Computer Studies2

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide
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Past Y ear Termi nol ogi es

Terminologies asked in Past Years Cambridge O Levels Papers
S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. June 2008 Batch processing Interrupt Top-down design Laptop computer Trackerball November 2006 Verification Video-conferencing Handshaking Simulation Batch processing June 2005 Buffer Gateway Validation Polling Data-logging November 2003 Buffer Verification Gigabyte Batch processing File generations June 2002 Multimedia Array De-skilling Expert system Verification November 2007 Byte CD-ROM Interrupt Buffer Virtual reality June 2006 Smart Card Relational database ROM De-skilling Top-down design November 2004 MICR Batch processing Modem Virus Interrupt June 2003 Check sum Relational database Random access mem ory (RAM) Top-down design Alphanumeric characters November 2001 Robot Online processing Buffer Modem Simulation June 2007 Virus Verification Interrupt Simulation Electronic scabbing November 2005 Expert system Electronic scabbing Top-down design Interrupt Buffer June 2004 Byte Compiler Handshaking Technical documentation Simulation November 2002 Data logging Check digit Serial access Assembler Handshaking June 2001 MICR Handshaking Polling Batch processing GUI
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S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.
June 2000 Macro Buffer File generations Polling Systems design Nov 1997 Digital data User documentation OCR Assembler Validation Mailbox Polling
June 1999 RAM Fax Validation User documentation Interrupt Virtual reality June 1997 Kilobyte (KB) String data Batch processing Hand-shaking Multimedia Top-down design
June 1995 Bit ROM Hacking Megabyte Analogue data PIN Key field Bar code File generations Icons Numeric data Control character Multiprogramming Computer -aided design Desktop publishing Electronic mail June 1991 Amendments Insertions Deletions Step-wise refinement Electronic mail Repetition Selection
June 1993 Buffer String Merging Rogue value User documentation
June 1998 Kilobyte (KB) Alphanumeric data Serial Access Hand-shaking Multimedia Simulation June 1996 Virus Data type Buffer Technical documentation Simulation Assembler RAM Modem Bar code Algorithm Process control Interpreter June 1992 Real time processing Buffer Touch-sensitive pad
June 8th 1990 Buffer LAN Sequential file Direct-access file
June 20th 1990 Verification Interpreter assembler
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June 2008 Batch processing: It is the data processing in which (processing) doesn't start until all data is collected in which there is no need for human interaction and it uses computer during "quiet" time/overnight. Interrupt: A signal/message generated by a device/operating system/hardware/software which causes a break in the execution of a program/stops running of program. Examples: overflow errors, disk full error, printer out of paper error etc. Top-down design: A design produced with breaking down the problem/task/program into sub problems/smaller tasks/modules, it is the stepwise refinement of the problem. Laptop computer: It is a portable computer system that can be used anywhere. It has integrated keyboard/screen/pointing device and uses a battery/mains power not required Trackerball: A pointing device that consists of a ball resting on two rollers at right angles to each other, which translate the balls motion into vertical and horizontal movement on the screen. A trackball also typically has one or more buttons to initiate other actions. A trackballs housing is stationary; its ball is rolled with the hand. . November 2007 Byte: Short for binary term. A unit of data, today almost always consisting of 8 bits. A byte can represent a single character, such as a letter, a digit, or a punctuation mark. CD-ROM: Acronym for compact disc read-only m emory. A form of storage characterized by high capacity (roughly 650 megabytes) and the use of laser optics rather than magnetic means for reading data. Interrupt: A signal/message generated by a device/operating system/hardware/software which causes a break in the execution of a program/stops running of program. Examples: overflow errors, disk full error, printer out of paper error etc. Buffer: Temporary store/memory that holds data being transferred between devices often used to compensate for different speeds of devices examples printer, disk, etc Virtual reality: A simulated 3-D environment that a user can experience and manipulate as if it were physical. The user sees the environment on computer simulation, possibly mounted in a special pair of goggles. Special input devices, such as gloves or suits fitted with motion sensors, detect the user's actions. e.g. design of chemical plants.
June 2007 Virus: An intrusive program that infects computer files by inserting in those files copies of itself. The copies are usually executed when the file is loaded into memory, allowing them to infect still other files, and so on. It alters/damages files/alters files or data
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Verification: It is checking to make sure that data has been entered correctly. Verification is often carried out by getting two users to enter the same set of data at different computers. Once both users have entered the data the two sets of data are compared to check that they match up. Any data that does not match up is rejected. Verification can also be carried out by software which might, for example, ask for the same data to be entered twice. If both entries don't match up the data is rejected. Interrupt: A signal/message generated by a device/operating system/hardware/software which causes a break in the execution of a program/stops running of program. Examples: overflow errors, disk full error, printer out of paper error etc. Simulation: To study the behaviour of a system by using a model/represents real life/mathematical representation. Results can be predicted using a simulation program. e.g. flight simulator, modelling hazardous chemical reaction Electronic scabbing: allows managers to switch (word processing/computer processing duties) from striking clerks in one country/location to non-striking clerks in another country/location.
November 2006 Verification: It is checking to make sure that data has been entered correctly. Verification is often carried out by getting two users to enter the same set of data at different computers. Once both users have entered the data the two sets of data are compared to check that they match up. Any data that does not match up is rejected. Verification can also be carried out by software which might, for example, ask for the same data to be entered twice. If both entries don't match up the data is rejected. Video-conferencing: The use of a computer to send sound and video images from one computer to another in real time is called video-conferencing. Handshaking: A series of signals acknowledging that communication or the transfer of information can take place between computers or other devices. A hardware handshake is an exchange of signals over specific wires (other than the data wires), in which each devic e indicates its readiness to send or receive data. A software handshake consists of signals transmitted over the same wires used to transfer data, as in modem-to-modem communications over telephone lines. Simulation: The imitation of a physical process or object by a program that causes a computer to respond mathematically to data and changing conditions as though it were the process or object itself. OR The study of a real life situation by means of a working model is called simulation.
Batch processing: The practice of acquiring programs and data sets from users, running them one or a few at a time, and then providing the results to the users. OR The practice of storing transactions for a period of time before they are posted to a master file, typically in a separate operation undertaken at night.
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June 2006 Smart Card: In banking and finance, a credit card that contains an integrated circuit that gives it a limited amount of intelligence and memory. Relational database: A database or database management system that stores information in tables-rows and columns of data-and conducts searches by using data in specified columns of one table to find additional data in another table. In a relational database, the rows of a table represent records (collections of information about separate items) and the columns represent fields (particular attributes of a record). In conducting searches, a relational database matches information from a field in one table with information in a corresponding field of another table to produce a third table that combines requested data from both tables. ROM: Acronym for read-only memory. A semiconductor circuit into which code or data is permanently installed by the manufacturing process. De-skilling: A change/update of systems in which skilled/semi skilled labour replaced by microprocessor-controlled systems e.g. manufacturing, office work Top-down design: breaking down the problem/task/program into sub problems/smaller tasks/modules - stepwise refinement.
November 2005 Expert system: A software that contains/programmed with the knowledge of human experts knowledge base inference engine uses rules/rule base man/machine interface ability to add to its knowledge/learn from previous experience examples: chess, medical diagnosis, mineral prospecting, car diagnostics, tax calculations, etc. Electronic scabbing: allows managers to switch (word processing/computer processing duties) from striking clerks in one country/location to non-striking clerks in another Top-down design: breaking down the problem/task/program into sub problems/smaller tasks/modules - stepwise refinement Interrupt: a signal/message generated by a device/operating system/hardware/software which causes a break in the execution of a program/stops running of program. examples: overflow errors, disk full error, printer out of paper error etc. Buffer: Temporary store/memory that holds data being transferred between devices often used to compensate for different speeds of devices examples printer, disk, etc. OR
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A region of memory reserved for use as an intermediate repository in which data is temporarily held while waiting to be transferred between two locations or devices. For instance, a buffer is used while transferring data from an application, such as a word processor, to an input/output device, such as a printer
June 2005 Buffer: Temporary store/memory that holds data being transferred between devices often used to compensate for different speeds of devices examples printer, disk, etc. OR A region of memory reserved for use as an intermediate repository in which data is temporarily held while waiting to be transferred between two locations or devices. For instance, a buffer is used while transferring data from an application, such as a word processor, to an input/output device, such as a printer Gateway: It is a link between systems that uses telecommunications/telephones and co nverts data passing through allows a computer in a LAN to communicate with a computer in a WAN - device/software translates between a LAN and a WAN or another LAN Validation: check on data input to detect any data that is incomplete/unreasonable or mistyped e.g. type, format, range, length, presence, control total, check digit Polling: Testing a station/terminal/device in a multiaccess system in a sequential order/in turn to establish whether it is holding data for transmission/collection to allow time sharing e.g. checking source of interrupt OR The process of periodically determining the status of each device in a set so that the active program can process the events generated by each device, such as whether a mouse button was pressed or whether new data is available at a serial port. This can be contrasted with event-driven processing, in which the operating system alerts a program or routine to the occurrence of an event by means of an interrupt or message rather than having to check each device in turn. Data-logging: The automatic capture of data over a certain period of time by means of sensors is called Data-Logging. e.g. weather forecasting, temperature, rainfall, wind speed, wind direction, pressure, CO2
November 2004 MICR: A form of character recognition that reads text printed with magnetically charged ink, determining the shapes of characters by sensing the magnetic charge in the ink. Once the shapes have been determined, character recognition methods are used to translate the shapes into computer text. A familiar use of this form of character recognition is to identify bank checks. Batch processing: The practice of acquiring programs and data sets from users, running them one or a few at a time, and then providing the results to the users. OR
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The practice of storing transactions for a period of time before they are posted to a master file, typically in a separate operation undertaken at night. Modem: Short for m odulator/demodulator. A communications device that enables a computer to transmit information over a standard telephone line. Because a computer is digital (works with discrete electrical signals representing binary 1 and binary 0) and a telephone line is analog (carries a signal that can have any of a large number of variations), modems are needed to convert digital to analog and vice versa. Virus: An intrusive program that infects computer files by inserting in those files copies of itself. The copies are usually executed when the file is loaded into memory, allowing them to infect still other files, and so on. Interrupt: A signal from a device to a computer's processor requesting attention from the processor. When the processor receives an interrupt, it suspends its current operations, saves the status of its work, and transfers control to a special routine known as an interrupt handler, which contains the instructions for dealing with the particular situation that caused the interrupt. Interrupts can be generated by various hardware devices to request service or report problems, or by the processor itself in response to program errors or requests for operating-system services. Interrupts are the processor's way of communicating with the other elements that make up a computer system. The types of interrupts: external interrupt, hardware interrupt, internal interrupt, software interrupt
June 2004 Byte: Short for binary term. A unit of data, today almost always consisting of 8 bits. A byte can represent a single character, such as a letter, a digit, or a punctuation mark. Compiler: Complier is the translator that translates the entire program & displays all the error with the error message & the location of the error on the screen. It translates the program before executing it. E.g.: Translator of COBOL. Handshaking: A series of signals acknowledging that communication or the transfer of information can take place between computers or other devices. A hardware handshake is an exchange of signals over specific wires (other than the data wires), in which each device indicates its readiness to send or receive data. A software handshake consists of signals transmitted over the same wires used to transfer data, as in modem-to-modem communications over telephone lines. Technical documentation: The set of instructions shipped with a program or a piece of hardware. Documentation usually includes necessary information about the type of computer system required, setup instructions, and instructions on the use and maintenance of the product. Simulation: The imitation of a physical process or object by a program that causes a computer to respond mathematically to data and changing conditions as though it were the process or object itself. OR The study of a real life situation by means of a working model is called simulation.
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November 2003 Buffer: Temporary store/memory that holds data being transferred between devices often used to compensate for different speeds of devices examples printer, disk, etc. OR A region of memory reserved for use as an intermediate repository in which data is temporarily held while waiting to be transferred between two locations or devices. For instance, a buffer is used while transferring data from an application, such as a word processor, to an input/output device, such as a printer Verification: It is checking to make sure that data has been entered correctly. Verification is often carried out by getting two users to enter the same set of data at different computers. Once both users have entered the data the two sets of data are compared to check that they match up. Any data that does not match up is rejected. Verification ca n also be carried out by software which might, for example, ask for the same data to be entered twice. If both entries don't match up the data is rejected. Gigabyte: It is the unit of memory. One thousand megabytes (1,000 1,048,576 bytes). Acronym: GB Batch processing: Execution of a batch file. The practice of acquiring programs and data sets from users, running them one or a few at a time, and then providing the results to the users. The practice of storing transactions for a period of time before they are posted to a master file, typically in a separate operation undertaken at night. File generations: A concept used to distinguish stored versions of a set of files. The oldest is called the grandfather, the next oldest is the father, and the newest is the son
June 2003 Check sum: A calculated value that is used to test data for the presence of errors that can occur when data is transmitted or when it is written to disk. Relational database: A database or database management system that stores information in tables-rows and columns of data-and conducts searches by using data in specified columns of one table to find additional data in another table. In a relational database, the rows of a table represent records (collections of information about separate items) and the columns represent fields (particular attributes of a record). In conducting searches, a relational database matches information from a field in one table with information in a corresponding field of another table to produce a third table that combines requested data from both tables. Random access memory (RAM): Acronym for random access memory. Semiconductorbased mem ory that can be read and written by the central processing unit (CPU) or other hardware devices. The storage locations can be accessed in any order. The term RAM, however, is generally understood to refer to volatile memory that can be written to as well as read. Top-down design: A program design methodology that starts with defining program functionality at the highest level (a series of tasks) and then breaks down each task into lowerlevel tasks.
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Alphanumeric characters: Consisting of letters or digits, or both, and sometimes including control characters, space characters, and other special characters A data structure composed of a sequence of characters usually representing humanreadable text. Characters include AZ, a-z, 0-9, +, -, *, #, @ etc.
November 2002 Data logging: The automatic capture of data over a certain period of time by means of sensors is called Data-Logging. e.g. weather forecasting, temperature, rainfall, wind speed, wind direction, pressure, CO2 Check digit: A digit added to an account number or other identifying key value and then recomputed when the number is used. This process determines whether an error occurred when the number was entered. Serial access: A method of storing or retrieving information that requires the program to start reading at the beginning and continue until it finds the desired data. Sequential access is best used for files in which each piece of information is related to the information that comes before it, such as mailing list files and word processing documents. Assembler: A language translator. It is the the translator for low level language (i.e. Assembly Language) that converts assembly language programs, which are understandable by humans, into executable machine language. Handshaking: A series of signals acknowledging that communication or the transfer of information can take place between computers or other devices. A hardware handshake is an exchange of signals over specific wires (other than the data wires), in which each device indicates its readiness to send or receive data. A software handshake consists of signals transmitted over the same wires used to transfer data, as in modem-to-modem communications over telephone lines.
June 2002 Multimedia: The combination of sound, graphics, animation, and video. In the world of computers, multimedia is a subset of hypermedia, which combines the aforementioned elements with hypertext. Array: In programming, a list of data values, all of the same type, any element of which can be referenced by an expression consisting of the array name followed by an indexing expression. Arrays are part of the fundamentals of data structures, which, in turn, are a major fundamental of computer programming. De-skilling: A change/update of systems in which skilled/semi skilled labour replaced by microprocessor-controlled systems e.g. manufacturing, office work. Expert system: A software that contains/programmed with the knowledge of human experts knowledge base inference engine
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uses rules/rule base man/machine interface ability to add to its knowledge/learn from previous experience examples: chess, medical diagnosis, mineral prospecting, car diagnostics, tax calculations, etc. Verification: It is checking to make sure that data has been entered correctly. Verification is often carried out by getting two users to enter the same set of data at different computers. Once both users have entered the data the two sets of data are compared to check that they match up. Any data that does not match up is rejected. Verification can also be carried out by software which might, for example, ask for the same data to be entered twice. If both entries don't match up the data is rejected.
November 2001 Robot: A machine that can sense and react to input and cause changes in its surroundings with some degree of intelligence, ideally without human supervision. Online processing: Processing of transactions (instructions and data) as soon as the computer receives them. Buffer: Temporary store/memory that holds data being transferred between devices often used to compensate for different speeds of devices examples printer, disk, etc. OR A region o f memory reserved for use as an intermediate repository in which data is temporarily held while waiting to be transferred between two locations or devices. For instance, a buffer is used while transferring data from an application, such as a word processor, to an input/output device, such as a printer. Modem: Acronym for random access memory. Semiconductor-based memory that can be read and written by the central processing unit (CPU) or other hardware devices. The storage locations can be accessed in any order. Simulation: The imitation of a physical process or object by a program that causes a computer to respond mathematically to data and changing conditions as though it were the process or object itself.
June 2001 MICR: A form of character recognition that reads text printed with magnetically charged ink, determining the shapes of characters by sensing the magnetic charge in the ink. Once the shapes have been determined, character recognition methods are used to translate the shapes into computer text. A familiar use of this form of character recognition is to identify bank checks: Handshaking: A series of signals acknowledging that communication or the transfer of information can take place between computers or other devices. A hardware handshake is an exchange of signals over specific wires (other than the data wires), in which each device in-
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dicates its readiness to send or receive data. A software handshake consists of signals transmitted over the same wires used to transfer data, as in modem-to-modem communications over telephone lines. Polling: Testing a station/terminal/device in a multiaccess system in a sequential order/in turn to establish whether it is holding data for transmission/collection to allow time sharing e.g. checking source of interrupt OR The process of periodically determining the status of each device in a set so that the active program can process the events generated by each device, such as whether a mouse button was pressed or whether new data is available at a serial port. This can be contrasted with event-driven processing, in which the operating system alerts a program or routine to the occurrence of an event by means of an interrupt or message rather than having to check each device in turn. Batch processing: Execution of a batch file. The practice of acquiring programs and data sets from users, running them one or a few at a time, and then providing the results to the users. The practice of storing transactions for a period of time before they are posted to a master file, typically in a separate operation undertaken at night. Graphical User Interface (GUI): A visual computer environment that represents programs, files, and options with graphical images, such as icons, menus, and dialog boxes on the screen. The user can select and activate these options by pointing and clicking with a mouse or, often, with the keyboard.
June 2000 Macro: In applications, a set of keystrokes and instructions recorded and saved under a short key code or macro name. When the key code is typed or the macro name is used, the program carries out the instructions of the macro. Users can create a macro to save time by replacing an often-used, sometimes lengthy, series of strokes with a shorter version. Buffer: Temporary store/memory that holds data being transferred between devices often used to compensate for different speeds of devices examples printer, disk, etc. OR A region of memory reserved for use as an intermediate repository in which data is temporarily held while waiting to be transferred between two locations or devices. For instance, a buffer is used while transferring data from an application, such as a word processor, to an input/output device, such as a printer.
File generations: : A concept used to distinguish stored versions of a set of files. The oldest is called the grandfather, the next oldest is the father, and the newest is the son.
Polling: Testing a station/terminal/device in a multiaccess system in a sequential order/in turn to establish whether it is holding data for transmission/collection to allow time sharing e.g. checking source of interrupt
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OR The process of periodically determining the status of each device in a set so that the active program can process the events generated by each device, such as whether a mouse button was pressed or whether new data is available at a serial port. This can be contrasted with event-driven processing, in which the operating system alerts a program or routine to the occurrence of an event by means of an interrupt or message rather than having to check each device in turn.
Systems design: All the phases involved in developing and producing new hardware or software, including product specification, creation of prototypes, testing, debugging, and documentation.
June 1999 RAM: Acronym for random access memory. Semiconductor-based memory that can be read and written by the central processing unit (CPU) or other hardware devices. The storage locations can be accessed in any order. Fax: Short for facsimile. The transmission of text or graphics over telephone lines in digitized form. Conventional fax machines scan an original document, transmit an image of the document as a bit map, and reproduce the received image on a printer.
Validation: The process of analyzing data to determine whether it conforms to predetermined completeness and consistency parameters.
User documentation: The documents produced to help user to run a software or a program. This includes Help, User Guide and the User Manual. Interrupt: A signal from a device to a computer's processor requesting attention from the processor. When the processor receives an interrupt, it suspends its current operations, saves the status of its work, and transfers control to a special routine known as an interrupt handler, which contains the instructions for dealing with the particular situation that caused the interrupt. Interrupts can be generated by various hardware devices to request service or report problems, or by the processor itself in response to program errors or requests for operating-system services. Interrupts are the processor's way of communicating with the other elements that make up a computer system. The types of interrupts: external interrupt, hardware interrupt, internal interrupt, software interrupt. Virtual reality: A simulated 3-D environment that a user can experience and manipulate as if it were physical. The user sees the environment on display screens, possibly mounted in a special pair of goggles. Special input devices, such as gloves or suits fitted with motion sensors, detect the user's actions.
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June 1998 Kilobyte (KB): A data unit of 1,024 bytes Abbreviated K, KB, or Kbytes Alphanumeric data: Consisting of letters or digits, or both, and sometimes including control characters, space characters, and other special characters. Serial Access: A method of storing or retrieving information that requires the program to start reading at the beginning and continue until it finds the desired data. Sequential access is best used for files in which each piece of information is related to the information that comes before it, such as mailing list files and word processing documents. Also called sequential access.
Hand-shaking: A series of signals acknowledging that communication or the transfer of information can take place between computers or other devices. A hardware handshake is an exchange of signals over specific wires (other than the data wires), in which each device indicates its readiness to send or receive data. A software handshake consists of signals transmitted over the same wires used to transfer data, as in modem-to-modem communications over telephone lines.
Multimedia: The combination of sound, graphics, animation, and video. In the world of computers, multimedia is a subset of hypermedia, which combines the aforementioned elements with hypertext. Simulation: The imitation of a physical process or object by a program that causes a computer to respond mathematically to data and changing conditions as though it were the process or object itself.
November 1997 Digital data: The data based on digits and numbers. All the data, which is in the form of digital signals i.e. the state of 0 and 1, on and off. User documentation: The documents produced to help user to run a software or a program. This includes Help, User Guide and the User Manual. OCR: The process in which an electronic device examines printed characters on paper and determines their shapes by detecting patterns of dark and light. Once the scanner or reader has determined the shapes, character recognition methods-pattern matching with stored sets of characters-are used to translate the shapes into computer text. Assembler: A language translator. It is the the translator for low level language (i.e. Assembly Language) that converts assembly language programs, which are understandable by humans, into executable machine language. Validation: The process of analyzing data to determine whether it conforms to predetermined completeness and consistency parameters
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Mailbox: A disk storage area assigned to a network user for receipt of e-mail messages. Data storage area specified to keep received mails. Polling: Testing a station/terminal/device in a multiaccess system in a sequential order/in turn to establish whether it is holding data for transmission/collection to allow time sharing e.g. checking source of interrupt OR The process of periodically determining the status of each device in a set so that the active program can process the events generated by each device, such as whether a mouse button was pressed or whether new data is available at a serial port. This can be contrasted with event-driven processing, in which the operating system alerts a program or routine to the occurrence of an event by means of an interrupt or message rather than having to check each device in turn.
June 1997 Kilobyte (KB): A data unit of 1,024 bytes Abbreviated K, KB, or Kbyte.. String data: A data structure composed of a sequence of characters usually representing human-readable text. Characters include A-Z, a-z, 0-9, +, -, *, #, @ etc. Batch processing: Execution of a batch file. The practice of acquiring programs and data sets from users, running them one or a few at a time, and then providing the results to the users. The practice of storing transactions for a period of time before they are posted to a master file, typically in a separate operation undertaken at night. Hand-shaking: A series of signals acknowledging that communication or the transfer of information can take place between computers or other devices. A hardware handshake is an exchange of signals over specific wires (other than the data wires), in which each device indicates its readiness to send or receive data. A software handshake consists of signals transmitted over the same wires used to transfer data, as in modem-to-modem communications over telephone lines. Multimedia: The combination of sound, graphics, animation, and video. In the world of computers, multimedia is a subset of hypermedia, which combines the aforementioned elements with hypertext. Top-down design: A program design methodology that starts with defining program functionality at the highest level (a series of tasks) and then breaks down each task into lowerlevel tasks.
June 1996 Virus: An intrusive program that infects computer files by inserting in those files copies of itself. The copies are usually executed when the file is loaded into memory, allowing them to infect still other files, and so on. Viruses often have damaging side effects-sometimes intentionally, som etimes not. For example, some viruses can destroy a computer's hard disk or take up memory space that could otherwise be used by programs.
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Data type: A definition of a set of data that specifies the possible range of values of the set, the operations that can be performed on the values, and the way in which the values are stored in memory. Defining the data type allows a computer to manipulate the data appropriately. Data types are most often supported in high-level languages and often include types such as real, integer, floating point, character, Boolean, and pointer. How a language handles data typing is one of its major characteristics. Buffer: Temporary store/memory that holds data being transferred between devices often used to compensate for different speeds of devices examples printer, disk, etc. OR. A region of memory reserved for use as an intermediate repository in which data is temporarily held while waiting to be transferred between two locations or devices. For instance, a buffer is used while transferring data from an application, such as a word processor, to an input/output device, such as a printer. Technical documentation: The set of instructions shipped with a program or a piece of hardware. Documentation usually includes necessary information about the type of computer system required, setup instructions, and instructions on the use and maintenance of the product. Simulation: The imitation of a physical process or object by a program that causes a computer to respond mathematically to data and changing conditions as though it were the process or object itself. OR The study of a real life situation by means of a working model is called simulation. Assembler: A language translator. It is the the translator for low level language (i.e. Assembly Language) that converts assembly language programs, which are understandable by humans, into executable machine language. RAM: Acronym for random access m emory. Semiconductor-based memory that can be read and written by the central processing unit (CPU) or other hardware devices. The storage locations can be accessed in any order. Modem: Acronym for random access memory. Semiconductor-based memory that can be read and written by the central processing unit (CPU) or other hardware devices. The storage locations can be accessed in any order. Bar codes: The special identification code printed as a set of vertical bars of differing widths on books, grocery products, and other merchandise. Used for rapid, error-free input in such facilities as libraries, hospitals, and grocery stores, bar codes represent binary information that can be read by an optical scanner. Algorithm: A finite sequence of steps for solving a logical or mathematical problem or performing a task. Process Control: The aspect of computer in which the computer is used to monitor and/or control the processes in which the raw materials are converted into useful products is called Process Control.
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Interpreter: It is the language translator that translates each instruction of the program one by one and displays the error, error message and location of the error and stops the program as it finds the errors while executing and translating the program.
June 1995 Bit: Short for bi nary digit. The smallest unit of information handled by a computer. One bit expresses a 1 or a 0 in a binary numeral, or a true or false logical condition, and is represented physically by an element such as a high or low voltage at one point in a circuit or a small spot on a disk magnetized one way or the other. ROM: Acronym for read-only memory. A semiconductor circuit into which code or data is permanently installed by the manufacturing process. Hacking: To gain illegal acces into someones computer to harm or copy the data is called hacking. Megabyte: It is unit of memory or storage. Usually 1,048,576 bytes (2 20 ); sometimes interpreted as 1 million bytes. Abbreviation: MB. Analogue data: Data that is represented by continuous variations in some physical property, such as voltage, frequency, or pressure. PIN: Acronym for p ersonal identification number. A unique code number assigned, as with automatic teller machine cards, to the authorized user. Key field: field in a record structure or an attribute of a relational table that has been designated to be part of a key. Or, The main field of the file is called key field. Bar code: The special identification code printed as a set of vertical bars of differing widths on books, grocery products, and other merchandise. File generations: A concept used to distinguish stored versions of a set of files. The oldest is called the grandfather, the next oldest is the father, and the newest is the son. Icons: A small image displayed on the screen to represent an object that can be manipulated by the user. By serving as visual mnemonics and allowing the user to control certain computer actions without having to remember commands or type them at the keyboard, Numeric data: Data based on the digits 0 9, or any number. Numeric data can be calculated. Control character: Any of the first 32 characters in the ASCII character set (0 through 31 in decimal representation), each of which is defined as having a standard control function, such as carriage return, linefeed, or backspace. Multiprogramming: A form of processing in which a computer holds more than one program in memory and works on them in round- robin fashion-that is, by sharing out the processor's time so that each program receives some attention some of the time.
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Computer-aided design (CAD): Acronym for computer-aided design. A system of programs and workstations used in designing engineering, architectural, and scientific models ranging from simple tools to buildings, aircraft, integrated circuits, and molecules. Desktop publishing: The use of a computer and specialized software to combine text and graphics to create a document that can be printed on either a laser printer or a typesetting machine. Desktop publishing is a multiple-step process involving various types of software and equipment. Electronic mail: Short for electronic mail. The exchange of text messages and computer files over a communications network, such as a local area network or the Internet, usually between computers or terminals.
June 1993 Buffer: A region of memory reserved for use as an intermediate repository in which data is temporarily held while waiting to be transferred between two locations or devices. For instance, a buffer is used while transferring data from an application, such as a word processor, to an input/output device, such as a printer String: A data structure composed of a sequence of characters usually representing humanreadable text. Characters include A-Z, a-z, 0-9, +, -, *, #, @ etc. Merging: The process to combine two or more items, such as lists, in an ordered way and without changing the basic structure of either. Rogue value: Any value out of the sequence of the set of values. User documentation: The documents produced to help user to run a software or a program. This includes Help, User Guide and the User Manual.
June 1992 Real time processing: A processing system that reacts to events before the events become obsolete. For example, airline collision avoidance systems must process radar input, detect a possible collision, and warn air traffic controllers or pilots while they still have time to react. Buffer: A region of memory reserved for use as an intermediate repository in which data is temporarily held while waiting to be transferred between two locations or devices. For instance, a buffer is used while transferring data from an application, such as a word processor, to an input/output device, such as a printer. Touch-sensitive pad: variety of graphics tablet that uses pressure sensors, rather than the electromagnetics used in more expensive high-resolution tablets, to track the position of a device on its surface. June 1991 Amendments: Alterations or changes in data or program.
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Insertions: To add a new record arranged ascending or descending in between the records of a file. Deletions: To remove a record or a file temporarily or permanently from a file, folder or computer. Step-wise refinement: to break a difficult or a bigger problem into different steps so that each of the broken phase is solved individually and hence the whole main problem is solved. Electronic mail: Short for electronic mail. The exchange of text messages and computer files over a communications network, such as a local area network or the Internet, usually between computers or terminals. Repetition: To execute one or more statements or instructions repeatedly. Statements or instructions so executed are said to be in a loop. Selection: In applications, the highlighted portion of an on-screen document.
June 1990 Buffer: A region of memory reserved for use as an intermediate repository in which data is temporarily held while waiting to be transferred between two locations or devices. For instance, a buffer is used while transferring data from an application, such as a word processor, to an input/output device, such as a printer LAN: Acronym for local area n etwork. A group of computers and other devices dispersed over a relatively limited area and connected by a communications link that enables any device to interact with any other on the network. Sequential file: File created or based on the method of storing or retrieving information that requires the program to start reading at the beginning and continue until it finds the desired data. Direct-access file: The ability of a computer to find and go straight to a particular storage location in memory or on disk to retrieve or store an item of information. Verification: is checking to make sure that data has been entered correctly. Verification is often carried out by getting two users to enter the same set of data at different computers. Once both users have entered the data the two sets of data are compared to check that they match up. Any data that does not match up is rejected. Verification can also be carried out by software which might, for example, ask for the same data to be entered twice. If both entries don't match up the data is rejected. Interpreter: It is a language translator that translates each instruction one by one & displays the actual error, message of error & location of error on the screen while executing & translating the program & stops the program. It translates the program while executing it. E.g.: Translator of GWBASIC, Q.BASIC.
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Assembler: A language translator. It is the the translator for low level language (i.e. Assembly Language) that converts assembly language programs, which are understandable by humans, into executable machine language
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Notes
Programming Languages
Programming Languages Computer: Computer is an electronic device that takes in input process it and gives a manipulated output as result. Hardware: All the physical components of computer that can be touched, seen & used are Hardware. Software: All that statements, commands, instructions & functions we provide computer to work with it are called software. There are two types of Softwares: 1. System Software. 2. Application Soft ware. System Software: System Softwares are the softwares which are used to get command over computer whenever the computer is switch on, and are used for file management, source sharing and file security. E.g.: Dos. Windows 95, 98, 2000, ME. Linux. Unix. Sun Solaris. Application Software: Application Softwares are the softwares that are used to work with the computer & to do desired & specific purpose. Types of Application Softwares: There are two types of Application Softwares: 1. Languages 2. Packages Languages: Languages are pre-planned, pre-programmed & programmable Application Softwares that are used to do variety of tasks by using their commands, functions and statements. Packages: Packages are the pre-planned, pre-programmed Application softwares that are used to do some particular type of work. Their tools & functions can be used to do specific type of work.
High Level Language: HLL is a Computer programming language that is easy to learn and write. Programs using words and commands that are easy to understand & look like English words, their programs are then translated into machine codes. Each high-level language instruction represents more than one machine code instruction.
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Low-Level Language: A Low-level language is a language, which is long complex to program in, where each instructions represents a single machine code. Translator: A translator program is one that transforms programming language instructions into Machine Languages code that are under stood by the computer. Interpreter: Interpreter is a translator that translates each instruction one by one & displays the actual error, message of error & location of error on the screen while executing & translating the program & stops the program. It translates the program while executing it. E.g.: Translator of GWBASIC, Q.BASIC. Complier: Complier is the translator that translates the entire program & displays all the error with the error message & the location of the error on the screen. It translates the program before executing it. E.g.: Translator of COBOL. Source Code: Source codes are the actual programming codes that are produced before the translation of the program into machine codes. OR Human-readable program statements written by a programmer or developer in a high-level or assembly language that are not directly readable by a computer. Source code needs to be compiled into object code before it can be executed by a computer. Object Code: Object codes are the codes that are produced after the translation of the program into machine codes. OR The code, generated by a compiler or an assembler, that was translated from the source code of a program. The term most commonly refers to machine code that can be directly executed by the system's central processing unit (CPU), but it can also be assembly language source code or a variation of machine code. Statement: A program statement is a single instruction composed of its reserved words. Line: In some languages, such as BASIC or COBOL, a program is divided up into numbered lines. Each line has a line number & contains one or more statements. Variable: A variable is a quantity named in a program & whose value can change. Constant: A constant is a value that doesnt change. In a program it may or may not be given a name. Identifier: An identifier is a name invented by the programmer for some data. An identifier can be a name for a variable, a constant, a file, an array, etc. Reserved Words: A reserved word is a name that has some special significance to the compiler or interpreter. The programmer can only use it for its special purpose & cant use it as an identifier.
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Expression: An expression is a set of variables, constants & operators (such as +, -, etc) that is to be evaluated by the computer.
Error: A flaw or bug in a program is an error. There are 3 kinds of error: 1. Syntax Error. 2. Logical Error. 3. Runtime Error. Syntax Error: The error found due to some mistake or due to some incorrect placement of some command or statement is called Syntax Error. Due to it program isnt executed. Logical Error: Logical errors are the errors that are found due to the incorrect flow of program. Due to this the program is executed & produces a result, but that result isnt the expected & desired result. Runtime Error: These are also called execution errors. For e.g. the computer may be asked to divide by 0 or 1 of the numbers produced may be too large to fit in memory location. OR Runtime Error: The error that comes b/c of the mistakes of the user is a Runtime Error. This error comes after the execution of program if we enter wrong entries. Character: Character is a unit of representing some message. There are three types of characters: 1.Alphabetic Characters / Alphabets. 2.Numeric Characters / Numbers. 3.Special Symbols.
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Operating Systems
Operating System: The software that controls the allocation and usage of hardware resources such as memory, central processing unit (CPU) time, disk space, and peripheral devices. The operating system is the foundation software on which applications depend. Popular operating systems include Windows 98, Windows NT, Mac OS, and UNIX. Acronym: OS Batch System: A system that processes data in discrete groups of previously scheduled operations rather than interactively or in real time. Spooling: The feature of the operating system of storing a data document in a queue, where it awaits its turn to be printed. Multiprogramming: A form of processing in which a computer holds more than one program in memory and works on them in round- robin fashion-that is, by sharing out the processor's time so that each program receives some attention some of the time. This way of working is in contrast to using the processor to run one program at a time. Multitasking: A form of processing supported by most current operating systems in which a computer works on multiple tasks-roughly, separate "pieces" of work-seemingly at the same time by parceling out the processor's time among the different tasks. Multitasking can be either cooperative or preemptive. In the former, the operating system relies on the task to voluntarily cede control to another task; in the latter, the operating system decides which task receives priority. Multiprocessing: A mode of operation in which two or more connected and roughly equal processing units each carry out one or more processes (programs or sets of instructions) in tandem. In multiproc essing, each processing unit works on a different set of instructions or on different parts of the same process. The objective is increased speed or computing power, the same as in parallel processing and in the use of special units called coprocessors. Virtual Storage: Memory that appears to an application to be larger and more uniform than it is. Virtual memory may be partially simulated by secondary storage such as a hard disk. Applications access memory through virtual addresses, which are translated (mapped) by special hardware and software onto physical addresses. Acronym: VM. Also called disk memory. Batch Processing: The practice of acquiring programs and data sets from users, running them one or a few at a time, and then providing the results to the users. OR The practice of storing transactions for a period of time before they are posted to a master file, typically in a separate operation undertaken at night. Online Processing: Processing of transactions (instructions and data) as soon as the computer receives them.
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OLTP: Acronym for online t ransaction processing. A system for processing transactions as soon as the computer receives them and updating master files immediately in a database management system. OLTP is useful in financial record keeping and inventory tracking. Real Time Systems: A computer and/or a software system that reacts to events before the events become obsolete. For example, airline collision avoidance systems must process radar input, detect a possible collision, and warn air traffic controllers or pilots while they still have time to react. The system is automatically updated when a change is made due to a transaction occurring. Time Sharing: The feature of a network based operating system by means of which more than on or all the workstations can share the time of processing and accessing the same data at the same time is called time sharing. OR It is the feature of network based operating system in which the operating system assigns equal amount of time to each terminal / workstation to perform a single task in the server. Time Slice: A brief period of time during which a particular task is given control of the microprocessor in a time-sharing multitasking environment. Turnaround Time: The time between submitting a job and receiving the output is known as turnaround time. Real Time Operating System: An operating system designed or optimized for the needs of a process-control environment. Polling: The process of periodically determining the status of each device in a set so that the active program can process the events generated by each device, such as whether a mouse button was pressed or whether new data is available at a serial port. This can be contrasted with event-driven processing, in which the operating system alerts a program or routine to the occurrence of an event by means of an interrupt or message rather than having to check each device in turn.
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Operating Systems An operating system is a set of programs that controls how the hardware of a computer works. An operating system provides a means of communication between the user and the computer, deals with the loading and running of applications programs and manages the transfer of data and files to and from peripheral devices. The most widely used operating systems are called Windows 2000, MacOS (for Apple Mac computers), Novell Netware and UNIX. The operating system that a computer has also determines what applications software will run on it. Applications software will only work on a computer that has the operating system that it was designed to be used with. Applications software will not run on a computer that has a different operating system to the one that it was designed for.
Functions of an operating system It deals with input and output, which involves: Accepting data from input devices and transferring it to the computers memory. Making sure that any output is sent to the correct output device. It manages the transfer of data between the computers memory and backing storage devices. It manages system resources, which involves: Allocating memory space to programs and data. Keeping track of which parts of the memory have already been allocated and the parts that are still free.
It deals with the loading of applications software into memory and controls the execution, or running of them. It also provides a way for applications software to communicate with the computers hardware. It deals with any errors that occur when a program is being run, or when data is being transferred somewhere, and informs the user if necessary. It manages system security, which involves: Monitoring and restricting access to programs and data. Preventing unauthorised access to the system. It provides a human computer interface, or HCI, for the user. It provides special facilities for multiprogramming. A multiprogramming operating system can hold more than one program in memory at the same time. There are two types of multiprogramming operating system; multitasking, and multi-user. A multitasking operating system allows two or more programs to run at the same time. The operating system does this by swapping each program in and out of memory in turn. When a program is swapped out of memory it is stored temporarily on disk until it is needed again. Windows 2000 is an example of a multitasking operating system.
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Backing Storage
Program A
CPU
MAIN MEMORY
Program B Program C
A multi-user operating system lets many users at different terminals share processing time on a powerful central computer. The operating system does this by switching rapidly between the terminals giving each one in turn a small amou nt of processor time on the central computer. The operating system switches so quickly between the terminals that each user appears to have uninterrupted access to the central computer. However if there are a large number of users on such a system the time that it takes the central computer to respond can become more noticeable. Utility programs Utility programs are usually supplied along with an operating system. They are used to carry out routine tasks that are often needed by a user such as: Compressing a file to save space on backing storage Defragmenting a disk drive Recovering data from damaged file Checking a disk for faults and repairing them Formatting a floppy diskChecking the files on a disk for computer viruses A processing method is the way that a particular operating system deals with input. There are three main types of processing method: real-time, transaction and batch processing. Real-time processing systems process input data so quickly that the resulting output can affect further input. It is used for applications where it is essential that the computer responds straight away to input. Examples of applications where real-time processing is used are missile defence systems, automatic pilot systems on aircraft and monitoring intensive care patients in a hospital. Transaction, or on-line, processing, is used for applications where input needs to be dealt with straight away but it is not critical if there is a slight delay in the time that it takes for the computer to respond to requests. Examples of applications where transaction processing is used include the on-line seat booking systems used by airlines and the stock control systems used by catalogue companies like Argos. A system where transaction processing is used will always give an up-to-the-minute picture of the current situation. A batch processing system does not respond to input straight away. Instead, input is collected together into a batch while the system is off-line. When a batch is ready to be processed the system goes on-line to carry out the processing of the data. Batch processing is non- interactive. This means that the user cannot get an immediate response to input as they would with an interactive system. Examples of applications that use
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batch processing include producing gas, electricity or water bills and marking OMR sheets from multiple choice examinations.
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Application Software
There are two main types of computer software; system software and application software. System software includes the operating system and utility programs. Application software caries out user- related tasks and can be classified as general-purpose, specialist or tailor-made. General purpose packages A general-purpose application package is a type of software that can perform many different related tasks. Word processors, spreadsheets, databases, graphics and presentation software are all examples of application packages. This type of software is sometimes called generic software. This means, for example, that any one of the many different word processing packages that you could buy will all do the same general sorts of tasks as each other. Most computer users buy application packages off-the-shelf. There are several good reasons for using this type of ready-made software. It is relatively cheap It is readily available and can be installed quickly and easily It will have been thoroughly tested so there will be very little chance of it having any serious faults or bugs It will be well supported with a lot of books about how to use it available, as well as online help and discussions on the Internet.
Common types of general purpose software Database packages (e.g. MS Access, Lotus Approach, Paradox) are used to store and retrieve information; Spreadsheet packages (e.g. MS Excel, Lotus 123) are used for tasks that involve a lot of calculations or for the production of graphs and charts; Word processing packages (e.g. MS Word, WordPerfect) are used to produce text-based documents such as letters, reports and memos; Desktop publishing (DTP) packages (e.g. MS Publisher, PageMaker, PagePlus) are used to produce professional quality publications such as posters, books, newsletters, newspapers and magazines; Graphics packages (e.g. Paint, PaintBrush, Serif Draw, Corel Draw) are used to produce and manipulate artwork; Computer-aided design (CAD) packages (e.g. 2D-Design, AutoCAD, TurboCAD) are used to produce engineering designs and architectural plans;
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Communications software (e.g. Internet Explorer, Netscape Communicator) is used to access the Internet and send and receive e-mail; Presentation graphics packages (e.g. PowerPoint, Lotus Freelance) are used to create slide shows and presentations like this one which can be viewed on-screen or with a data or overhead projector; Web page editors (e.g. MS FrontPage, Macromedia Dreamweaver) are used to create Web pages.
Integrated packages An integrated package combines many different types of application together in one single package. This type of software normally offers facilities for word processing, spreadsheets, databases, graphics, presentation and communications. Integrated packages are much cheaper than buying many different application packages but their different applications have a limited number of features compared with individual application packages. Microsoft WORKS is an example of an integrated package. Specialist application software Specialist application software performs a single very specific type of task. Programs to work out driving routes are one common example of specialist application software.
Other examples include programs to work out payroll, calculate accounts, deal with stock control and handle appointments.
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Tailor-made software Sometimes an organisation finds that off-the-shelf software will not do exactly what they want. In this case they might decide to have special tailor-made, or bespoke software specially d eveloped for the purpose. The main drawbacks of this approach are the high cost and long time that some programs take to develop. Buying new software What sort of tasks will the software be used for? How much does the software cost and how much money is available to buy it? What operating system does the software need? Software will only work with the operating system that it was designed for; What are the minimum system requirements for the software? Every application package has a minimum set of hardware requirements such as how much hard disk space and memory are needed;
Will the software be used on a single computer or on a network? If the software is going to be used on a network a special version of it may be needed; How much support is available for users? This could be in the form of on-line help, telephone support lines, internet sites and printed manuals. More popular software will have more of these resources; How easy is the software to install can an ordinary user carry out the installation or will an IT expert be needed to do it?
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Network & Topologies

Network: A group of computers and associated devices that are connected by communications facilities. A network can involve permanent connections, such as cables, or temporary connections made through telephone or other communication links. A network can be as small as a LAN (local area network) consisting of a few computers, printers, and other devices, or it can consist of many small and large computers distributed over a vast geographic area (WAN or wide area network). Workstation: 1. A combination of input, output, and computing hardware that can be used for work by an individual. 2. A powerful stand-alone computer of the sort used in computer-aided design and other applications requiring a high-end, usually expensive, machine with considerable calculating or graphics capability. 3. A microcomputer or terminal connected to a network. Modem Short for modulator/demodulator. A communications device that enables a computer to transmit information over a standard telephone line. Because a computer is digital (works with discrete electrical signals representing binary 1 and binary 0) and a telephone line is analog (carries a signal that can have any of a large number of variations), modems are needed to convert digital to analog and vice versa. Topology: The configuration or layout of a network formed by the connections between devices on a LAN (local area network) or between two or more LANsogy: The configuration or layout of a network formed by the connections between devices on a LAN (local area network) or between two or more LANs Bus Topology: A topology (configuration) for a LAN (local area network) in which all nodes are connected to a main communications line (bus). On a bus network, each node monitors activity on the line. Messages are detected by all nodes but are accepted only by the node(s) to which they are addressed. Ring Topology: A LAN (local area network) in which devices (nodes) are connected in a closed loop, or ring. Messages in a ring network pass around the ring from node to node in one direction. Star Topology: A network configuration based on a central hub, from which nodes radiate in a star-shaped pattern. Hub: In a network, a device joining communication lines at a central location, providing a common connection to all devices on the network. T he term is an analogy to the hub of a wheel. Node: In networking, a device, such as a client computer, a server, or a shared printer, that is connected to the network and is capable of communicating with other network devices. Router: An intermediary device on a communications network that expedites message delivery. On a single network linking many computers through a mesh of possible connections, a router receives transmitted messages and forwards them to their correct destinations
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over the most efficient available route. On an interconnected set of LANs (local area networks)--including those based on differing architectures and protocols--using the same communications protocols, a router serves the somewhat different function of acting as a link between LANs, enabling messages to be sent from one to another. Gateway: A device that connects networks using different communications protocols so that information can be passed from one to the other. A gateway both transfers information and converts it to a form compatible with the protocols used by the receiving network Bandwidth: The data transfer capacity, or speed of transmission, of a digital communications system as measured in bits per second (bps).
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Communications/Networks Terminologies
GPRS: Acronym for General Packet Radio Service. GPRS technology allows mobile phones to be used for sending and receiving data over an Internet Protocol (IP)-based network. GPRS as such is a data bearer that enables wireless access to data networks like the Internet. The applications using GPRS are WAP, MMS, SMS, Java and the PC dial-up (for example, Internet and e-mail). TCP: Acronym for Transmission Control P rotocol. The protocol within TCP/IP that governs the breakup of data messages into packets to be sent via IP (Internet Protocol), and the reassembly and verification of the complete messages from packets received by IP IP: Acronym for Internet P rotocol. The protocol within TCP/IP that governs the breakup of data messages into packets, the routing of the packets from sender to destination network and station, and the reassembly of the packets into the original data messages at the destination. TCP/IP: Acronym for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet P rotocol. A protocol suite (or set of protocols) developed by the Department of Defense for communications over interconnected, sometimes dissimilar, networks. It is built into the UNIX system and has become the de facto standard for data transmission over networks, including the Internet. IP address: Short for Internet Protocol address. A 32-bit (4-byte) binary number that uniquely identifies a host (computer) connected to the Internet to other Internet hosts, for the purposes of communication through the transfer of packets. An IP address is expressed in "dotted quad" format, consisting of the decimal values of its 4 bytes, separated with periods; for example, 127.0.0.1. The first 1, 2, or 3 bytes of the IP address identify the network the host is connected to; the remaining bits identify the host itself. DNS Server: Short for Domain Name System server, a computer that can answer Domain Name System (DNS) queries. The DNS server keeps a database of host computers and their corresponding IP addresses. FTP: Acronym for File Transfer P rotocol, a fast, application-level protocol widely used for copying files to and from remote computer systems on a network using TCP/IP, such as the Internet. This protocol also allows users to use FTP commands to work with files, such as listing files and directories on the remote system. ISDN: Acronym for Integrated Services Digital Network. A high-speed digital communications network evolving from existing telephone services. The goal in developing ISDN was to replace the current telephone network, which requires digital-to-analog conversions, with facilities totally devoted to digital switching and transmission, yet advanced enough to replace traditionally analog forms of data, ranging from voice to computer transmissions, music, and video. WAP: A standard for providing Internet access and other data-based services, such as email, electronic transactions, news, and weather reports, over wireless networks. The Wireless Application Protocol, or WAP, is designed to provide such services to digital mobile telephones and other wireless terminals. Just as the TCP/IP standards make it possible for
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many different kinds of computer equipment to communicate through the Internet, the WAP specification is intended to work across different types of wireless network. The founding members of the WAP forum, which introduced the WAP specification in 1998, are L.M.Ericsson, Motorola, Nokia and Unwired Planet.
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Computer Networks
A computer network is a collection of computers linked together so that they can communicate with each other. A computer that is not connected to a network is called a stand-alone computer. There are two different sorts of computer network: Local Area Network or LAN - the computers are all in the same building or in different buildings on one site permanently connected to each other with special cables. Wide Area Network or WAN - the computers are spread over a large geographical area not permanently connected to each other communicate using telephone lines, radio transmitters or satellite links. Advantages of a LAN Workstations can share peripheral devices like printers. This is cheaper than buying a printer for every workstation; Workstations dont necessarily need their own hard disk or CD-ROM drives which makes them cheaper to buy than stand-alone PCs; Users can save their work centrally on the networks file server. This means that they can retrieve their work from any workstation on the network. They dont need to go back to the same workstation all the time; Users can communicate with each other and transfer data between workstations very easily; One copy of each application package such as a word processor, spreadsheet etc can be loaded onto the file server and shared by all users. When a new version comes out, it only has to be loaded onto the server instead of onto every workstation.
Disadvantages of a LAN Special security measures are needed to stop users from using programs and data that they shouldnt have access to; Networks are difficult to set up and must be maintained by skilled ICT Technicians; If the file server develops a serious fault all the users are affected, rather than just one user in the case of a stand-alone machine.
Network security measures To protect programs and data Main threats come from other users and hackers Data can be kept secure by giving each network user their own user identity and password Unauthorised access can be reduced by allowing different users different levels of access (access rights)
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Local area networks can be protected by physically restricting access to the computer room by locking the door or providing users with an entry code or special swipe card key.
Wide Area Network (WAN) Computers in a wide area network are often connected to each other using telephone lines. When a computer uses an ordinary telep hone line to connect to another computer, a modem is needed at each end of the link. If an entire LAN needs to be connected to a WAN a special gateway needs to be set-up.
Diagram of a typical WAN
Computer
digital signal 01001
Modem
telephone line analogue signal
Modem
Computer
digital signal 01001
Modems A modem (modulator/demodulator) converts a digital signal to an equivalent analogue signal so that it can be sent down a telephone line.
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Communication
Communication: The vast discipline encompassing the methods, mechanisms, and media involved in information transfer. In computer-related areas, communications involves data transfer from one computer to another through a communications medium, such as a telephone, microwave relay, satellite link, or physical cable. Information: The meaning of data as it is intended to be interpreted by people. Data consists of facts, which become information when they are seen in context and convey meaning to people. Email: Short for electronic mail. The exchange of text messages and computer files over a communications network, such as a local area network or the Internet, usually between computers or terminals. Email Address: A string that identifies a user so that the user can receive Internet e-mail. An e-mail address typically consists of a name that identifies the user to the mail server, followed by an at sign (@) and the host name and domain name of the mail server. Domain: In database design and management, the set of valid values for a given attribute. Domain Name: An address of a network connection that identifies the owner of that address in a hierarchical format: server.organization.type. For example, www.whitehouse.gov identifies the Web server at the White House, which is part of the U.S. government. Password: The string of characters entered by a user to verify his or her identity to the network. The system compares the code against a stored list of authorized passwords and users. If the code is legitimate, the system allows the user access at whatever security level has been approved for the owner of the password. Ideally a password is a combination of text, numbers, and punctuation or other characters that cannot be guessed at or easily cracked by intruders. Fax: Short for facsimile. The transmission of text or graphics over telephone lines in digitized form. Conventional fax machines scan an original document, transmit an image of the document as a bit map, and reproduce the received image on a printer. Fax Machine: Short for facsimile machine. A device that scans pages, converts the images of those pages to a digital format consistent with the international facsimile standard, and transmits the image through a telephone line. A fax machine also receives such images and prints them on paper. Modem: Short for m odulator/demodulator. A communications device that enables a computer to transmit information over a standard telephone line. Because a computer is digital (works with discrete electrical signals representing binary 1 and binary 0) and a telephone line is analog (carries a signal that can have any of a large number of variations), modems are needed to convert digital to analog and vice versa. Even Parity: The quality of sameness or equivalence, in the case of computers usually referring to an error-checking procedure in which the number of 1s must always be the sameeither even or odd-for each group of bits transmitted without error.
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Teletext: All-text information broadcast by a television station to a subscriber's television set. Information Retrieval: The process of finding, organizing, and displaying information, particularly by electronic means. Office Automation: The use of electronic and communications devices, such as computers, modems, and fax machines and any associated software, to perform office functions mechanically rather than manually. Multimedia: The combination of sound, graphics, animation, and video. In the world of computers, multimedia is a subset of hypermedia, which combines the aforementioned elements with hypertext. Hypertext: Text linked together in a complex, non-sequential web of associations in which the user can browse through related topics. Hyperlink: A connection between an element in a hypertext document, such as a word, phrase, sym bol, or image, and a different element in the document, another document, a file, or a script. The user activates the link by clicking on the linked element, which is usually underlined or in a color different from the rest of the document to indicate that the element is linked. E-commerce: Commercial activity that takes place by means of computers connected through a net work. Electronic commerce can occur between a user and a vendor through an online information service, the Internet, or a BBS, or between vendor and customer computers through electronic data interchange (EDI). Internet: Short for internetwork. A set of computer networks that may be dissimilar and are joined together by means of gateways that handle data transfer and conversion of messages from the send ing networks' protocols to those of the receiving network. Gateway: A device that connects networks using different communications protocols so that information can be passed from one to the other. A gateway both transfers information and converts it to a form compatible with the protocols used by the receiving network. Wireless: Pertaining to or characteristic of communications that take place without the use of interconnecting wires or cables, such as by radio, microwave, or infrared. Virtual Reality: A simulated 3-D environment that a user can experience and manipulate as if it were physical. The user sees the environment on display screens, possibly mounted in a special pair of goggles. Special input devices, such as gloves or suits fitted with motion sensors, detect the user's actions. Acronym: VR. ISO: Short for International Organization for Standardization (often incorrectly identified as an acronym for International Standards Organization), an international association of 130 countries, each of which is represented by its leading standard-setting organization-for example, ANSI (American National Standards Institute) for the United States. The ISO works to establish global standards for communications and information exchange. Primary among its accomplishments is the widely accepted ISO/OSI reference model, which defines standards for the interaction of computers connected by communications networks. ISO is not
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an acronym; rather, it is derived from the Greek word isos, which means "equal" and is the root of the prefix "iso-". Satellite: A satellite stationed in geosynchronous orbit that acts as a microwave relay st ation, receiving signals sent from a ground-based station (earth station), amplifying them, and retransmitting them on a different frequency to another ground-based station. Initially used for telephone and television signals, communications satellites can also be used for high-speed transmission of computer data. Two factors affecting the use of satellites with computers, however, are propagation delay (the time lag caused by the distance travelled by the signal) and security concerns.
Communication One of the most important ways that information technology is used today is to distribute, exchange and share information. Electronic communication systems are what we use to do this. The most widely used forms of electronic communication are Viewdata, e-mail, videoconferencing, computer networks and the Internet. Viewdata Viewdata, or Videotext, looks like teletext but is different because, unlike teletext, it allows two-way communication to take place transmitted along telephone lines via a modem. The most common use of Viewdata is by travel agents to book holidays.
Faxes A fax machine scans paper documents and converts them into digital format. The digital version is then converted into analogue format and sent over an ordinary telephone line to another fax machine. The fax machine at the receiving end converts the analogue information back into digital format and reproduces an exact hard copy of the original document.
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Faxes are particularly useful for transferring images such as plans, drawings or documents with signatures between remote locations when it is important that an identical copy of the original is received at the other end. E-mail Electronic mail (E-mail) is used to send messages from one computer to another. Can be sent between computers on a local area network or between computers on the Internet. The message is sent and stored on the other persons network server until he/she accesses their Email. Advantages of e-mail: Arrives at its destination in at most a few hours Send and receive e-mail anywhere in the world, at any time One e-mail message can be sent to a group of people Registered e-mail can be sent, by asking for a read receipt. Can be cheaper than sending mail through the post Can attach a file
Disadvantages of e-mail Some workers receive so many e-mails that they are unable to answer them all Computer viruses are often sent by e-mail Can send junk mail just as with conventional post
Additional hardware/software needed for E-mail. Modem and telephone line for connection to the Internet (individual user) or network card for connection to LAN ( for network user) and both communication software and mail software.
Videoconferencing The use of a computer to send sound and video images from one c omputer to another in real time. To videoconference you need: A computer with a large memory(*) and a fast processor (*) which can handle the large amount of data that video pictures contain A digital video camera to capture the video pictures at your end of the link (*) A microphone or telephone hand-set to capture the sound that goes with your pictures(*) Access to an ISDN telephone line. This is because ordinary telephone lines werent designed to cope with the large amount of data that needs to be sent along them for videoconferencing(*). Or broadband access Special videoconferencing software.(*)
(*) denotes additional items over and above standard PC.
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Advantages of videoconferencing You can communicate with other people over long distances and see them as well as hear them Videoconferencing is more personal than just a telephone call Businesses can use videoconferencing to hold meetings which many people can be involved in There is less need for people to travel
Disadvantages of videoconferencing The hardware and software needed are very expensive Not many people have videoconferencing systems ISDN lines are needed which are expensive to set-up and use There is no substitute for a face-to-face meeting.
Teleworking Telecommuting is when people work from home instead of travelling to work and use methods of electronic communication such as the telephone, fax machine, e-mail, the Internet and videoconferencing to communicate with the outside world. Advantages of teleworking Time isnt wasted travelling to and from work; Cars are kept off the roads which helps the environment; Working at home is less stressful and it is much easier to concentrate; Working hours are more flexible and can be fitted around other things that need doing such as collecting children from school; People who live large distances away from each other can work together without having to meet in person; Businesses need smaller offices and spend less on light and heating.
Disadvantages of teleworking Workers may miss the company of their co-workers and feel isolated Having your workplace at home might mean that you end up doing too much work and not having enough time off It is more difficult for mangers to monitor and control the workforce
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The Internet
The Internet The Internet links private PCs, public networks and business networks together using telephone lines to form one vast world-wide network. It allows computer users to share and exchange information with each other wherever they are in the world. Information on the Internet comes in many different formats. E.g.simple e-mail text files, music, video clips, computer software. Connecting to the Internet A computer with a modem and access to a telephone line is needed. Faster connection is possible with a special type of digital telephone line called an ISDN line which doesnt need a modem. Larger organisations use a leased line. A leased line is a private telephone line which is permanently open 24 hours a day. This is the equivalent of broadband. Very high speed digital lines are available but these cost hundreds of thousands of pounds per year to use. Computers on a local area network need to be connected to the Internet using an ISDN or leased line a device called a router.(This what we use in school to connect our 300 PCs to the Internet). A router is a special piece of hardware which co-ordinates the switching of messages between the computers and the rest of the Internet. As a private individual you will need to find an Internet Service Provider (ISP).
The World Wide Web (WWW) World Wide Web is largest part of the Internet. Pages of information begin at home page. Pages are linked together using hypertext. Hypertext generated using Hypertext Mark-up language or HTML or a web authoring package such as Microsoft FrontPage.
Browsers To browse or surf the Internet a browser program is required. Microsoft Internet Explorer and Netscape Navigator use search engines to search for information by entering keywords.
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URLs Uniform Resource Locator. These give the location of individual sites on the World Wide Web. Most start with http//:www. They often reveal the country of origin such as .uk for the United Kingdom. They also indicate whether the site is commercial with either .co or .com, a government organisation with .gov, or an academic organisation with .ac Money doesnt have to be spent on normal business overheads like renting shops and paying employees. Online shopping Allow Internet users to buy goods or services online any time day or night without needing to travel anywhere or get pushed around in crowded shops. Some companies do all of their business over the Internet. Advantages of online shopping Money doesnt have to be spent on normal business overheads like renting shops and paying employees. Customers can be offered a much wider choice of goods because they can be ordered from suppliers as required rather than having to be kept available on the shelves all the time. Money is not tied up in unsold stock or wasted on products that arent popular. Cu stomers can be offered a much wider choice of goods because they can be ordered from suppliers as required rather than having to be kept available on the shelves all the time. Money is not tied up in unsold stock or wasted on products that arent popular. Data about customers and their buying habits can be collected directly and used to offer a much more personalised service tailored to suit the needs of an individual customer.
Disadvantages of online shopping Online transactions require users to enter a debit or credit card number before a purchase can be completed. There is a danger of these numbers being intercepted by hackers during transmission and used to make unauthorised purchases. The use of encryption and smart cards can help to protect against this. Criminals can set up fake web sites offering goods or services often using the name of a genuine company. This can lead to people spending money on goods and services that they will never receive as well as damaging the reputation of a genuine business. It is much easier for a business to gather information about its rivals by simply accessing their web sites this can make it much harder to remain competitive.
Classify these advantages and disadvantages, according to whether they relate to the consumer or the retailer. Advantages, to the consumer, of shopping on the Internet
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Disadvantages, for the consumer, of shopping on the Internet
Advantages, to the retailer, of shopping on the Internet
Disadvantages, for the retailer, of shopping on the Internet
Online booking systems Allow Internet users to check the availability of and book things like: Theatre, cinema and concert tickets Seats on coaches, trains and flights Hotel rooms An online booking system is essentially a web site that can be used to access a remote database. Dangers of the Internet Hackers o Firewall software Viruses o Often spread via e-mail o Virus checking programs Undesirable material o Software to block sites o Adult supervision o Much of the information isnt checked and may be incorrect or irrelevant
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o o o o o
A large amount of undesirable material, such as pornography, is readily available Messages sent across the Internet can be easily intercepted and are open to abuse by others Large telephone bills can easily be run up Too much time spent on the Internet could result in a lack of face-to-face interaction with others and a loss of social skills Going on-line runs the risk of hackers or viruses being able to damage your computer
Filtered service from ISP
Advantages of the Internet Easy communication with other people Valuable learning resource because Internet skills will be needed for jobs in the future Enables more people to work from home A vast amount of information can be accessed Up-to-date information can be accessed on-line without the need to await publication Publishing documents on the Internet saves paper A valuable resource for companies to advertise and conduct business
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Spreadsheets
A spreadsheet package is a general purpose computer package that is designed to perform calculations. A spreadsheet is a table which is divided into rows and columns.
Column B
Row 7
Columns have a letter at the top and rows have a number at the side. Lines divide the rows and columns up into boxes called cells. A cell can contain text, a number or a formula. Individual cells are identified by their cell reference number which normally contains a column letter and a row number. A formula is used on a spreadsheet to perform a calculation using the numbers in other cells. The result of the calculation is displayed in the cell where the formula has been entered. A simple formula can be used to add, subtract, multiply or divide numbers. To carry out these sorts of calculation these symbols are used in a formula: + * / to add to subtract to multiply to divide
Suppose you wanted to add two numbers on a spreadsheet together. If the numbers were in cells A1 and A2 the formula that you would need to enter would be something like = A1+A2 . To make it easier to enter a longer more complicated formula spreadsheet packages also have special mathematical functions built-in. Two of the most commonly used functions are used to calculate either the SUM or AVERAGE of a range of cells. Suppose, for example, that you had a formula like =A1+A2+A3+A4+A5+A6+A7+A8+A9+A10. This formula would add up all of the numbers in cells A1 to A10. Instead of typing in such a long formula, the SUM function could be used. On most spreadsheets the formula would be something like : = SUM (A1: A10)Similarly, to work out the average of the numbers in cells A1 to A10, the AVERAGE function could be used. On most spreadsheets the formula would be something
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like: = AVERAGE (A1: A10)Exactly what you need to type in will depend upon the spreadsheet package that you are using. If a number of cells need the same formula it can be copied and pasted in the same way as text. Spreadsheet packages have built-in formatting options which allow you to One very useful feature of spreadsheet package is the sort facility. This allows the columns or rows of a spreadsheet to be sorted into alphabetical or numerical order of a value in a particular row or column.Spreadsheet packages have built-in formatting options which allow you to change the way a spreadsheet looks. Anything that affects the appearance of a cell is called a cell format. Some of the more commonly used cell formatting options are:-
Changing font size and style Making text bold, italic or underlined Changing text alignment Adding borders and lines Inserting extra rows and columns Changing column width and row height Adding colour
Anything that affects the appearance of numbers in a cell is called a data format. Some of the more commonly used cell formatting options are:- Decimal, Currency & Date
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Databases
Data: The collection of facts and figures is called data. OR The raw facts and figures are called data. OR Unprocessed information is called data. Information: The processed data is called information. Table: The collection of records and fields is called table. A table is also known as a file. Record: Categorized information is called a record. A record is also known as a row. Field: The category of record is called a field. Field is also known as column. Key field: A field in a record structure or an attribute of a relational table that has been designated to be part of a key. Any field can be keyed, or indexed, to improve or simplify the performance of retrieval and/or update operations. Primary Key: In databases, the key field that serves as the unique identifier of a specific tuple (row) in a relation (database table). Database: The collection of files is called a database. OR A file composed of records, each containing fields together with a set of operations for searching, sorting, recombining, and other functions. DBMS: A software interface between the database and the user. A database management system handles user requests for database actions and allows for control of security and data integrity requirements Acronym: DBMS. Also called database manager. RDBMS: A database or database management system that stores information in tables-rows and columns of data-and conducts searches by using data in specified columns of one table to find additional data in another table. In a relational database, the rows of a table represent records (collections of information about separate items) and the columns represent fields (particular attributes of a record). In conducting searches, a relational database matches information from a field in one table with information in a corresponding field of another table to produce a third table that combines requested data from both tables. Searching: The process of seeking a particular file or specific data. A search is carried out by a program through comparison or calculation to determine whether a match to some pattern exists or whether some other criteria have been met. OR To seek specific data within a file or data structure.
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Merging: To combine two or more items, such as lists, in an ordered way and without changing the basic structure of either. Sorting: To organize data, typically a set of records, in a particular order. Programs and programming algorithms for sorting vary in performance and application. Sequential Access: A method of storing or retrieving information that requires the program to start reading at the beginning and continue until it finds the desired data. Sequential access is best used for files in which each piece of information is related to the information that comes before it, such as mailing list files and word processing documents. Also called serial access. Updating: To change a system or a data file to make it more current Random Access: The ability of a computer to find and go directly to a particular storage location without having to search sequentially from the beginning location. The human equivalent of random access would be the ability to find a desired address in an address book without having to proceed sequentially through all the addresses. A computer's semiconductor memory (both RAM and ROM) provides random access. Certain types of files stored on disk under some operating systems also allow random access. Such files are best used for data in which each record has no intrinsic relationship to what comes physically before or after it, as in a client list or an inventory. Also called direct access. Batch Processing: The practice of acquiring programs and data sets from users, running them one or a few at a time, and then providing the results to the users. OR The practice of storing transactions for a period of time before they are posted to a master file, typically in a separate operation undertaken at night. Online Processing: Processing of transactions (instructions and data) as soon as the computer receives them. OLTP: Acronym for online t ransaction processing. A system for processing transactions as soon as the computer receives them and updating master files immediately in a database management system. OLTP is useful in financial record keeping and inventory tracking. Real Time Systems: A computer and/or a software system that reacts to events before the events become obsolete. For example, airline collision avoidance systems must process radar input, detect a possible collision, and warn air traffic controllers or pilots while they still have time to react. OR The system is automatically updated when a change is made due to a transaction occurring.
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Databases Suppose a school stores information about its students on record cards. Each student has their own card; this is their record.
Denton High School

Pupil Record Card
Student Number Forename Surname Date -o f-Birth Form 0125 Lisa Knapper 12 -Jan-198 5 T3
The individual pieces of information recorded on each card, such as name and date of birth, are called fields. Files, records and fields Information in computer-based filing systems is stored in data files. A file is a collection of related records. Related records means that each record in a file will contain the same sort of information as all the other records. A record must have at least one field. A field contains one individual item of data. Fixed and variable length records A fixed length record is one where the length of the fields in each record has been set to be a certain maximum number of characters long.
M D B 3
r a o 1 m l o d P a r k L a n e n
A set amount of storage space is set aside for each field. If the contents of a field dont fill the space completely it is remains empty and is wasted. The problems with fixed length records are: Fields very rarely contains the maximum number of characters allowed which wastes space. Values sometimes cant be entered because they are too large to fit inside the allowed space in a field.
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The advantage of fixed length records is that they make file processing much easier because the start and end of each record is always a fixed number of characters apart. This makes it much easier to locate both individual records and fields.
A variable length record is one where the length of a field can change to allow data of any size to fit.
M 3
r 1
D P
a a
m r
o k
# L
B a
o n
l e
d #
A special marker (# in this example) indicates where each field ends. The length of a field depends upon the data that is placed in it. Only the space needed for a field is ever used so none is wasted. The advantage of variable length records is that space is not wasted, only the space needed is ever used. The main problem with variable length records is that it is much more difficult to locate the start and end of individual records and fields. To separate variable length records each field has a special character to mark where it ends called an end-of-field marker. When records need to be located the computer must count through the end-of-field markers to locate individual records and fields.
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Members
COMPUTERISED DATABASES
Loans
Member number Video number Date loaned Length of loan Date due Total cost
Member number Forename Surname Address line 1 Address line 2 Telephone number
A database is a structured collection of related data. It can be a single file that contains a large number of records or a collection of files. Many modern databases are described as being relational. A relational database stores data in tables that are linked together using common fields.
Videos
Video number Title Certificate Category Cost per day
File operations File operations are the different things that can be done to a computer file. The main types of file operation are searching, sorting, updating and merging. Searching Searching, or interrogating a file, involves looking for an individual record or group of records that match a certain condition. Searches are also called queries. To search a database the user must enter a query. The query tells the software which fields to look at in each record and what to look for. Sorting Sorting involves putting the records in a file into a particular order, such as alphabetical order, either ascending or descending. Merging Merging involves combining two files to produce one new file. This can be done by merging a file of new records to be added with another file that contains all of the existing records called the master file. Updating The information stored in computer files must be kept up-to-date or it will cause problems for the business or organisation thats using it. To keep a file up-to-date it must be regularly updated. This involves inserting, deleting and amending records. When a new record needs to be added to a file, it is inserted. Records are deleted when they are no longer needed. Records are amended when the data in one or more of the fields needs to be altered for some reason Details of all the changes that need to be made to a master file are often collected together in a transaction file. The master file is updated by comparing it with the transaction file and making changes to any records that appear in both files. Normally at least three generations of a master file are kept for backup purposes. If the latest version of the master file is damaged it can be recreated by re- running the previous update using the old master and transaction files.
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Master File (Day 1)
Transactions for Day 1
grandfather
Update
Master File (Day 2)
Transactions for Day 2
Grandfatherfather-son method of updating files.
father
Update
Master File (Day 3)
Backing up on-line databases An on-line database is constantly being updated. To make sure no data is lost in the event of hardware failure special back-up methods are used. Two commonly used methods are: Transaction logging RAID (Redundant Array of Inexpensive Disks)
son
Transaction logging Involves keeping the details of each update in a transaction log file; a before and after image of each updated record is also saved. A utility program can be used to repair the database if any part of it becomes corrupted or unusable.
RAID Involves keeping more than one copy, usually two copies, of a database on different disks. Whenever any change is made to the database the same changes are made to the second copy.
Database packages
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Most databases are set-up using a database package. A typical database package will allow a user to: Create a file by entering their own field definitions. Specify automatic validation checks for fields. Add new fields to records or delete fields that are no longer needed. Add, edit and delete records in a file. Perform simple searches and complex searches using more than one condition. Import data from other applications software; Export data in standard file formats to other applications software; Create customised report forms for output; Create customised data entry screens; Create customised menu screens and link them menu together; Link files together using common fields.
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Input and Output Devices

Input Devices Input Device: A peripheral device whose purpose is to allow the user to provide input to a computer system. Examples of input devices are keyboards, mice, joysticks, and styluses. Keyboard: A hardware unit with a set of switches that resembles a typewriter keyboard and that conveys information from a user to a computer or data communications circuit. Mouse: A common pointing device. The basic features of a mouse are a flat-bottomed casing designed to be gripped by one hand; one or more buttons on the top; a multidirectional detection device (usually a ball) on the bottom; and a cable connecting the mouse to the computer. By moving the mouse on a surface (such as a desk top), the user typically controls an on-screen cursor. A mouse is a relative pointing device because there are no defined limits to the mouse's movement and because its placement on a surface does not map directly to a specific screen location. To select items or choose commands on the screen, the user presses one of the mouse's buttons, producing a "mouse click." Types of Mice: bus mouse, mechanical mouse, optical mouse, optomechanical mouse, relative pointing device, serial mouse trackball. Microphone: A device that converts sound waves into analog electrical signals. Additional hardware can convert the microphone's output into digital data that a computer can process; for example, to record multimedia documents or analyze the sound signal. Scanner: An optical input device that uses light-sensing equipment to capture an image on paper or some other subject. The image is translated into a digital signal that can then be manipulated by optical character recognition (OCR) software or graphics software. Scanners come in a number of types, including flatbed (scan head passes over a stationary subject), feed (subject is pulled across a stationary scan head), drum (subject is rotated around a stationary scan head), and handheld (user passes device over a stationary subject). Bar code Scanner/Reader: An optical device that uses a laser beam to read and interpret bar codes, such as the Universal Product Codes found on grocery products and other retail items. Manual Input Methods Manual input devices are used by people to enter data by hand. Keyboard Pointing devices Joystick Digital camera Touch screen Scanner Concept keyboard Graphics tablet
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Microphone Light pen Keyboard The keyboard is the most common type of input device. Ordinary computer keyboards have their keys arranged in a similar way to those on a typewriter. This way of arranging the keys is called QWERTY because of the order that the keys appear in on the first row of letters. Pointing devices Touch pads and trackballs are also types of pointing device. They are often used instead of a mouse on portable computers. Joystick The main use of a joystick is to play computer games by controlling the way that something moves on the screen. Joysticks can be used to control movement from side-to-side, up-anddown and diagonally. A joystick will also always have at least one button on it which can be used to make something happen like making a character in a game jump or fire a gun. Touch screen A touch screen can detect exactly where on its surface it has been touched. Touch screens are used in a lot of fast food chains and restaurants because they are easy to keep clean and reprogram if changes need to be made to the menu. Digital camera A digital camera can store many more pictures than an ordinary camera. Pictures taken using a digital camera are stored inside its memory and can be transferred to a computer by connecting the camera to it. A digital camera takes pictures by converting the light passing through the lens at the front into a digital image. Scanner A scanner can be used to input pictures and text into a computer. There are two main types of scanner; Hand-held and Flat-bed. Concept keyboard A concept keyboard is a flat board with a grid of programmable keys on its surface. A single key or a group of keys can be set up to carry out a particular task. Paper overlays are placed on top of the keyboard with pictures drawn on them to represent what will happen if the keys in a certain position are pressed. Concept keyboards are often used with young children in primary schools who cant use an ordinary keyboard very well. Graphics tablet A graphics tablet consists of a flat surface and a pen, or stylus, which can be used to produce freehand drawings or trace around shapes. When the special pen touches the surface of the graphics tablet data about its position
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is sent to the computer. This data is used to produce on the screen an exact copy of what is being drawn on the surface of the graphics tablet. Microphone A microphone is used to input sound into a computer system. Microphones are often used for voice recognition systems which convert sounds made by a user into commands that the computer can carry out. Systems like this are very useful for people who cant use ordinary input devices such as the mouse and keyboard. As computers become more powerful in the future, voice recognition will be a much more common input method for all computer users. Light pen A light pen is a small pen-shaped wand, which contains light sensors. It is used to choose objects or commands on the screen either by pressing it against the surface of the screen or by pressing a small switch on its side. A signal is sent to the computer, which then works out the light pens exact location on the screen. The advantage of a light pen is that it doesnt need a special screen or screen coating.
Output Devices Output: The results of processing, whether sent to the screen or printer, stored on disk as a file, or sent to another computer in a network. Printer: A computer peripheral that puts text or a computer-generated image on paper or on another medium, such as a transparency film. Types of Printers: There are two types of printers: 1. Impact Printers 2. Non-Impact Printers Impact Printers: A printer, such as a wire-pin dot-matrix printer or a daisy- wheel printer, that drives an inked ribbon mechanically against the paper to form marks. Examples are: a. Daisy Wheel Printers b. Dot-Matrix Printers Daisy Wheel Printers: Printer that uses a daisy-wheel type element. Daisy-wheel output is crisp and slightly imprinted, with fully formed characters resembling typewriter quality. Daisy-wheel printers were standard for high-quality printing until being superseded by laser printers. Dot-Matrix Printers: Any printer that produces characters made up of dots using a wire-pin print head. The quality of output from a dot-matrix printer depends largely on the number of dots in the matrix, which might be low enough to show individual dots or might be high enough to approach the look of fully formed characters. Dot-matrix printers are often categorized by the number of pins in the print head-typically 9, 18, or 24. Non-Impact Printers: Any printer that makes marks on the paper without striking it mechanically. The most common types are: a. Ink-jet b. Thermal c. Laser printers.
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Ink-Jet Printers: A non-impact printer in which liquid ink is vibrated or heated into a mist and sprayed through tiny holes in the print head to form characters or graphics on the paper. Thermal Printers: A non-impact printer that uses heat to generate an image on specially treated paper. The printer uses pins to produce an image, but rather than striking the pins against a ribbon to mark the paper as does a wire-pin dot-matrix printer, it heats the pins and brings them into gentle contact with the paper. The special coating on the paper discolors when it is heated. Laser Printer: An electrophotographic printer that is based on the technology used by photocopiers. A focused laser beam and a rotating mirror are used to draw an image of the desired page on a photosensitive drum. This image is converted on the drum into an electrostatic charge, which attracts and holds toner. A piece of electrostatically charged paper is rolled against the drum, which pulls the toner away from the drum and onto the paper. Heat is then applied to fuse the toner to the paper. Finally, the electrical charge is removed from the drum, and the excess toner is collected. By omitting the final step and repeating only the toner-application and paper- handling steps, the printer can make multiple copies. The only serious drawback of a laser printer is that it offers less paper-handling flex ibility than do dot-matrix printers. Both multipart forms and wide-carriage printing, for example, are better handled by line printers or dot-matrix printers. Cartridge: Any of various container devices that usually consist of some form of plastic housing. Disk cartridge, ink cartridge, memory cartridge, ribbon cartridge, ROM cartridge, tape cartridge, toner cartridge. Ink Cartridge: A disposable module that contains ink and is typically used in an ink-jet printer Toner Cartridge: A disposable container that holds toner for a laser printer or other page printer. Some types of toner cartridge contain toner only; however, the most popular printer engines pack all expendables, including toner and the photosensitive drum, in a single cartridge. Toner cartridges are interchangeable among printers that use the same engine. Monitor: The device on which images generated by the computer's video adapter are displayed. The term monitor usually refers to a video display and its housing. The monitor is attached to the video adapter by a cable. Monochrome Display: A video display capable of rendering only one color. The color displayed depends on the phosphor of the display (often green or amber). OR A display capable of rendering a range of intensities in only one color, as in a gray-scale monitor. VGA: Acronym for Video Graphics Adapter. A video adapter that duplicates all the video modes of the EGA (Enhanced Graphics Adapter) and adds several more.
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Microfiche: A small sheet of film, about 4 by 6 inches, used for recording photographically reduced images, such as document pages, in rows and columns forming a grid pattern. The resulting images are too small to read with the naked eye, and a microfiche reader is required to view the documents. Microfilm: Thin strip of film stored on a roll and used to record sequential data images. As with m icrofiche, a special device magnifies the images so that they can be read.
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Output Methods
Before any output can be produced by a computer it must have an output device connected to it. The output devices that you are probably most used to will be the screen, or monitor, and the printer. Another sort of output that you will have experienced when using a computer is sound, which is output through a speaker. MonitorA monitor or screen is an output device that can display graphics and text and video. The picture on a monitor is made up of thousands of tiny coloured dots called pixels( one example being a screen size of 1024 x 768). The quality of the output on a monitor depends on its resolution. The resolution of a monitor depends on the number of pixels that it can display. Certain applications need to have good quality pictures/drawings on the monitor and use what is called a high resolution monitor, i.e. it has both a large screen size and a large number of pixels. Dot matrix printers A dot matrix printer forms characters and graphics on the paper by producing patterns of dots. If you look closely at a print-out from a dot matrix printer you will see the tiny dots which make up the printout. The part of the printer which forms the patterns of dots is called the print head. The print head is made up from pins which are pushed out in different arrangements to form the various patterns of dots needed.
Inkjet printersInkjet printers work like dot matrix printers because the printouts that they produce are made up of patterns of very small dots but the print head has a set of tiny holes rather than pins. As the print head moves across the paper ink is forced out through the holes to form the image. Inkjet printers are very quiet to operate and can produce good-quality printouts of both graphics and text. Relatively cheap colour graphics can be printed using a colour inkjet. Laser printers Laser printers give very high-quality printed output of both text and graphics very quickly and quietly. They are generally more expensive to buy than inkjet printers and the toner cartridges are more expensive. They are very suitable for large volume printouts because of their speed.
Plotters The main difference between a plotter and a printer is that a plotter uses a pen to draw the computer output onto the paper. Some plotters use a set of coloured pens to produce colour output. Plotters produce very accurate drawings and are often used in computer aided design or CAD.
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Speakers Computers can output music, voices and many other complicated sounds using speakers. To be able to output sound a computer needs to have a special circuit board inside it called a sound card.
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Direct Input Methods

Direct Input Methods Methods of capturing and entering data directly without any need for human intervention. Sometimes called direct data entry, or DDE for short. Used when very large amounts of data need to be input quickly and accurately.
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) OMR uses an input device called an optical mark reader to detect marks made in certain places on specially printed forms. A fast input method, used where large amounts of data need to be input quickly. Used to input data from things like answer sheets for multiple choice exams and registration forms in schools Also National Lottery forms
Example of OMR form
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Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR)
MICR uses an input device called a magnetic ink character reader to input characters that have been printed in special magnetic ink. Banks use MICR to process cheques. Banks use this method of input for processing cheques because it is very secure. The equipment needed to print and read characters in magnetic ink is very expensive.
Cheque number
Sort code
Account number
Optical Character Recognition (OCR) OCR is the use of an ordinary scanner and special software to convert text in a scanned image into a format that can be edited by word processing software. Text must be printed or written very clearly. Used for the reading of typed postcodes. OCR depends on the shape of the marks whereas OMR depends on the position of the marks
Bar codes A bar code is a set of lines of different thicknesses that represent a number. Bar Code Readers are used to input data from bar codes. Most products in shops have bar codes on them. Bar code readers work by shining a beam of light on the lines that make up the bar code and detecting the amount of light that is reflected back. Bar codes represent a code number for a product Example of a bar code
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Magnetic stripe readers A magnetic stripe is a thin band of magnetic tape. Often on the back of a credit or debit card, store loyalty cards, identity cards and electronic key cards in hotels and businesses. Magnetic stripes can hold only a small amount of data and are quite easy to forge. In the next few years magnetic stripes will be replaced with smart cards which store much more data on a small microchip built into the surface of the card
Magnetic stripe
Sensors Sensors are used to detect physical quantities outside a computer such as temperature, pressure and light To be able to process input from sensors a device called an analogue-to-digital converter must be connected between the computer and the sensors. This device converts signals from sensors into digital data that the computer can process.
Data logging Data logging is a way of using a computer to automatically collect data over a period of time without any need for human supervision. Useful when data needs to be collected in remote or inhospitable conditions where it would be difficult for humans to take measurements. Used in weather monitoring stations and in science experiments.
Applications of data logging Collecting scientific data Monitoring hospital patients Collecting weather data Monitoring air quality
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User Interfaces
User Interfaces The human computer interface is what allows the user to communicate with the computer and is often called simply the user interface. The three main types of user interface are; Command-driven Menu-driven Graphical User Interface or GUI.
Command-driven user interfaces To use a command-driven system to communicate with the computer, the user has to type in special command words. DOS, which stands for Disk Operating System, is a very commonly used command-driven user interface. The main advantage of command driven interfaces is that they can be quick to use as long as the user knows the correct commands. The main disadvantage of command-driven interfaces is that they are very difficult to use if the user is a beginner or doesnt know the correct commands. Command-driven systems can be very unfriendly and confusing for non-computer experts use.
CyberSoft(R) PC-DOS Version 5 (c) Cyber Corp 1987-1996
The correct commands to copy the file are typed in by the user at the keyboard
C:\DOS\> copy c:\fred.txt a:\ 1 file(s) copied C:\DOS\>
The operating system displays a message to confirm that the command has been carried out successfully.
Menu-driven user interfacesMenu-driven systems offer the user lists of options which they can select by pressing a particular key on the keyboard. The main advantage of menu-driven systems is that they are easy to use. The main disadvantage of menu-driven systems is getting to one particular option can often involve working through many different menu screens.
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Main Menu F1 Load new program F2 Run program F3 List files on disc F4 Backup options ESC Quit
Backup Options F1 Restore a file F2 Make backup copy F3 Main Menu
F4 Pressed
F2 Pressed
In this example a menu-driven user interface has been used to copy a file called fred.txt to a users floppy disk.
Make Backup Copy Enter name of file fred.txt Select drive A C OK CANCEL
Graphical user interfaces The most widely used type of graphical user interfaces are WIMP systems. WIMP stands for Windows Icons Menu Pointer. Options are represented by small pictures or 'icons ' arranged inside rectangular boxes called windows. The main advantage of graphical user interfaces is that they are very easy to use, especially for a beginner. The main disadvantage is the amount of memory space they need. A graphical user interface needs a lot of RAM to run properly and takes up a large amount of hard disk space. User interface design A good user interface should be user-friendly Consistency in operation, screen layout etc. Colours should be chosen carefully e.g. that are easy to see Sound can be used to do things such as alerting the user to problems but it should also be possible to turn it off O n-line help is often a useful feature
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Graphics Packages
Graphics packages A graphics package is an application that can be used to create and manipulate images on a computer. There are two main types of graphics package: painting packages drawing packages
Painting packages A painting package produces images by changing the colour of pixels on the screen. These are coded as a pattern of bits to create a bitmapped graphics file. Bitmapped graphics are used for images such as scanned photographs or pictures taken with a digital camera. The main advantage offered by this type of graphic is that individual pixels can be changed which makes very detailed editing possible.
Disadvantages of painting packages Individual parts of an image cannot be resized; only the whole picture can be increased or decreased in size. Information has to be stored about every pixel in an image which produces files that use large amounts of backing storage space. Examples of graphics packages that produce bitmapped images include:MS Paint, PC Paintbrush, Adobe Photoshop and JASCs Paint Shop Pro.
Drawing packages A drawing package produces images that are made up from coloured lines and shapes such as circles, squares and rectangles. When an image is saved it is stored in a vector graphics file as a series of instructions, which can be used to recreate it. The main advantages of vector graphics are: They use less storage space than bitmap graphics; Each part of an image is treated as a separate object, which means that individual parts can be easily modified.
Disadvantages of drawing packages The disadvantage of vector graphics is that they dont look as realistic as bitmap graphics. Examples of drawing graphics packages include CorelDraw, Micrographix Designer and computer aided design (CAD) packages such as AutoCAD. Common features of graphics packages Drawing straight lines and freehand lines; Drawing regular pre-defined shapes like squares, rectangles and circles using a special tool;
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Entering text and changing the style and size of font; Changing the size of an object, or scaling Rotating objects in either clockwise or anticlockwise by specifying the direction and angle of rotation. Stretching objects either horizontally or vertically. Flipping an object either horizontally or vertically.
A paint palette from which different colours and patterns can be chosen. A fill option for colouring in a shape or area on the screen with a colour or pattern from the paint palette. Most graphics packages have a built-in library of clipart pictures. Zoom or magnify is a feature that allows an area of the screen to be seen close up for detailed work. Special brushes such as an airbrush can be used to achieve different paint effects on the screen. In most graphics these features are chosen from a tool bar or tool palette where they are displayed as icons. Exporting is a special way of saving a file produced using a graphics package so that it can be used in another application package. When an exported file is needed in another application it is opened in a special way called importing. Computer-aided design and manufacture Computer-aided design, or CAD, is the use of a computer to display designs, accept any changes to them and calculate and display the results. CAD has many different applications, which include: Designing new cars; Bridge and building design and testing; Printed circuit board (PCB) design; Designing new aircraft; Designing fitted kitchens.
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changes to a design requires a large number of complex calculations. These need to be performed as quickly as possible so that their effect can be viewed straight away. A powerful processor is required for this. A CAD system also needs a high-resolution monitor so that clear close-up detail can be seen on the screen. Input to CAD systems is normally given using a mouse and keyboard but other input devices such as graphic tablets and scanners are also used. Output from a CAD system is produced using a high quality printer such as a laser printer or a plotter. The advantages of CAD systems are: Changes to a design can be made quickly and their effects seen straight away; Designs can be viewed from any angle without being re-drawn; Designs can be tested without the need to build expensive models or prototypes; Drawings can be stored on disk and re-used at any time; Designs can be instantly sent anywhere in the world using electronic communications; Designs can be used directly in computer aided manufacturing processes.
Computer-aided manufacture, or CAM, is the use of a computer to control all or part of a manufacturing process. Some examples of CAM include the production of printed circuit boards, car manufacture, pattern cutting for clothing manufacture and making postage stamps. Very often a CAM process follows directly on from a CAD process, in such cases the complete design and
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manufacture process is called CAD/CAM. The main advantage of this approach is that the CAD design can be used to generate the program which will control the manufacturing process.
The advantages of CAM systems are: Products can be made very accurately and consistently; Around the clock production is much cheaper; A product's design can be modified without the need to bring production to a complete standstill; Waste can be kept to a minimum.
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Desktop Publishing
Desktop publishing Desktop publishing is the use of a desktop publishing package on a computer to produce publications such as newspapers, magazines and books. The DTP process is concerned with designing the layout of the pages in a publication. The contents are normally prepared, using a word processing package for text and a graphics package for pictures, diagrams and other illustrations. Individual page contents are imported into the desktop publishing package, which is used to organise their layout and appearance. Parts of a DTP system
Large high resolution monitor
Scanner Scanner
Laser printer Laser printer for high quality outpu

High PC, High specificationspecification computer large RAM & hard disk
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The stages of desktop publishing The contents of the publication are prepared first. Text is prepared using a word processing package and checked for any mistakes using the spell check facility. Graphics are prepared using a graphics package to create images from scratch or 'tidy up' images from other sources.
The general layout of the pages is designed and templates are created. A template defines the standard layout for a page such as how many columns of text are needed and where spaces must be left for graphics. Once a template has been set up it can be used to create as many individual pages as required each with the same basic layout. This greatly reduces the time that it takes to organise the layout of each page.
Banner headline
banner headline
text column
Text column
Graphic
graphic
The text and graphics are imported and put into place. If text doesn't fit on a page it can be automatically overflowed onto the next page. In some DTP applications text is placed inside rectangular boxes called frames. Frames can have their size adjusted and be linked together if text doesn't fit.
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text frame Text frame
When text overlaps a graphic it can be flowed or wrapped around the graphic this is shown below.
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Once the layout has been finalised the completed publication is printed and 'proof read' to check for any errors. Any necessary corrections or changes to the layout can then be made before a final high quality master copy is printed using a laser printer. Further copies can be made on a photocopying machine. Alternatively, the DTP file can be posted to a professional printing company on disk or sent via e-mail.
Common features of DTP packages Fonts A good DTP package will include a large variety of fonts which can be whatever size the user requires. Styles Styles allow the user to define the font style, size and colour of text. Once a style has been defined it can be applied to any part of the text whenever necessary. This saves time when text is being formatted and helps to keep its appearance consistent throughout a publication.
Borders Borders can be used to make objects stand out. Colour A good DTP package will include a large choice of colours which can be used to fill in areas of a page or make text, borders and lines stand out more Various tints, shades and patterns of colour are usually offered along with the facility for creating a customised colour scheme for a publication.
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Clipart DTP packages often have a library of artwork supplied with them from which graphics can be copied and pasted into a publication.
Character spacing The spacing between characters can be adjusted by using a feature called kerning. All DTP packages offer this facility along with options to shrink and stretch text
Line spacing The spacing between lines can be changed by adjusting the leading.
Design wizards A design wizards provides step-by-step help when creating common types of publication such as newspapers, flyers and greetings cards.
Text columns DTP packages all offer a facility which allows the user to set up the pages of a publication to have a certain number of text columns.
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Microprocessor & Microcomputer

Microprocessor & Microcomputer Digital: A reference to something based on digits (numbers) or their representation. Digital Computer: computer in which operations are based on two or more discrete states. Binary digital computers are based on two states, logical "on" and "off," represented by two voltage levels, arrangements of which are used to represent all types of informationnumbers, letters, graphics symbols, and program instructions. Within such a computer, the states of various circuit components change continuously to move, operate on, and save this information. Analogue: Pertaining to or being a device or signal that is continuously varying in strength or quantity, such as voltage or audio, rather than based on discrete units, such as the binary digits 1 and 0. A lighting dimmer switch is an analog device because it is not based on absolute settings. Analog Computer: A computer that measures data varying continuously in value, such as speed or temperature. Peripheral: In computing, a device, such as a disk drive, printer, modem, or joystick, that is connected to a computer and is controlled by the computer's microprocessor. Device: A generic term for a computer subsystem. Printers, serial ports, and disk drives are often referred to as devices; such subsystems frequently require their own controlling software, called device drivers Microprocessor: A central processing unit (CPU) on a single chip. A modern microprocessor can have several million transistors in an integrated-circuit package that can easily fit into the palm of one's hand. Microprocessors are at the heart of all personal computers. When memory and power are added to a microprocessor, all the pieces, excluding peripherals, required for a computer are present. Microcomputer: A computer built around a single-chip microprocessor. Less powerful than minicomputers and mainframes, microcomputers have nevertheless evolved into very powerful machines capable of complex tasks. Technology has progressed so quickly that state-ofthe-art microcomputersessentially, in today's terms, a desktop PC are as powerful as mainframe computers of only a few years ago, at a fraction of the cost.
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Storage
Storing data Data storage devices can be divided into 2 main categories: Backing storage is used to store programs and data when they are not being used or when a computer is switched off. When programs and data are needed they are copied into main memory but also still remain on backing storage. Magnetic tape drives, floppy disk drives and hard disk drives are all examples of backing storage devices. The Main Memory co ntains two types of memory chip called ROM and RAM which hold program instructions and data. BITS and BYTES Computers store and process data using binary numbers. A single unit in binary is called a bit which stands for binary digit. Computer memory is measured in bytes. One byte is made up of eight bits. One byte can store one character.
The eight bit binary code in this byte represents the letter A The size of a computers memory is normally measured in kilobytes (Kb), megabytes (Mb) or gigabytes (Gb). The table below shows some of the main units of size that we use to measure computer memory. Random Access Memory (RAM) RAM is the computers working memory. RAM temporarily stores programs and data that are being used at a given time. The contents of RAM can be changed and are lost when the computer is turned off. Memory which is wiped clean when the computer is turned off is called volatile memory. Read Only Memory (ROM)The main use of ROM memory chips in a computer is to store the program that runs when the computer is turned on which loads the operating system (e.g. Windows 2000) from disk. The contents of ROM cant be changed and arent lost when the computer is switched off. Memory which isn't wiped clean when the computer is turned off is called non- volatile memory. PROM and EPROM PROM and EPROM are both special types of programmable read only memory. PROM stands for Programmable Read Only Memory. This type of memory can be programmed once but cant be changed again afterwards. EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory. This type of memory can be programmed and then changed whenever necessary. A hard disk is a circular metal disk coated with magnetic material and usually sealed in a hard disk drive inside the computer.
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Some hard disk drives are not permanently fixed inside the computer but are removable. Data stored on a hard disk can be accessed much more quickly than data stored on a floppy disk. Hard disks can store much more data than a floppy disk. A typical hard disk inside a personal computer can hold several gigabytes of data. Floppy disks A floppy disk a circular piece of plastic coated with a ma gnetic material and protected by a hard plastic cover. The size of a floppy disk is measured in inches. Modern floppy disks are 3 inches wide. A standard floppy disk can store up to 1.44 Mb of data. Before any type of magnetic disk can be used it must be formatted.
CD-ROMCD-ROM stands for compact disk read only memory. A CD-ROM looks just like an ordinary compact disk. CD-ROMs can store approximately 650 megabytes of data which is four hundred times more data than an ordinary 3 inch floppy disk. CD-ROM disks come with information already on them and are read only. This means that the information on a CD-ROM cannot be erased or changed, and no new information can be saved.Writeable CDs Writeable compact disks are supplied blank and can have data put onto them using a special read/write CD drive. WORM (Write-Once, Read-Many) disks which can have data written to them just once. Digital versatile disk (DVD) DVD is the latest way of storing data. DVD discs are expected to replace ordinary compact discs and video tapes in the future. A DVD disc can store up to 17 gigabytes of data. This is enough storage space for at least four full- length feature films! Magnetic tape Magnetic tape comes in two forms; tape reels, and cassettes or cartridges. Large tape reels are used to make backup copies of programs and data on large mainframe computers. Cartridges are used to make backup copies of the programs and data on personal computers and networks. The main advantage of using magnetic tape as backing storage is that it is relatively cheap and can store large amounts of data. Direct and serial accessFloppy disks, hard disks and CDs all allow direct access to data. Direct access means that the required data can be found straight away without having to read through all the data on the disk. Magnetic tape allows only serial access to data. To locate data on a magnetic tape it has to be searched from the beginning until the required data is found. File compression File compression soft ware can be used to make files smaller so that more data can be stored in the same amount of space on backing store. When a compressed file on backing store needs to be used it must be decompressed. This can be done using decompression software or by setting files up to be self-extracting which means that they can automatically decompress themselves.
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Winzip is an example of software that can be used to compress and decompress files. The formatting process involves: Dividing the surface of the disk into invisible circles called tracks and sectors. Setting up a root directory where the list of files that are on the disk will be kept. Data on a magnetic disk is located by finding the address of its location from an index in the root directory. Each address in the index contains a track and sector number for an individual data segment.
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Data Validation & Verification

Validation: The process of analyzing data to determine whether it conforms to predetermined completeness and consistency parameters. Verification: To confirm either that a result is correct or that a procedure or sequence of operations has been performed. OR The process of checking mistakes is called verification. Source Code: Source codes are the actual programming codes that are produced before the translation of the program into machine codes. OR Human-readable program statements written by a programmer or d eveloper in a high-level or assembly language that are not directly readable by a computer. Source code needs to be compiled into object code before it can be executed by a computer. Object Code: Object codes are the codes that are produced after the translation of the program into machine codes. OR The code, generated by a compiler or an assembler that was translated from the source code of a program. The term most commonly refers to machine code that can be directly executed by the system's central proc essing unit (CPU), but it can also be assembly language source code or a variation of machine code. Source Document: The main document from which the data is to be taken. Verification: Verification is the checking of data which has been copied from one medium to another to see that it still represents the original data. Validation: Validation is the checking of data before the main processing to see that it is acceptable for the process. Type Check: It is the checking of the type of data, i.e. the checking if the data is in the same type/format as it is required or not. Length/Range Check: It is to check the no. of characters in data, whether it is according to the requirements less than or more than the actual limit. Duplication Check: It is to check if the data already exists. This check is validated to prevent duplication and replication of data. Compatibility Check: It is the check of compatibility, that whether the data that is to be entered may be allowed on the basis of terms and conditions of the system or not. Transposition Errors: Errors occurred due to the misplacement of characters of a data item.
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Transcription Errors: Errors occurred while typing the data / data entry / copying data from source document into computer. Omission Errors: Errors occurred due to the loss of character(s) or data item while transferring data from source to computer. Addition Errors: Errors occurred when some character(s) that is not in the actual data/source document is added by mistake during transferring data into the computer. Random Errors: When the characters/units of the data item are misplaced from their actual place.
Program Errors Error: A flaw or bug in a program is an error. There are 3 kinds of error: 4. Syntax Error. 5. Logical Error. 6. Runtime Error. Syntax Error: The error found due to some mistake or due to some incorrect placement of some command or statement is called Syntax Error. Due to it program isnt executed. Logical Error: Logical errors are the errors that are found due to the incorrect flow of program. Due to this the program is executed & produces a result, but that result isnt the expected & desired result. Runtime Error: These are also called execution errors. For e.g. the computer may be asked to divide by 0 or 1 of the numbers produced may be too large to fit in memory location. OR Runtime Error: The error that comes b/c of the mistakes of the user is a Runtime Error. This error comes after the execution of program if we enter wrong entries. Character: Character is a unit of representing some message. There are three types of characters: 4.Alphabetic Characters / Alphabets. 5.Numeric Characters / Numbers. 6.Special Symbols. Check Digit: A digit added to an account number or other identifying key value and then recomputed when the number is used. This process determines whether an error occurred when the number was entered. Check Sum: A calculated value that is used to test data for the presence of errors that can occur when data is transmitted or when it is written to disk. The checksum is calculated for a given chunk of data by sequentially combining all the bytes of data with a series of arithmetic or logical operations. After the data is transmitted or stored, a new checksum is calculated in the same way using the (possibly faulty) transmitted or stored data. If the two checksums do not match, an error has occurred, and the data should be transmitted or stored again. Checksums cannot detect all errors, and they cannot be used to correct erroneous data.
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Checking data Data stored on a computer is only useful as long as it is correct and up-to-date. It is important to check data when it is entered to make sure that it is both sensible and correct. If data is not checked before it is processed any errors could cause the final output to be nonsense. There are two methods that can be used to check data when it is input. These are called verification and validation.
Verification
Verification is checking to make sure that data has been entered correctly. Verification is often carried out by getting two users to enter the same set of data at different computers. Once both users have entered the data the two sets of data are compared to check that they match up. Any data that does not match up is rejected. Verification can also be carried out by software which might, for example, ask for the same data to be entered twice. If both entries don't match up the data is rejected.
Validation Validation checks are carried out by software to make sure that data which has been entered is allowable and sensible. Data that is not sensible or allowed is rejected by the computer. There are many different types of validation check that software can make on data. We will now look at some of these in more detail.
Range check Range checks are used to check that data is within a certain range of numbers or a specific set of values. For example if the examination marks for a group of students was being input a range check could be used to make sure that each mark was greater than or equal to zero and less than or equal to the maximum possible mark.
Type check Type checks are used to check that the correct type of data has been entered in a field. For example if numeric data is being input a type check could be used to make sure that text data isnt entered by accident. Length check Length checks are used to check that input data contains a certain number of characters. For example if a value in a certain field had to contain five digits and only four digits were input, an error message would be given to the user. Presence check A presence check is used to make sure that a value has actually been entered in a field. In some database files entering data in certain fields can be optional. Other fields, such as key
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fields for example, are compulsory and must have values entered in them. A presence check makes sure that data is present in a field where it is compulsory that a value is needed. Parity check Sometimes when data is being transferred electronically from one place to another it can become corrupted. A parity check is used to make sure that data has not been corrupted during transmission. Data is transmitted as a binary pattern of 0s and 1s. A parity check involves adding an extra 0 or 1, called a parity bit, to the binary pattern so that the total number of 1s in the pattern is either an even number, this is called even parity, or an odd number, this is called odd parity.
In even parity the parity bit is set to either 0 or 1 so that the total number of 1s adds up to an even number. In this example there are four 1s so the value 0 is needed in the parity bit to keep the number of 1s even.
In odd parity the parity bit is set to either 0 or 1 so that the total number of 1s adds up to an odd number. In this example there are two 1s so the value 1 is needed in the parity bit to make the number of 1s odd.
Hash total Hash totals are used to check that groups of numbers have been input correctly. A hash total is the sum of a group of numbers that are going to be input. The hash total is input along with the numbers. The computer calculates a hash total for the numbers that have been input. If the hash total calculated by the computer does not match the hash total that was input with the numbers then one or more of the numbers have either not been entered or have been entered incorrectly.
Check digit Check digits are used to validate long numbers that have a lot of digits in them. A check digit is an extra digit placed at the end of long number that can be used to check if the number has been input correctly. Check digits are often used to check numbers that have been input using direct data entry devices such as bar code scanners or light pens.
The value of a check digit is worked out by performing a calculation using the individual digits that make up a number, excluding the actual check digit itself. This calculation gives
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the value of the check digit which is then compared to the check digit as it was input. If the two check digits differ then the data is rejected.
Calculating check digits using the modulus-11 method Each digit is assigned a weight starting at 2 with the right hand digit; Each digit is multiplied by its weight; The results of these calculations are added together to give a total; The total is divided by 11; The remainder is subtracted from 11 to give the check digit. The two exceptions are: If the remainder is 0 and the result is 11 the check digit is 0, not 11. If the remainder is 1 and the result is 10 the check digit is X, not 10. Coding data When data is input using a manual input device such as a keyboard, errors often occur due to values being entered incorrectly. A common mistake is to swap two letters or digits around; this is called a transposition error. One method that can be used to cut down on errors like this is to use coded values for data. Suppose that a field could contain one of three possible values; small, medium or large. Instead of typing in the full word each time we could instead type S, M or L
The advantages of coding values are: Fewer key presses are needed when entering a value in the field so there is less chance of the wrong keys being pressed. Time is saved when entering data because there is less to type in each time. Database packages allow automatic validation checks to be set up to make sure that only the allowed codes have been input in a field.
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Coding
Coding: Writing a program in programming language codes/reserved words is called coding. Module: In programming, a collection of routines and data structures that performs a particular task or implements a particular abstract data type. Procedure: In a program, a named sequence of statements, often with associated constants, data types, and variables, that usually performs a single task. A procedure can usually be called (executed) by other procedures, as well as by the main body of the program. Sub-routine: A common term for routine, likely to be used in reference to shorter, general, frequently called routines. Routine: Any section of code that can be invoked (executed) within a program. A routine usually has a name (identifier) associated with it and is executed by referencing that name. Event: An action or occurrence, often generated by the user, to which a program might respond-for example, key presses, button clicks, or mouse movements. Active X: A set of technologies that enables software components to interact with one another in a networked environment, regardless of the language in which the components were created. ActiveX, which was developed by Microsoft in the mid 1990s and is currently administered by the Open Group, is built on Microsoft's Component Object Model (COM). Currently, ActiveX is used primarily to develop interactive content for the World Wide Web, although it can be used in desktop applications and other programs. ActiveX controls can be embedded in Web pages to produce animation and other multimedia effects, interactive objects, and sophisticated applications. Active X Control: A reusable software component based on Microsoft's ActiveX technology that is used to add interactivity and more functionality, such as animation or a popup menu, to a Web page, applications, and software development tools. An ActiveX control can be written in any of a number of languages, including Java, C++, and Visual Basic. Macro: In applications, a set of keystrokes and instructions recorded and saved under a short key code or macro name. When the key code is typed or the macro name is used, the program carries out the instructions of the macro. Users can create a macro to save time by replacing an often-used, sometimes lengthy, series of strokes with a shorter version.
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Problem Solving
Algorithm: A finite sequence of steps for solving a logical or mathematical problem or performing a task. OR A sequenced set of instructions in general English which is used to solve a problem is called an Algorithm. Pseudo codes: Any informal, transparent notation in which a program or algorithm description is written. Many programmers write their programs first in a pseudo code that looks much like a mixture of English and their favourite programming language, such as C or Pascal, and then translate it line by line into the actual language being used. Loops: A set of statements in a program executed repeatedly, either a fixed number of times or until some condition is true or false. OR To execute a group of statements repeatedly. Flowchart: A graphic map of the path of control or data through the operations in a program or an information- handling system. Symbols such as squares, diamonds, and ovals represent various operations. These symbols are connected by lines and arrows to indicate the flow of data or control from one point to another. OR The block diagrammatic representation of the flow of program is known as Flowchart. Structured Programming: Programming that produces programs with clean flow, clear design, and a degree of modularity or hierarchical structure. Modular Programming: Modular programming is an approach to writing programs which divides up a task into separate sections or modules (sub programs) to perform a specific job. In theory amendments are easier to make because individual sections can be corrected without having to work through the whole program. Documentation: The set of instructions shipped with a program or a piece of hardware. Documentation usually includes necessary information about the type of computer system required, setup instructions, and instructions on the use and maintenance of the product. Dry Run: Running a program intended to have a dramatic effect, such as formatting a disk or printing a book, with the effect disabled, thus avoiding formatting a disk with data on it or wasting paper. Conditional Jump: In a program, a jump instruction that occurs when a particular condition code is true or false. Jump: An instruction that transfers the flow of execution from one statement or instruction to another. Robust: Able to function or to continue functioning well in unexpected situations.
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Expert System & Data Logging

Expert System: An application program that makes decisions or solves problems in a particular field, such as finance or medicine, by using knowledge and analytical rules defined by experts in the field. It uses two components, a knowledge base and an inference engine, to form conclusions. Additional tools include user interfaces and explanation facilities, which enable the system to justify or explain its conclusions as well as allowing developers to run checks on the operating system. Inference Engine: The processing portion of an expert system. It matches input propositions with facts and rules contained in a knowledge base a nd then derives a conclusion, on which the expert system then acts. Knowledge Base: A form of database used in expert systems that contains the accumulated body of knowledge of human specialists in a particular field. The reasoning ability or problem-solving approach that a specialist would use is contained in the inference engine, which forms another crucial part of an expert system. Sensor: A device that detects or measures something by converting nonelectrical energy to electrical energy. A photocell, for example, detects or measures light by converting it to electrical energy. Data Logging: the automatic capture of data (by means of sensors) over a certain period of time. Artificial Intelligence: The branch of computer science concerned with enabling computers to simulate such aspects of human intelligence as speech recognition, deduction, inference, creative response, the ability to learn from experience, and the ability to make inferences given incomplete information. Two common areas of artificial-intelligence research are expert systems and natural-language processing. Acronym: AI. Natural-Language Processing: A field of computer science and linguistics that studies computer systems that can recognize and react to human language, either spoken or written. Intelligent Database: A database that manipulates stored information in a way that people find logical, natural, and easy to use. An intelligent database conducts searches relying not only on traditional data-finding routines but also on predetermined rules governing associations, relationships, and even inferences regarding the data. Linkers: program that links compiled modules and data files to create an executable program. A linker can also have other functions, such as creating libraries. Loaders: A utility that loads the executable code of a program into memory for execution. On most microcomputers, the loader is an invisible part of the operating system and is automatically invoked when a program is run.
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Expert Systems Definition How it works Examples Limitations Definition also known as Knowledge-Based system a software system which attempts to simulate human knowledge and suggest solutions to a given problem
How It Works The computer is programmed with a set of questions and a given set of rules. The questions and answers are provided by human experts The users answers to those questions are processed according to these rules and a course of action is suggested Examples medical diagnosis engine diagnostics energy conservation commodity prices share dealing
Limitations Training needed to operate the system Knowledge base is only as good as the experts who set up the system. Could become out of date as knowledge improves. No feedback of further experiences Difficulties in initial setting up
Web Sites www.expertsystems.com www.expertsystems.com/projects.html www.primenet.com/pcai/New_Home_Page/ai_info/expert_systems.html
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The Data Protection Act

Data Protection Act
Why ? Who Are The Data Users ? What Is In The Dpa ? Misuse Of Data Principles Responsibilities Of Data Users Personal Rights Exemptions
WHO ARE THE DATA USERS?

Schools Police
Banks
Employers
Businesses
Government departments
Why ?
More personal data being stored on computers. Other EU countries already had legislation. Need to protect people from the misuse of data. Other legislation applied to non-computer storage of data.
What Is In The Dpa?
A law which applies to the collection, storage and processing of personal data about living ind ividuals. A law which obliges data users to register with the Data Registrar Compels data users to follow a set of 8 principles.
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Misuse of Data
Easier to cross reference Hacking Easier to alter Easier and faster to access
Principles
Information shall be obtained and processed fairly and lawfully Data shall be held only for the specified and lawful purpose Data shall not be disclosed to non authorised users Data shall be adequate, relevant and not excessive in relation to the intended purpose Data shall be accurate and kept up-to-date Data not be kept for any longer than necessary An individual has a right to know that data is being held and have access to that data Appropriate security shall protect the data against unauthorised access, alteration, deletion.
Responsiblities Of Data Users
Register the following details with the Data Registrar:
Details to be held Why data is being held How data was obtained To whom the data will be passed Names of any countries where the data may be transferred Pay the registration fee.
Personal Rights You have the right to
see your details, with some exceptions have t he data amended where you can prove it is wrong.
Exemptions
data related to national security data required by law to be made public
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data concerning personal and family held within the family some data relating to salaries, pensions & wages data relating to crime detection data relating to immigration data relating to tax data not held on a computer
Web Sites
www.bsi.org.uk/disc/PD12 www.open.gov.uk/dpr/dprhome.htm
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The System Life Cycle

System: A system is a set of components that work as a unit. An information processing system consists of everything required to carry out a particular processing task. OR A system is a set of units that work in a particular direction of flow in order to fulfil a task. System Analysis: To study, understand and investigate a system in order to find out the actual problem is called System Analysis. Feasibility Study: The study of system to find out all the possible solution within available sources, the durability of the new system and the costs and benefits of the new system is called feasibility study. The System Life Cycle is based of the following steps: 1. Investigation 2. Problem Definition 3. Analysis 4. Design 5. Implementation 6. Installation Problem Definition: To find out the actual problem by studying and investigating the system is called problem definition. Investigation: The process of finding the problem and the causes of problem by conducting interviews, system study and using system is called Investigating. Design: After the investigation of the system, the program is yet to be structured properly i.e. the production of documentation and all other sources is called Design. Implementation: All the designing of the system is to be worked out in order to make or update a system, which is known as Implementation. Installation: To run the system after making it to accomplish task of making or updating of the system is called Installation.
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The System Life Cycle The system life cycle is a series of stages that are worked through during the development of a new information system. A lot of time and money can be wasted if a system is developed that doesnt work properly or do exactly what is required of it. A new system is much more likely to be successful if it is carefully planned and developed.
Feasibility study Analysis Maintenance Design Implementation

Feasibility Study The first stage of the system life cycle. This is an investigation that is carried out by a systems analyst to find out what the main problems are with the existing system and if it is technically possible and cost-effective to solve these problems by developing a computer based solution. Feasibility report contents A description of the existing system outlining what is being done and how it is being done; A set of problem statements describing exactly what the problems are with the existing system; A set of system objectives which describe what the new system must be able to do; A description of some alternative solutions; A description of the technical, economic, legal and social factors that have been considered; A recommended course of action.
Analysis During the analysis stage systems analysts investigate the existing system to identify exactly what the problems are with the existing system Systems analysts will use a variety of factfinding methods to gather information e.g. Questionnaires Interviews Observation Examining documents
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Data Flow diagrams and systems flowcharts Once the systems analysts have completed their investigation they produce a detailed description of how the existing system works. Methods used to help describe the system include data flow diagrams and systems flowcharts Symbols used in DFDs
External entity data source or data destination, for example people who generate data such as a customer order, or receive information such as an invoice.
Process an operation performed on the data. The two lines are optional; the top section of the box can be used to label the process, the middle to give a brief explanation, the bottom to say where the process takes place.
Data store such as a file held on disk or a batch of documents Data flow the arrow represents movement between entities, processes or data stores. The arrow should be labelled to describe what data is involved. Symbols used in Flowcharts
Process
Any Input or Output
e.g.
or Printer Display
Any storage
e.g. Disk
or Tape
A systems flowchart
Transactions Tape
Sort
Sorted Transactions Tape
New Master Old Master Update Design Tape Tape Alternative possible solutions are identified Alternative solutions evaluated The best solution is identified A design specification is produced containing information about: Input Output
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Data storage User interface Backup and recovery procedures Security procedures Test plan
Typical format for a test plan Test number 1 2 Test data Purpose Expected Result Mark rejected Mark accepted David Cooke added to the student database Actual Result
Enter incorrect mark 1 Enter incorrect mark 45 Enter new student with Student_number 100 forename David surname Cooke
Test input mark function Test input mark function Test Add new student function
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Implementation This stage involves: Setting up the system so that it matches the design specification Testing carried out using the plan to make sure that all the parts of the system work correctly with normal, extreme and erroneous data Normal test data is used to check that a system can handle the sort of data that would be expected during day-to-day use Extreme test data is used to check that a system can cope with data that lies on the boundaries of what is acceptable Erroneous (or exceptional) test data is used to check that a system can identify data that is wrong and reject it Testing using normal, extreme and erroneous data Test number 1 Test data Enter a mark of 50 ; this is within the range Enter a mark of 0 ; this is on the limit of the range Enter a mark of 100 ;this is on the limit of the range Enter a mark of 101 ;this is out of the range Purpose Test input mark function Expected Result Mark accepted Actual Result
Test input mark function
Mark accepted Mark accepted
Mark accepted
Mark rejected
Installing the new system Might include: Installing any new hardware and software Transferring data from the existing system to the new one Training users how to operate the new system Producing documentation Technical documentation the system design specification; systems flowcharts; data flow diagrams;
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description of the various parts of the system and what each one does; screen layouts and user interface designs; the test plan. User documentation a description of what the system is designed to do; minimum hardware and software requirements of the system; instructions on how to load and run the system; detailed instructions on how to operate each part of the system; Error messages, their meaning and how to deal with them. Where to get more help, such as telephone support lines and on-line tutorials.Postimplementation review Carried out after the new system has been running for a few weeks or months to identify any modifications that may need to be made. Maintenance A new information system may need to be changed due to: Change in needs of user Problems not found during testing Improvements required in the way the system works
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Past Y ear Papers
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O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

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Past Y ear Termi nol ogi es

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June 1993 Buffer String Merging Rogue value User documentation

June 8th 1990 Buffer LAN Sequential file Direct-access file

June 20th 1990 Verification Interpreter assembler

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

Network & Topologies

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

Diagram of a typical WAN

telephone line analogue signal

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

(*) denotes additional items over and above standard PC.

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

Disadvantages, for the consumer, of shopping on the Internet

Advantages, to the retailer, of shopping on the Internet

Disadvantages, for the retailer, of shopping on the Internet

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

Filtered service from ISP

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

O Level Computer Studies 7010/01 Study Guide

Denton High School