology

ATM has proved very successful in the WAN scenario and numerous Telcos have implemented ATM in their wide-area network cores. Also many ADSL implementations use ATM. However, ATM has failed to gain wide use as a LAN technology, and its complexity has held back its full deployment as the single integrating network technology in the way that its inventors originally intended. Many people, particularly in the Internet protocol-design community, considered this vision to be mistaken. Their argument went something like this: We know that there will always be both brand-new and obsolescent link-layer technologies, particularly in the 32

LAN area, and it is fair to assume that not all of them will fit neatly into the synchronous optical networking model that ATM was designed for. Therefore, some sort of protocol is needed to provide a unifying layer over both ATM and non-ATM link layers, and ATM itself cannot fill that role. Conveniently, we have this protocol called "IP" which already does that. Ergo, there is no point in implementing ATM at the network layer. In addition, the need for cells to reduce jitter has reduced as transport speeds increased (see below), and improvements in Voice over IP (VoIP) have made the integration of speech and data possible at the IP layer, again removing the incentive for ubiquitous deployment of ATM. Most Telcos are now planning to integrate their voice network activities into their IP networks, rather than their IP networks into the voice infrastructure. Many technically sound ideas from ATM were adopted by MPLS, a generic Layer 2 packet switching protocol. ATM remains widely deployed, and is used as a multiplexing service in DSL networks, where its compromises fit DSL's low-data-rate needs well. In turn, DSL networks support IP (and IP services such as VoIP) via PPP over ATM and Ethernet over ATM (RFC 1483). ATM will remain deployed for some time in higher-speed interconnects where carriers have already committed themselves to existing ATM deployments; ATM is used here as a way of unifying PDH/SDH traffic and packet-switched traffic under a single infrastructure. However, ATM is increasingly challenged by speed and traffic shaping requirements of converged networks. In particular, the complexity of SAR imposes a performance bottleneck, as the fastest SARs known run at 10 Gbit/s and have limited traffic shaping capabilities. Currently it seems likely that gigabit Ethernet implementations (10Gbit-Ethernet, Metro Ethernet) will replace ATM as a technology of choice in new WAN implementions.

Recent developments
Interest in using native ATM for carrying live video and audio has increased recently. In these environments, low latency and very high quality of service are required to handle linear audio and video streams. Towards this goal standards are being developed such as AES47 (IEC 62365), which provides a standard for professional uncompressed audio transport over ATM. This is worth comparing with professional video over IP.

ATM concepts

Why cells?

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The motivation for the use of small data cells was the reduction of jitter (delay variance, in this case) in the multiplexing of data streams; reduction of this (and also end-to-end round-trip delays) is particularly important when carrying voice traffic. This is because the conversion of digitized voice back into an analog audio signal is an inherently real-time process, and to do a good job, the codec that does this needs an evenly spaced (in time) stream of data items. If the next data item is not available when it is needed, the codec has no choice but to produce silence or guess - and if the data is late, it is useless, because the time period when it should have been converted to a signal has already passed. Now consider a speech signal reduced to packets, and forced to share a link with bursty data traffic (i.e. some of the data packets will be large). No matter how small the speech packets could be made, they would always encounter full-size data packets, and under normal queuing conditions, might experience maximum queuing delays. At the time ATM was designed, 155 Mbit/s SDH (135 Mbit/s payload) was considered a fast optical network link, and many PDH links in the digital network were considerably slower, ranging from 1.544 to 45 Mbit/s in the USA (2 to 34 Mbit/s in Europe). At this rate, a typical full-length 1500 byte (12000-bit) data packet would take 77.42 s to transmit. In a lower-speed link, such as a 1.544 Mbit/s T1 link, a 1500 byte packet would take up to 7.8 milliseconds. A queueing delay induced by several such data packets might be several times the figure of 7.8 ms, in addition to any packet generation delay in the shorter speech packet. This was clearly unacceptable for speech traffic, which needs to have low jitter in the data stream being fed into the codec if it is to produce good-quality sound. A packet voice system can produce this in a number of ways:

Have a playback buffer between the network and the codec, one large enough to tide the codec over almost all the jitter in the data. This allows smoothing out the jitter, but the delay introduced by passage through the buffer would be such that echo cancellers would be required even in local networks; this was considered too expensive at the time. Also, it would have increased the delay across the channel, and conversation is difficult over high-delay channels. Build a system which can inherently provide low-jitter (and minimal overall delay) to traffic which needs it. Operate on a 1:1 user basis (i.e., a dedicated pipe).

ATM was designed to implement a low-jitter network interface. However, to be able to provide short queueing delays, but also be able to carry large datagrams, it had to have cells. ATM broke up all packets, data, and voice streams into 48-byte chunks, adding a 5byte routing header to each one so that they could be reassembled later. The choice of 48

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bytes was, as is all too often the case, political instead of technical.[2] When the CCITT was standardizing ATM, parties from the United States wanted a 64-byte payload because having the size be a power of 2 made working with the data easier and this size was felt to be a good compromise between larger payloads optimized for data transmission and shorter payloads optimized for real-time applications like voice; parties from Europe wanted 32-byte payloads because the small size (and therefore short transmission times) simplify voice applications with respect to echo cancellation. Most of the interested European parties eventually came around to the arguments made by the Americans, but France and a few allies held out until the bitter end. With 32 bytes, France would have been able to implement an ATM-based voice network with calls from one end of France to the other requiring no echo cancellation. 48 bytes (plus 5 header bytes = 53) was chosen as a compromise between the two sides, but it was ideal for neither and everybody has had to live with it ever since.[3] 5-byte headers were chosen because it was thought that 10% of the payload was the maximum price to pay for routing information. ATM multiplexed these 53-byte cells instead of packets. Doing so reduced the worst-case queuing jitter by a factor of almost 30, removing the need for echo cancellers.

Cells in practice
Different types of services are supported by ATM via ATM Adaptation Layers (AAL). Standardized AALs include AAL1, AAL2, and AAL5, and the rarely used AAL3 and AAL4. AAL1 is used for constant bit rate (CBR) services and circuit emulation. AAL2 through AAL4 are used for variable bit rate (VBR) services, and AAL5 for data. Which AAL is in use for a given cell is not encoded in the cell. Instead, it is negotiated by or configured at the endpoints on a per-virtual-connection basis. Since the time ATM was designed, networks have become much faster. A 1500 byte (12000-bit) full-size Ethernet packet takes only 1.2 s to transmit on a 10 Gbit/s optical network, removing the need for small cells to reduce jitter. Some consider that this removes the need for ATM in the network backbone. Additionally, the hardware for implementing the service adaptation for IP packets is expensive at very high speeds. Specifically, the cost of segmentation and reassembly (SAR) hardware at OC-3 and above speeds makes ATM less competitive for IP than Packet Over SONET (POS). SAR performance limits mean that the fastest IP router ATM interfaces are OC12 - OC48 (STM4 - STM16), while (as of 2004) POS can operate at OC-192 (STM64) with higher speeds expected in the future. ATM switches can also operate at OC-192 (STM64) rates. On slow links (2 Mbit/s and below). ATM still makes sense, and this is why so many ADSL systems use ATM as an intermediate layer between the physical link layer and a Layer 2 protocol like PPP or Ethernet. At these lower speeds, ATM's ability to carry multiple logical circuits on a single physical or virtual medium is useful, although other techniques exist, such as PPP and Ethernet VLANs, which are optional in VDSL implementations. DSL can be used as an access method for an ATM network, allowing a DSL termination point in a telephone

35

central office to connect to many internet service providers across a wide-area ATM network. In the United States, at least, this has allowed DSL providers to provide DSL access to the customers of many internet service providers. Since one DSL termination point can support multiple ISPs, the economic feasibility of DSL is substantially improved.

Why virtual circuits?

ATM is a channel-based transport layer, using Virtual circuits (VCs). This is encompassed in the concept of the Virtual Paths (VP) and Virtual Channels. Every ATM cell has an 8- or 12-bit Virtual Path Identifier (VPI) and 16-bit Virtual Channel Identifier (VCI) pair defined in its header. Together, these identify the virtual circuit used by the connection. The length of the VPI varies according to whether the cell is sent on the usernetwork interface (on the edge of the network), or if it is sent on the network-network interface (inside the network). As these cells traverse an ATM network, switching is achieved by changing the VPI/VCI values. Although the VPI/VCI values are not necessarily consistent from one end of the connection to the other, the concept of a circuit is consistent (unlike IP, where any given packet could get to its destination by a different route than the others). Another advantage of the use of virtual circuits is the ability to use them as a multiplexing layer, allowing different services (such as voice, Frame Relay, n*64 channels , IP).

Using cells and virtual circuits for traffic engineering

Another key ATM concept is that of the traffic contract. When an ATM circuit is set up each switch is informed of the traffic class of the connection. ATM traffic contracts are part of the mechanism by which "Quality of Service" (QoS) is ensured. There are four basic types (and several variants) which each have a set of parameters describing the connection.

CBR - Constant bit rate: you specify a Peak Cell Rate (PCR), which is constant. VBR - Variable bit rate: you specify an average cell rate, which can peak at a certain level for a maximum interval before being problematic. ABR - Available bit rate: you specify a minimum guaranteed rate. UBR - Unspecified bit rate: your traffic is allocated all remaining transmission capacity.

VBR has real-time and non-real-time variants, and is used for "bursty" traffic. Non-realtime is usually abbreviated to vbr-nrt. Most traffic classes also introduce the concept of Cell Delay Variation Tolerance (CDVT) which defines the "clumping" of cells in time.

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Traffic contracts are usually maintained by the use of "Shaping", a combination of queuing and marking of cells, and enforced by "Policing". Traffic shaping Traffic shaping is usually done at the entry point to an ATM network and attempts to ensure that the cell flow will meet its traffic contract. Traffic policing To maintain network performance it is possible to police virtual circuits against their traffic contracts. If a circuit is exceeding its traffic contract, the network can either drop the cells or mark the Cell Loss Priority (CLP) bit (to identify a cell as discardable farther down the line). Basic policing works on a cell by cell basis, but this is sub-optimal for encapsulated packet traffic (as discarding a single cell will invalidate the whole packet). As a result, schemes such as Partial Packet Discard (PPD) and Early Packet Discard (EPD) have been created that will discard a whole series of cells until the next frame starts. This reduces the number of redundant cells in the network, saving bandwidth for full frames. EPD and PPD work with AAL5 connections as they use the frame end bit to detect the end of packets.

Types of virtual circuits and paths

Virtual circuits and virtual paths can be built statically or dynamically. Static circuits (permanent virtual circuits or PVCs) or paths (permanent virtual paths or PVPs) require that the provisioner must build the circuit as a series of segments, one for each pair of interfaces through which it passes. PVPs and PVCs are conceptually simple, but require significant effort in large networks. They also do not support the re-routing of service in the event of a failure. Dynamically built PVPs (soft PVPs or SPVPs) and PVCs (soft PVCs or SPVCs), in contrast, are built by specifying the characteristics of the circuit (the service "contract") and the two endpoints. Finally, switched virtual circuits (SVCs) are built and torn down on demand when requested by an end piece of equipment. One application for SVCs is to carry individual telephone calls when a network of telephone switches are inter-connected by ATM. SVCs were also used in attempts to replace local area networks with ATM.

Virtual circuit routing

Most ATM networks supporting SPVPs, SPVCs, and SVCs use the Private Network Node Interface or Private Network-to-Network Interface (PNNI) protocol. PNNI uses the same shortest path first algorithm used by OSPF and IS-IS to route IP packets to share topology information between switches and select a route through a network. PNNI also includes a very powerful summarization mechanism to allow construction of very large

37

networks, as well as a call admission control (CAC) algorithm that determines whether sufficient bandwidth is available on a proposed route through a network to satisfy the service requirements of a VC or VP.

Call admission and connection establishment

A connection has to be established for two parties to be able to send cells to each other. In ATM this is called a VC ("Virtual Connection"). It can be a PVC ("Permanent Virtual Connection"), which is created administratively, or an SVC("Switched Virtual Connection"), which is created as needed by the communicating parties. SVC creation is done by "signaling" in which the requesting party indicates the address of the receiving party, the type of service requested, and traffic parameters if applicable to the selected service. "Call admission" is then done by the network to confirm that the requested resources are available, and that a route exists for the connection.

Structure of an ATM cell

An ATM cell consists of a 5 byte header and a 48 byte payload. The payload size of 48 bytes was a compromise between the needs of voice telephony and packet networks, obtained by a simple averaging of the US proposal of 64 bytes and European proposal of 32, said by some to be motivated by a European desire not to need echo-cancellers on national trunks. ATM defines two different cell formats: NNI (Network-network interface) and UNI (User-network interface). Most ATM links use UNI cell format. Diagram of the UNI ATM Cell 7 GFC VPI VCI VCI PT HEC CLP VCI 4 3 VPI VCI VPI VCI PT HEC CLP 0 Diagram of the NNI ATM Cell 7 4 3 VPI VCI 0

Payload (48 bytes)

Payload (48 bytes)

38

GFC = Generic Flow Control (4 bits) (default: 4-zero bits) VPI = Virtual Path Identifier (8 bits UNI) or (12 bits NNI) VCI = Virtual channel identifier (16 bits) PT = Payload Type (3 bits) CLP = Cell Loss Priority (1-bit) HEC = Header Error Correction (8-bit CRC, polynomial = X8 + X2 + X + 1) The PT field is used to designate various special kinds of cells for Operation and Management (OAM) purposes, and to delineate packet boundaries in some AALs. Several of ATM's link protocols use the HEC field to drive a CRC-Based Framing algorithm, which allows the position of the ATM cells to be found with no overhead required beyond what is otherwise needed for header protection. The 8-bit CRC is used to correct single-bit header errors and detect multi-bit header errors. When multi-bit header errors are detected, the current and subsequent cells are dropped until a cell with no header errors is found. In a UNI cell the GFC field is reserved for a local flow control/submultiplexing system between users. This was intended to allow several terminals to share a single network connection, in the same way that two ISDN phones can share a single basic rate ISDN connection. All four GFC bits must be zero by default. The NNI cell format is almost identical to the UNI format, except that the 4-bit GFC field is re-allocated to the VPI field, extending the VPI to 12 bits. Thus, a single NNI ATM interconnection is capable of addressing almost 212 VPs of up to almost 216 VCs each (in practice some of the VP and VC numbers are reserved).

WEEK 3
39

Network Connectivity Devices

Repeaters Hubs Bridges Switches Routers

Network Connectivity Devices Repeaters

40

The maximum length for UTP cable in a network is 100 meters (approximately 333 feet). If we need to extend our network beyond that limit, we must add a device to our network. This device is called a repeater. The term repeater comes from the early days of visual communication, when a man situated on a hill would repeat the signal he had just received from the person on the hill to his left, in order to communicate the signal to the person on the hill to his right. It also comes from telegraph, telephone, microwave, and optical communications, all of which use repeaters to strengthen their signals over long distances, or else the signals will eventually fade or die out. The purpose of a repeater is regenerate and retimes network signals at the bit level to allow them to travel a longer distance on the media. Watch out for the Five Repeater Rule, also know as the 5-4-3 Rule, when extending LAN segments. This rule states that we can connect five network segments end-to-end using four repeaters but only three segments can have hosts (computers) on them. Repeaters are single-port "in" and single-port "out" devices. Repeaters are classified as Layer 1 devices, in the OSI model, because they act only on the bit level and look at no other information.

Hubs
The purpose of a hub is to regenerate and retime network signals. This is done at the bit level to a large number of hosts (e.g. 4, 8, or even 24) using a process known as concentration We will notice that this definition is very similar to the repeater's, that is why a hub is also known as a multi-port repeater. The difference is the number of cables that connect to the device. The reasons for using hubs are to create a central connection point for the wiring media, and an increase in the reliability of the network. The reliability of the network is increased by allowing any single cable to fail without disrupting the entire network. This differs from the bus topology where having one cable fail will disrupt the entire network. Hubs are considered Layer 1 devices because they only regenerate the signal and broadcast it out all of their ports (network connections). There are different classifications of hubs in networking. The first classification is active or passive hubs. Most modern hubs are active; they take energy from a power supply to regenerate network signals. Some hubs are called passive devices because they merely split the signal to multiple users, like using a "Y" cord on a CD player to use more than one set of headphones. Passive hubs do not regenerate bits, so they do not extend a cables length, they only allow two or more hosts to connect to the same cable segment. Another classification of hubs is intelligent and dumb. Intelligent hubs have console ports, which mean they can be programmed to manage network traffic. Dumb hubs simply take an incoming networking signal and repeat it to every port without the ability

41

to do any management. The hub's role in a token-ring network is played by a Media Access Unit (MAU). Physically it resembles a hub, but token-ring technology is very different, as we will learn later. In FDDIs, the MAU is called a concentrator. MAUs are also Layer 1 devices.

Bridges
A bridge connects network segments and must make intelligent decisions about whether to pass signals on to the next segment. A bridge can improve network performance by eliminating unnecessary traffic and minimizing the chances of collisions. The bridge divides traffic into segments and filters traffic based on the station or MAC address. Bridging occurs at the data link layer, which controls data flow, handles transmission errors, provides physical addressing, and manages access to the physical medium. Bridges provide these functions by using various link layer protocols that dictate specific flow control, error handling, addressing, and media access algorithms. Examples of popular data link layer protocols include Ethernet, Token Ring, and FDDI. There are four types of bridging: 1. 2. 3. 4. Transparent bridging: Source-route bridging: Source-route transparent bridging: Translation bridging:

Bridges are not required to examine upper-layer information because they operate at the data link layer or Layer 2 of the OSI model. Bridges filter network traffic by only looking at the MAC address, not protocols. It is not uncommon for a bridge to move protocols and other traffic between two or more network segments. Because bridges only look at MAC addresses, they can rapidly forward traffic representing any network-layer protocol. To filter or selectively deliver network traffic, a bridge builds tables of all MAC addresses located on their directly connected network segments. If data comes along the network media, a bridge compares the destination MAC address carried by the data to MAC addresses contained in its tables. If the bridge determines that the destination MAC address of the data is from the same network segment as the source, it does not forward the data to other segments of the network. If the bridge determines that the destination MAC address of the data is not from the same network segment as the source, it forwards the data to the appropriate segment. By doing this, bridges can significantly reduce the amount of traffic between network segments by eliminating unnecessary traffic. Bridges are internetworking devices that can be used to reduce large collision domains. Collision domains are areas where packets are likely to interfere with each other. They do

42

this by dividing the network into smaller segments and reducing the amount of traffic that must be passed between the segments. Bridges operate at Layer 2 or the data link layer of the OSI model, because they are only concerned with MAC addresses. As data is passed along the network on its way to a destination, it is picked up and examined by every device on the network including bridges. Bridges work best where traffic is low from one segment of a network to other segments. When traffic between network segments becomes heavy, bridges can become a bottleneck and slow down communication. There is another potential problem with using a bridge. Bridges always spread and multiply a special kind of data packet. These data packets occur when a device on a network wants to reach another device on the network, but does not know the destination address of the device. When this occurs, frequently the source sends out a broadcast to all devices on a network. Since every device on the network has to pay attention to such broadcasts, bridges always forward them. If too many broadcasts are sent out over the network a broadcast storm can result. A broadcast storm can cause network time-outs, traffic slowdowns, and the network to operate at less than acceptable performance.

Switches
43

Switching is a technology that alleviates congestion, in Ethernet LANs, by reducing traffic and increasing bandwidth. Switches, also referred to as LAN switches, often replace shared hubs and work with existing cable infrastructures to ensure they are installed with minimal disruption of existing networks. Today, in data communications, all switching and routing equipment perform two basic operations: 1. Switching data frames -- This is a store-and-forward operation in which a frame arrives on an input media and is transmitted to an output media. 2. Maintenance of switching operations -- Switches build and maintains switching tables and search for loops. Routers build and maintain both routing tables and service tables. Like bridges, switches connect LAN segments, use a table of MAC addresses to determine the segment on which a datagram needs to be transmitted, and reduce traffic. Switches operate at much higher speeds than bridges, and can support new functionality, such as virtual LANs. An Ethernet switch has many benefits, such as allowing many users to communicate in parallel through the use of virtual circuits and dedicated network segments in a collisionfree environment. This maximizes the bandwidth available on the shared medium. Another benefit is that moving to a switched LAN environment is very cost effective because existing hardware and cabling can be reused. Finally, network administrators have great flexibility in managing the network through the power of the switch and the software to configure the LAN. LAN switches are considered multi-port bridges with no collision domain, because of micro segmentation. Data is exchanged at high speeds by switching the packet to its destination. By reading the destination MAC address Layer 2 information, switches can achieve high-speed data transfers, much like a bridge does. The packet is sent to the port of the receiving station prior to the entire packet entering the switch. This leads to low latency levels and a high rate of speed for packet forwarding. Ethernet switching increases the bandwidth available on a network. It does this by creating dedicated network segments, or point-to-point connections, and connecting these segments in a virtual network within the switch. This virtual network circuit exists only when two nodes need to communicate. This is called a virtual circuit because it exists only when needed, and is established within the switch. Even though the LAN switch reduces the size of collision domains, all hosts connected to the switch are still in the same broadcast domain. Therefore, a broadcast from one node will still be seen by all other nodes connected through the LAN switch. Switches are data link layer devices that, like bridges, enable multiple physical LAN segments to be interconnected into single larger network. Similar to bridges, switches forward and flood traffic based on MAC addresses. Because switching is performed in hardware instead of

44

in software, it is significantly faster. We can think of each switch port as a micro-bridge; this process is called microsegmentation. Thus each switch port acts as a separate bridge and gives the full bandwidth of the medium to each host.

Routers
The router is the first device that we work with that is at the OSI network layer, or otherwise known as layer 3. Working at layer 3 allows the router to make decisions based on groups of network addresses (Classes) as opposed to the individual MAC addresses like is done on layer 2. Routers can also connect different layer 2 technologies, such as Ethernet, Token-ring, and FDDI. However, because of their ability to route packets based on Layer 3 information, routers have become the backbone of the Internet, running the IP protocol. The purpose of a router is to examine incoming packets (layer 3 data), choose the best path for them through the network, and then switch them to the proper outgoing port. Routers are the most important traffic-regulating devices on large networks. They enable virtually any type of computer to communicate with any other computer anywhere in the world! While performing these basic functions, routers can also execute many other tasks. The symbol for a router (Note the inward- and outward-pointing arrows.) is suggestive of its two primary purposes - path selection, and switching of packets to the best route. A router can have many different types of interface ports.

45

WEEK 4

Routers
1. Overview of Cisco router installed at BSNL 2. Router installation 3. Network module installation

Cisco 1700 Router Overview

46

Cisco 1700 Series Routers

The Cisco 1700 series routers are small, modular desktop routers that link small to medium-size remote Ethernet and Fast Ethernet LANs to regional and central offices over one to four WAN connections. The Cisco 1700 series routers include one Fast Ethernet port and two WAN interface card (WIC) slots. The WIC slots can be used for either WAN interface cards or voice interface cards.

Key Features

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Feature

Description

One Fast Ethernet Operates in full- or half-duplex mode (with manual override (10/100BaseTX) port available). Supports auto sensing for 10- or 100-Mbps operation. Two Cisco WAN Supports a combination of any two of the following WAN interface card slots interface cards: ISDN BRI, 56-kbps DSU/CSU, FT1/T1 DSU/CSU, highspeed serial, and dual-serial. The WAN interface configuration can be changed as our network requirements change. Console port Auxiliary port Supports router configuration and management with a directly-connected terminal or PC. Supports up to 115.2 kbps. Supports modem connection to the router, which can be configured and managed from a remote location. Supports up to 115.2 kbps. Router can be managed over a network using Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP). Configuration files can be easily downloaded to the router over a WAN connection.

SNMP support Auto Install support Kensington slot

security Router can be secured to a desktop or other surface using Kensington lockdown equipment.

Cisco ConfigMaker We can set up networks that include the Cisco 1700 router using support the Cisco ConfigMaker application, a wizards-based software tool that helps we easily configure and address Cisco routers, access servers, hubs, switches, and networks. Compatible with Can be stacked and operated with other members of the Cisco Networked Cisco Networked Office stacks product line. Office stack Support for Cisco IOS Supports IP, IPX, AppleTalk, IBM, Open Shortest Path First software features (OSPF), NetWare Link Services Protocol (NLSP), Resource Reservation Protocol (RSVP), encryption, network address translation, and the Cisco IOS Firewall Feature Set.

Router Memory

48

This section describes the types of memory stored in the router and how to find out how much of each type of memory is stored in the router. For instruction on how to upgrade memory in the router, refer to the Installing and Upgrading Router Memory appendix later in this guide. Types of Memory The Cisco 1700 router has the following types of memory: Dynamic random-access memory (DRAM)this is the main storage memory for the router. DRAM is also called working storage and contains the dynamic configuration information. The Cisco 1700 router stores a working copy of Cisco IOS software, dynamic configuration information, and routing table information in DRAM. Nonvolatile random-access memory (NVRAM)this type of memory contains a backup copy of our configuration. If the power is lost or the router is turned off, this backup copy enables the router to return to operation without reconfiguration. Flash memorythis special kind of erasable, programmable memory contains a copy of the Cisco IOS software. The Flash memory structure can store multiple copies of the Cisco IOS software. We can load a new level of the operating system in every router in our network and then, when convenient, upgrade the whole network to the new level. The Flash memory on the Cisco 1700 router is stored on mini-Flash modules.

Amounts of Memory
Use the show version command to view the amount of DRAM, NVRAM, and Flash memory stored in router. The following example of the show version command output in bold text displays the amount of memory stored in this router. 1700# show version Cisco Internetwork Operating System Software IOS (tm) C1700 Software (C1700-Y-M), Version 12.X (XX)T [cisco-ferrari2 121] Cisco 1700 (MPC860) processor (revision 0x00) with 12288K/4096K bytes of memory. Processor board ID 0000 (1314672220), with hardware revision 0000 M860 processor: part number 0, mask 32 Bridging software. X.25 software, Version 3.0.0. 49

1 Serial network interface(s) 32K bytes of non-volatile configuration memory. 4096K bytes of processor board System flash (Read/Write) Configuration register is 0x0

Additional Required Equipment

Depending on the local network and which Cisco WAN interface cards we install in router, we will require other items, listed in Table, to complete our router installation. Table Additional Required Equipment Equipment Ethernet hub When We Use It A hub connects pieces of network equipment (including the Cisco 1700 router) to create a network. We can use a 10-, 100-, or 10/100-Mbps hub with the Cisco 1700 router. A switch connects pieces of network equipment (including the Cisco 1700 router) to create a network. We can use a 10-, 100-, or 10/100-Mbps switch with the Cisco 1700 router. Although the WAN interface cards use thumbscrews, we might need a Phillips screwdriver to loosen the WAN interface card slot cover. In order to make a WAN connection, the Cisco 1700 router must have a supported WAN interface card installed. The router supports up to two cards. We can order the cards when ordering the router, and they will be installed for us. We can order the cards separately, after receiving the router, and install them our self. This cable connects the router to the Ethernet LAN and the WAN interface cards to various WAN services, including ISDN, T1/FT1, and 56-kbps services. We will need one cable for each connection that requires this cable type. This cable connects a serial card to serial services. We must order this cable from Cisco. For detailed information about serial cable types, refer to the Cisco WAN Interface Cards Hardware Installation Guide that comes with every card. Some ISDN service providers require a Network Termination 1 device to connect an ISDN S/T port to the ISDN line.

Ethernet switch

Phillips screwdriver

Cisco WAN interface card

Straight-through RJ-45-to-RJ-45 cable

Serial cable

NT1

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Asynchronous modem

Connect a modem to the AUX port on the router when we want to configure the router from a remote location. CHAPT

Installing the Cisco 1700 Router

Installation procedures for the Cisco 1700 router includes the following sections: Connecting the Router to Our Local Network Installing WAN Interface Cards Connecting Power to the Router Optional Installation Steps

Connecting the Router to Our Local Network

The Cisco 1700 router is connected to our local Ethernet network through the yellow 10/100 Ethernet port. We must provide the following items for this connection: A straight-through, RJ-45-to-RJ-45, Ethernet cable A 10/100-Mbps Ethernet hub or switch Warning The ports labeled 10/100 ETHERNET and CONSOLE are safety extra-low voltage (SELV) circuits. SELV circuits should only be connected to other SELV circuits. Because BRI circuits are treated like telephone-network voltage, avoid connecting the SELV circuits to the telephone network voltage (TNV) circuits. (To see translated versionsof this warning, refer to the Regulatory Compliance and Safety Information for theCisco 1700 document that came with the router.) Caution Always connect the Ethernet cable to the yellow ports on the router. Do not connect the cable to an ISDN S/T or U port (on a WAN interface card) or to an NT1 that isconnected to a WAN interface card. Accidently connecting the cable to the wrong port candamage our router. Follow these steps to connect the router to the local network: Step 1 Connect one end of the cable to the yellow Ethernet port (labeled 10/100 ETHERNET). Step 2 Connect the other end of the cable to a network port on the hub or switch.

Installing WAN Interface Cards

51

The Cisco 1700 router supports one or two Cisco WAN interface cards. Each card has one or two WAN ports. This section describes the general procedure for installing a card in theCisco 1700 router. Caution Do not connect a WAN cable to the card until we have completed the installation procedure.

Installing a WAN Interface Card

This section describes how to install WAN interface cards in the router. Installing the Cards in Correct Sequence The Cisco 1700 router discovers interfaces on WAN interface cards installed in the WIC0 slot before it discovers those installed in the WIC1 slot. This can affect our router configuration. This section describes how to ensure that our existing router configurationis not affected when we install WAN interface cards. If we are installing a WAN interface card in the router for the first time, install the card in the WIC0 slot to ensure that our software configuration will not be affected if we install a second card at a later time. If we are installing a second WAN interface card in a Cisco 1720 that has a card installed in the WIC1 slot, follow this general procedure to prevent having to reconfigure our router:

Caution Read the instructions in the following section, Installing the Cards, before

52

installing the cards. Step 1 Remove the installed card from the WIC1 slot. Step 2 Reinstall the card (removed in Step 1) in the WIC0 slot. Step 3 Install the new card in the WIC1 slot. Installing the Cards Follow these steps to install the card in a Cisco 1700 router: Step 1 Make sure that the power switch is set to the STANDBY position ( ) and that the power cable is not connected to the power socket on the rear panel. Step 2 Loosen the thumbscrews on the WAN interface card-slot cover on the rear Panel. We should be able to loosen the screws using our fingers; however, if the screws are very tight; we might need to use a Phillips screwdriver. Step 3 Remove the metal plate that covers the card slot. Step 4 Hold the WAN interface card by the edges on either side of the card front panel, and line up the card edges with the guides inside the card slot. Step 5 Insert the card in the slot and gently push it into the router until the front panel of the card is flush with the rear panel of the router. Step 6 Tighten the screws.

Connecting Power to the Router

Take the following steps to connect power to the router and to turn the router on: Step 1 Connect the attached power-supply cord to the power socket (labeled +5, +12,-12 VDC) on the router rear panel. Step 2 Connect one end of the separate power cord to the socket on the power supply. Step 3 Connect the other end of the separate power cord to a power outlet. Step 4 Press the router power switch to ON ( | ). Step 5 Confirm that the router has power by checking that the PWR LED on the front panel is on.

7Verify

Our Installation
53

After the router is powered on, the following LEDs confirm that we have correctly installed our router. LED Location What to Look For PWR OK Front On Front On When power is being supplied to the router. When the router software is loaded and functional. Blinking when the router is running a power-on self-test (POST). Continuous blinking can indicate a problem with the router. Refer to the Troubleshooting chapter in the hardware installation guide for more information. when the router is correctly connected to the local Ethernet network through the 10/100 ETHERNET port. Rear On when a WAN interface card is correctly installed in the corresponding WAN interface card slot. Front Blinking when there is network traffic on the local Ethernet LAN. solid or blinking when there is data traffic on the WAN interface card port(s).

LNK WIC OK and WIC1 OK ETH ACT WIC and ACT

Rear On

ACT Front On WIC1

Optional Installation Steps

This section describes some installation steps that we might or might not use, depending on our site and how we are configuring the router. This chapter describes the following procedures: Connecting a PC Connecting a Modem

Connecting a PC
If we want to configure the router using the Cisco IOS command-line interface, we must connect the router console port to a terminal or PC. The cable and adapter required for this connection are included with the router. To configure the router with a PC, the PC must have some type of terminal emulation software installed. The software should be configured with the following parameters:

54

9600 baud, 8 data bits, no parity bits, 1 stop bit. Refer to the Cisco 1700 Router Software Configuration Guide that came with our router for detailed information about configuring the router using Cisco IOS software. Follow these steps to connect the router to a terminal or PC: Step 1 Connect the blue console cable to the blue CONSOLE port on the router, as shown in Figure 2-5. Step 2 Use the correct adapter to connect the other end of the cable to the terminal or PC. If our terminal or PC has a console port that does not fit the adapter included with the router, we must provide the correct adapter for that port.

Connecting a Modem
When a modem is connected to the auxiliary port, a remote user can dial into the router and configure it. We can use the blue console cable that came in the accessory kit or (if we are using the blue cable with the console port) we can use any crossover RJ-45-to-RJ45 cable. Take the following steps to connect a modem to the router: Step 1 Connect one end of the cable to the black AUX port on the router rear panel. Step 2 Connect the gray adapter labeled MODEM to the other end of the cable. Step 3 Connect the DB-25 end of the adapter to the modem.

55

WEEK 5

Modems and IP Addressing

4. Synchronous High Speed short Range modem (ASM 20) 5. Installation and Operation 6. IP Addressing

56

Synchronous High Speed short Range modem (ASM 20)

G

The ASM-20 is a short range modem for synchronous transmission, full or half duplex, over unconditioned lines. The ASM-20 has a range of up to 20 km (12.5 miles) and operates at selectable data rates from 32 kbps to 128 kbps (144 kbps optional). The modem uses conditional differential diphase modulation (EUROCOM Std.D1) to provide immunity from background noise, eliminate normal line distortion and enable efficient transmission and reception of serial data over a twisted pair cable. The ASM-20 is coupled to the line through isolation transformers which, in conjunction with protective circuitry, safeguard against AC or DCovervoltages. The protective circuitry enables operation even when DC is connected to the line. Transmit timing is provided internally, or derived externally from the data terminal or regenerated from the receive signal. . Receive timing is regenerated from the receive signal. The ASM-20 features V.54 diagnostic capabilities for performing local analog loop back and local and remote digital loop back. The operator at either end of the line may test both modems and the line when in the digital loop back mode. The loop back is controlled by either front panel push-buttons or via theDTE interface. Five DTE interface options are available: RS-232/V.24 (up to 64 kbps), V.35, RS-530, X.21 and G.703 (64 kbps co-directional). Connection to an RS-449/V.36 interface is accomplished via the RS-530interface. The ASM-20 incorporates a built-in Bit Error Rate Tester (BERT). The internal BERT enables complete testing of both modems and the line without external test equipment. A front panel switch generates a pseudo-random test pattern (511-bit, according to CCITT/V.52) for testing end-to-end connectivity. The ERROR LED flashes when a bit error is encountered.

Physical Description
The ASM-20 is available as a desk-top unit or as a rack-mount card for a 19" rack. The rack can carry up to 14 ASM-20 cards which provide a 25-pin D-type connection to the digital interface. OptionalV.35 and X.21 interface adapters are available. The ASM-20/R card has the capability of sensing and indicating power failure on the remote ASM-20 stand-alone unit. The RPF LED lights if Remote Power Failure occurs.

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INSTALLATION
GENERAL This chapter provides the information required to plan and accomplish the mechanical and electrical Installation of the ASM-20 stand-alone model.
SITE PREPARATION

The ASM-20 is installed within 1.5 m (5 ft) of a grounded, easily accessible AC outlet. The outlet should be capable of furnishing 115 VAC or 230 VAC (depending on rated voltage of unit).Allow at least 90 cm (36 in) of frontal clearance for operating and maintenance accessibility. Ensure that there is at least 10 cm (4 in) clearance at the rear of the unit for signal lines and interface cables. MECHANICAL ASSEMBLY The ASM-20 is designed to be placed on a tabletop or bench, and is delivered completely assembled. No provisions are made for bolting the ASM-20 to the tabletop. ELECTRICAL INSTALLTION
1. AC power is supplied to the ASM-20 through a standard 1.5 m (5 ft) detachable power cord terminated by a standard 3-prong plug. The power inlet on the rear panel incorporates an integral fuse.

2. The line and digital interface connectors (located on the rear panel of the ASM20) consist of a DTEinterface connector and a five-screw terminal block. The DTE interface connector may be 34-pin forV.35 (Figure 2.1), 15-pin for X.21 (Figure 2.2), or 25-pin for RS-530/RS-422 or RS-232/V.24 (Figure 2.3). The terminal block provides four screws for connecting the transmit and receive twisted connected to the terminals marked XMT, the receive pair is connected to the terminals marked RCV. A fifth screw, marked GND, is connected to the AC power ground wire.

58

When the electrical installation has been completed and checked, determine the configuration of theASM-20 in the data system and position the straps as required. Any access inside the equipment is only permitted to authorized and qualified service personnel. Disconnect the ASM-20 power cable and leased line connections before opening the top cover. ISTALLATION OF INNER JUMPER AND SWITCHES Disconnect the power cable. Loosen the screw holding the top cover in place (located aof rear panel). Remove the top cover. Adjust the jumpers as required. Replace the top cover and tighten the retaining screw

Disconnecting the signal ground from the chassis ground may make the equipment unsafe for connection to telecommunication networks in some locations.

59

OPERATIONS OF ASM-20
This section explains ASM 20s controls and indicators and their functions and operating procedure power turn on, operating instructions and power turn off and strapping information Installation procedures discussed above must be completed and checked before attempting to operate the ASM-20. CONTROLS AND INDICATORS All controls (push-button switches) and LED indicators are located on the ASM-20 front panel. Their functions are described in Table. The numbers under the heading Item in Tables correspond to the identification numbers in Figure. The item numbers in this table correspond to Figure

60

Operating Principle
When the unit power is turned on, operating personnel are not exposed to voltages in excess of 30 volts on any card or accessible area of the DC power supply.

Power Turn On
Apply AC power by connecting the AC power cord to an acceptable AC source. The PWR LED should light up, indicating that the ASM-20 is on. If the local and remote ASM-20 units are in operation and passing data, the following indicator conditions will exist: PWR: On RTS: On or Flashing LOS: Off (G.703 only) TD: Flashing or Off RD: Flashing or Off DCD: On or Flashing TEST: Off 61

If the above LED indications are not obtained following initial power turn-on, verify that the three test Push-buttons are not depressed. Operation
The ASM-20 operates entirely unattended, except when occasional monitoring of LED indicators is required.

Power Turn Off

To turn off the AC power to the ASM-20, simply remove the AC power cord from the AC source.

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IP ADDRESSING
We learned that the Internet is built on a hierarchical addressing scheme. This allows for routing that is based on classes of addresses, as opposed to individual addresses. The problem this creates for the user is associating the correct address with the Internet site. The only difference between the address 198.151.11.12 and 198.151.11.21 is one transposed digit. It is very easy to forget an address to a particular site, because there is nothing to associate the contents of the site with its address. In order to associate the contents of the site with its address, a domain naming system was developed. A domain is a group of computers that are associated by their geographical location or their business type. A domain name is a string of characters and/or numbers, usually a name or abbreviation that represents the numeric address of an Internet site. There are more than 200 top-level domains on the Internet, examples of which include the following: us - United States uk - United Kingdom There are also generic names, examples of which include the following: .edu - educational sites .com - commercial sites .gov - government sites .org - non-profit sites .net - network service The Domain Name Server (DNS) is a device on a network. It responds to requests from clients to translate a domain name into the associated IP address. The DNS system is set up in a hierarchy that creates different levels of DNS servers. A local DNS is able to translate a domain name into its associated IP address; it does so, and returns the result to the client. If it cannot translate the address, it passes the request up to the next higher-level DNS on the system, which then tries to translate the address. If the DNS at this level is able to translate the domain name into an associated IP address, it does so, and returns the result to the client. If not, it sends the request to the next higher level. This process repeats itself until the domain name has been translated, or the toplevel DNS has been reached. If the domain name cannot be found on the top level DNS, it is considered to be an error and the corresponding error message is returned. Any type of application that uses domain names to represent IP addresses uses the DNS to translate that name into its corresponding IP address In a TCP/IP environment, end stations communicate with servers or other end stations. This can occur because each node using the TCP/IP protocol suite has a unique 32 bit logical address. This address is known as the IP address. Each company or organization connected to an internetwork is perceived as a single unique network that 63

must be reached before an individual host within that company can be contacted. Each company network has an address; the hosts that live on that network share that same network address, but each host is identified by the unique host address on the network

If your computer wanted to communicate with all of the devices on a network, it would be quite unmanageable to write out the IP address for each device. You might try two hyphenated addresses, indicating that you are referring to all devices within a range of numbers, but that, too, would be quite unmanageable. An IP address that ends with binary 0s in all host bits is reserved for the network address (sometimes called the wire address). Therefore, as a Class A network example, 113.0.0.0 is the IP address of the network containing the host 113.1.2.3. A router uses a network's IP address when it forwards data on the Internet. As a Class B network example, the IP address 176.10.0.0 is a network address. The decimal numbers that fill the first two octets in a Class B network address are assigned and are network numbers. The last two octets contain 0s, because those 16 bits are for host numbers, and are used for devices that are attached to the network. The IP address in the example (176.10.0.0) is reserved for the network address. It will never be used as an address for any device that is attached to it. If you wanted to send data to all of the devices on a network, you would need to use a broadcast address. A broadcast occurs when a source sends out data to all devices on a network. To ensure that all of the devices on the network pay attention to the broadcast, the sender must use a destination IP address that all of them can recognize and will pick up. Broadcast IP addresses end with binary 1s in the entire host part of the address (the host field). A broadcast address is an address that has all 1s in the host field. When you send a broadcast packet on a network, all devices on the network notice it. For example, on a network with an ID of 176.10.0.0, a broadcast that would reach all hosts would have the address 176.10.255.255.

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It is important to understand the significance of the network portion of an IP address - the network ID. Hosts on a network can only communicate directly with devices that have the same network ID. They may share the same physical segment, but if they have different network numbers, they usually cannot communicate with each other - unless there is another device that can make a connection between the networks. CLASS A, CLASS B, CLASS C NETWORKS Each class of network allows a fixed number of hosts. In a Class A network, the first octet is assigned, leaving the last three octets (24 bits) to be assigned to hosts. The maximum number of hosts, in a Class A network, is 2 24 (minus 2: the network and broadcast reserved addresses), or 16,777,214 hosts. In a Class B network, the first two octets are assigned, leaving the final two octets (16 bits) to be assigned to hosts. The maximum number of hosts, in a Class B network, is 216 (minus 2), or 65,534 hosts. In a Class C network, the first three octets are assigned. This leaves the final octet (8 bits) to assign to hosts, so the maximum number of hosts is 28 (minus 2), or 254 hosts. Remember that the first address in each network is reserved for the actual network address (or network number), and the final address in each network is reserved for broadcasts.

IP ADDRESSING BIT PATTERNS

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Address Resolution Protocol

ARP is used to resolve or map a known IP address to a MAC sublayer address in order to allow communication on a multi-access medium such as Ethernet. To determine a destination MAC address for a datagram, a table called the ARP cache is checked. If the address is not in the table, ARP sends a broadcast that will be received by every station on the network, looking for the destination station. The term "local ARP" is used to describe the search for an address when the requesting host and the destination host share the same medium or wire. As shown in the Figure, prior to issuing the ARP, the subnet mask must be consulted. In this case, the mask determines that the nodes are on the same subnet.

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol

Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a network layer protocol used to obtain an IP address for a given hardware address (such as an Ethernet address). It has been rendered obsolete by BOOTP and the more modern DHCP, which both support a much greater feature set than RARP. The primary limitations of RARP are that each MAC must be manually configured on a central server, and that the protocol only conveys an IP address. This leaves configuration of subnetting, gateways, and other information to other protocols or the user. Another limitation of RARP compared to BOOTP or DHCP is that it is a non-IP protocol. This means that like ARP it can't be handled by the TCP/IP stack on the client, but is instead implemented separately. RARP is the complement of ARP. RARP differs from Inverse Address Resolution Protocol (InARP), which is designed to locate the IP address associated with a another station's MAC address. RARP is described in RFC 903.

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List of routing protocols

Interior routing protocols

Router Information Protocol (RIP) Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) Intermediate System to Intermediate System (IS-IS)

Both the following are Cisco proprietary protocols, and are supported on Cisco routers or other vendors' routers to which Cisco has licensed the technology:

Interior Gateway Routing Protocol (IGRP) Enhanced IGRP (EIGRP)

Exterior routing protocols

Exterior Gateway Protocol (EGP) Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) Constrained Shortest Path First (CSPF)

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WEEK 6: BSNL Wide Area Network AT Jammu

1. The BSNL Computer Network at Jammu

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