Mikota J. (2002) : Contributions To The Development of Compact and Tuneable Vibration Compensators For Hydraulic Systems. PHD Thesis, Johannes Kepler University of Linz, Austria.

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Preface
This dissertation was prepared during my work as research and teaching as-
sistant at the Department of Foundations of Machine Design at the Johannes
Kepler University of Linz.
First and foremost I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Rudolf Scheidl for his ideas
and advise during this work. I also had excellent discussions with my colleagues
Michael Garstenauer, Siegfried Grammer, Gudrun Hametner, Norbert Krim-
bacher and Bernhard Manhartsgruber. They made my work at the department
a pleasure. Furthermore, I would like to thank Prof. Dr. Klaus Zeman for thor-
oughly revising my work and Herbert Reiter for doing the design of the third
prototype and lots of experimental work.
The following companies and institutions provided support for this project:
• Bosch Rexroth AG, Lohr, produced the first prototype and offered their
test facilities to me.
• Bosch Rexroth GmbH., Pasching, provided facilities for the testing of the
third prototype.
• The department of CA-Methods in Mechanical Engineering produced the

third prototype in excellent quality and within a reasonable amount of
time.
I would like to thank all these companies and institutions for their support and
cooperation.
Last but not least, I would like to thank my parents Josef and Elfriede, my
brothers Alfred, Andreas, Reinhold and Markus and my friends for their sup-
port during that time. Thank you!
Linz, May 2002 (Dipl.-Ing. Josef Mikota)
i
Abstract
The present thesis deals with vibration compensators for the attenuation of
fluid flow pulsations in hydraulic systems. After a problem definition and an
overview of conventional devices, several novel designs of vibration compen-
sators, such as multi degree-of-freedom mass-spring oscillators, devices based
on plate/shell elements and compact λ/4 side-branch resonators are presented
and discussed. Wherever possible, the theoretical description of these devices
is supplemented by simulation models, application examples etc.
However, the main contribution of this thesis is a compact and adjustable

mass-spring resonator featuring a hydraulic spring. The main advantages of
this design are:
• Simple and compact design.
• Excellent noise attenuation characteristics.
• Suitable for all pressure levels by mean pressure compensation.
• Frequency tuning of the device is easily possible in both a semi-active

and active manner.
After a description of the function principle and a discussion of some phenom-

ena occurring at high frequencies, experimental results will be presented which
prove the usefulness of the concept.
A section devoted to further work will finish this contribution.
ii
Zusammenfassung
Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit Schwingungstilgern für die Abschwäch-

ung von Volumenstrompulsationen in Hydrauliksystemen. Nach einer anfäng-
lichen Definition der Problemstellung werden mehrere neuartige Konstrukti-
onsvarianten, wie Feder-Masse Schwinger mit mehreren Freiheitsgraden, Syste-
me, welche auf auf den dynamischen Eigenschaften von Platten, oder Schalen
beruhen oder kompakte λ/4 Schalldämpfer präsentiert und abgehandelt. Da-
bei wird die theoretische Beschreibung dieser Systeme so oft wie möglich durch
Simulationsmodelle oder Anwendungsbeispiele ergänzt.
Der Hauptbeitrag dieser Dissertation ist jedoch ein kompakter und verstellba-
rer Feder-Masse Resonator, welcher eine neuartige hydraulische Feder einsetzt.
Die Hauptvorteile dieser Konstruktionsvariante sind:
• Einfache und kompakte Konstruktion.
• Sehr gute Pulsationsabschwächungswirkung des Tilgers.
• Eignung des Konzeptes für alle Druckniveaus durch Mitteldruckausgleich.
• Die Frequenzstellung des Resonators ist sowohl passiv als auch aktiv
leicht möglich.
Nach einer Beschreibung des Funktionsprinzipes und der Diskussion von Phäno-
menen, welche besonders bei höheren Frequenzen zum Tragen kommen, wer-
den experimentellen Untersuchungsergebnisse präsentiert, welche die Stärken
des Konzeptes verdeutlichen.
Ein Ausblick auf noch durchzuführende weiterführende Arbeiten beschließt die-

se Dissertation.
iii
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Sources of hydraulic noise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.1 Positive displacement pumps/motors . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.1.2 Switching type converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Conventional devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Vibration compensation 7
2.1 Historical development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2 Mathematical foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.1 Mechanical oscillator with vibration absorber . . . . . . 8
2.2.2 Analogy between mechanical and hydraulic systems . . . 9
2.2.3 Duality between mechanical and hydraulic systems . . . 11
2.3 Mechanical oscillator and vibration absorbers . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Mechanical oscillator without vibration absorber . . . . . 12
2.3.2 Mechanical oscillator with one absorber . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3.3 Mechanical oscillator with two absorbers . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.4 Implementation of a mechanical band-stop filter . . . . . 17
3 Novel vibration compensators 19

3.1 Mechanical mass-spring resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.1 Single DOF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1.2 Multiple DOF . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.2 Resonators based on plate/shell elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.3 λ/4 Side branch resonators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.1 Influence of wall flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.3.2 Compact λ/4 side-branch resonators . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.4 Comparative analysis and discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.4.1 Multi degree-of-freedom mass-spring compensator . . . . 32
3.4.2 Compensator based on plate/shell element . . . . . . . . 35
3.4.3 Compact λ/4 side-branch resonator . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
4 Compensator with hydraulic spring 38

4.1 Fundamental working principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.2 Resonance frequency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
iv
CONTENTS v
4.2.1 Basic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

4.2.2 Advanced model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
4.3 Design aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3.1 System dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.3.2 Optimisation of sealing gap geometry . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.3.3 Dimensioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.4 Semi-active compensators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.4.1 Generic adaptive-passive vibration absorber . . . . . . . 61
4.4.2 Simulation model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.4.3 Optimal adaption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.4.4 Hydraulic adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.4.5 Mechanical adaptation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5 Numerical and experimental results 77

5.1 First prototype (fRes ≈ 140 Hz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1.1 Experimental setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.1.2 Attenuation performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.1.3 Simulation study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.2 Second prototype (fN omRes ≈ 225 Hz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.3 Third prototype (fRes ≈ 450 Hz) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
6 Further work 91
7 Conclusions 95
A Design drawings 97
B FE models 100
B.1 Acoustic analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
B.1.1 Channel length lC = 5 cm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
B.1.2 Channel length lC = 0 cm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
C Mathematical foundations 105

C.1 Complex amplitude of harmonic functions . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
C.2 Wave propagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
D Notation 108
E Curriculum vitae 110
F Statutory declaration 112

Chapter 1
Introduction
Positive displacement pumps and motors, as well as the utilisation of discon-

tinuous control elements, such as fast switching valves in combination with
so-called switching type converters (resonance converters, wave converters and
motor converters) create significant flow- and pressure pulsations in hydraulic
circuits. These unpleasant effects may lead to excessive (acoustic) noise, com-
promised actuator dynamics or even to fatigue problems of components. Apart
from measures to reduce fluid flow pulsations in the first place by optimised
pump/motor designs [II00], or the utilisation of damping devices (e.g. accumu-
lators, in particular featuring a Pulse tone design), different forms of vibration
compensators, such as λ/4 line silencers, λ/4 side-branch resonators, Helmholtz
resonators etc. exist and may be used to attenuate flow induced pressure pul-
sations in hydraulic systems.
This thesis deals with vibration compensators for the attenuation of fluid
flow pulsations in hydraulic systems. After a problem definition and an overview
of conventional devices, several novel designs of vibration compensators, such
as multi degree-of-freedom mass-spring oscillators, devices based on plate/shell
elements and compact λ/4 side-branch resonators are presented and discussed.
Wherever possible, the theoretical description of these devices is supplemented
by simulation models, application examples etc.
However, the main contribution of this thesis is a compact and adjustable
mass-spring resonator featuring a hydraulic spring. The main advantages of
this design are:
• Simple and compact design.
• Excellent noise attenuation characteristics.
• Suitable for all pressure levels by mean pressure compensation.
• Frequency tuning of the device is easily possible in both a semi-active

and active manner.
1
CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION 2
After a description of the function principle and a discussion of some phenom-

ena occurring at high frequencies, experimental results will be presented which
prove the usefulness of the concept. A section devoted to further work and the
conclusions will finish this dissertation.
1.1 Sources of hydraulic noise

There are three main sources of noise in a hydraulic circuit: So-called positive
displacement pumps, such as piston pumps, gear pumps etc. producing a non-
steady flow stream in the first place, positive displacement motors, and the
utilisation of discontinuous control elements, e.g. fast switching valves in the
hydraulic circuit. Some details concerning these elements will be discussed in
the following paragraphs.
1.1.1 Positive displacement pumps/motors

By definition [ED88], positive displacement machines are characterised by a
finite number of displacement elements, i.e. pistons in case of piston pumps or
motors, teeth in gear pumps/motors etc. Hence, the flow stream originating
at a pump is not constant over time, i.e. it is characterised by some harmonics
repeating at the pump frequency and integer multiples of it. In addition to that,
these periodic flow pulsations interact with other elements of the hydraulic
circuit, such as piping, valves etc. or even notably with the load itself, and
complex pressure waves are formed within the hydraulic circuit [DDG98].
To the outside world, these fluctuations become notable as audible noise,
vibrations of the pipe-work or fatigue problems of components.
Since the dynamics of positive displacement pumps is quite complicated
(influence of port plate (or silencing) grooves, momentum of the fluid in the
vicinity of the ports. . . ), only a very simplistic model for the flow generating
mechanism of positive displacement pumps will be presented.
Neglecting the influences mentioned above, the flow generated by one pump-
ing element in a piston pump may be written as
Qspec π n
Qi = sin(ω t + ϕi ) σ[sin(ω t + ϕi )] (1.1)
nP ist
where
(
1 if x ≥ 0
σ(x) = (1.2)
0 otherwise
2π
ϕi = (i − 1). (1.3)
nP ist
Hereby, the specific pump flow, the pump speed, the piston number and the
angular velocity of the pump are denoted by Qspec , n, nP ist and ω respectively.
Thus the total pump flow generated is

nX
P ist
Qtot = Qi . (1.4)
i=1
Fig. 1.1 shows the flow characteristics of a 9 piston pump with QN om =

50 l/min.
6 0
5 0
P i s t o n 1
4 0 P i s t o n 2
P i s t o n 3
P i s t o n 4
P i s t o n 5
P i s t o n 6
]
3 0
i n
P i s t o n 7
P i s t o n 8
[ l / m
P i s t o n 9
T o t a l F l o w
Q
2 0
1 0
0 p / 2 p 3 / 2 p 2 p
j [ r a d ]
Figure 1.1: Flow characteristics of a 9 piston pump
A spectral analysis of the pump flow (see Fig. 1.2 and [Bac94]) reveals that
the first harmonic of the pump flow is given as
(
2 nP ist n if nP ist is an odd number
f1 = (1.5)
nP ist n otherwise.
1.1.2 Switching type converters

As explained in the papers by Garstenauer, Scheidl et al. [GGS96, SR99], a fast
(digital) switching valve SV in combination with a mechanical oscillator – the
so-called Resonance converter – may be utilised to effectively adjust the flow
rate in hydraulic systems by periodically switching between a high pressure
port P, a tank line T and an output port A (see Fig. 1.3). The flow rate in the
output line is hereby controlled by the pressure levels in the pressure and tank
lines, the switching frequency f , the relative period of the pressure-on-phase
and the relative period of the output-on-phase.
0 . 3 5
s t
0 . 3 1 o r d e r h a r m o n i c s
0 . 2 5
]
i n
0 . 2
[ l / m
e
d
l i t u
p
0 . 1 5
m
A
2
n d
o r d e r h a r m o n i c s
0 . 1
r d
3 o r d e r h a r m o n i c s
t h
4 o r d e r
0 . 0 5
h a r m o n i c s
0
0 2 0 0 4 0 0 6 0 0 8 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 6 0 0 1 8 0 0 2 0 0 0
F r e q u e n c y [ H z ]
Figure 1.2: Frequency spectrum of flow characteristics given in Fig. 1.1
Q A
, p A
C o m p e n s a t o r
Q P
, p P P m
Q , p T
T T
c
S V
x , v
Figure 1.3: Schematics of the resonance converter
Although this method of hydraulic control is more energy efficient than

conventional resistance control, there is of course the problem that, depend-
ing on the overall system dynamics, pressure transients are introduced in the
hydraulic system due to the discontinuous nature of the switching process.
1.2 Conventional devices for the suppression

of hydraulic noise
As the reduction of flow pulsations, otherwise also commonly known as fluid
borne noise, has been a topic in hydraulic engineering for a long time, numerous
devices for the suppression of hydraulic noise exist.
However, as can be seen in Tab. 1.1 most conventional devices have one or
more of the following shortcomings:
• complex or expensive design
• bulky design (e.g. λ/4 resonators)
• no simple method of frequency tuning
• unsystematic parameter selection (e.g. for accumulators the relevant pa-

rameters are volume and pre-charge pressure) → experimental work is
required (selection by trial and error )
• low noise attenuation performance
Furthermore, no conventional devices but the Multi-volume resonators pro-

posed by Kojima et al. [KI98] are capable of attenuating a base harmonic and
all integer multiples of it up to a certain order.
Table 1.1: Conventional noise suppressors
Accumulator V a l v e
⊕ simple device, readily M e m b r a n e
available C a s i n g
⊖ low performance (es- C
b
o
l o
n
c k
n e c t i o n
pecially at high fre-

quencies)
⊖ frequency tuning by
experimental means
Helmholtz resonator
V
⊕ simple device
⊕ simple frequency tun- A
ing t
⊖ tuned to attenuate 1 P u m p L o a d
harmonic only
In-line noise suppressor

⊕ fairly simple device
⊖ expensive
P u m p L o a d
λ/4 Line silencer

⊕ simple device
P u m p L o a d
⊖ attenuation of odd or-
der harmonics only 2 n + 1
l n Î N
⊖ builds rather long for 4
+
low frequencies
λ/4 Side branch resonator
⊕ simple device
⊖ attenuation of odd or-
l = l / 4
der harmonics only

⊖ builds rather long for P u m p L o a d
low frequencies
Multiple volume resonator
⊕ fairly simple device
⊕ may be tuned in such a
way to attenuate inte- O R
ger multiples of a base V a r i a b l e r e s o n a n c e M u l i t D O F t y p e
harmonic t y p e s i d e b r a n c h H e l m h o l t z
r e s o n a t o r r e s o n a t o r
⊖ complex frequency
tuning
Chapter 2
Vibration compensation
2.1 Historical development

According to Hunt [Hun79], dynamic vibration compensators have been used
in nature for thousands of years, long before they were thought of by engineers.
Some interesting natural vibration absorbers may be found e.g. in an egg (the
yolk, albumen and the shell form a vibration absorber which minimises vibra-
tions1 to the embryo situated within the egg), the suspension of a woodpecker’s
brain within its skull etc.
Figure 2.1: Warship HMS Inflexible
Again according to Hunt, the first research on man-made vibration ab-

sorbers was published by Watts in 1883. In his paper [Wat83], experimental
results on the rolling behaviour of the 9200-ton warship HMS Inflexible were
published. Watts firstly noted that the vibrations – the rolling amplitude –
of the primary (engineering system) – the ship – may be reduced by fitting of
1
The different responses of an egg to a spinning motion may be easily monitored by
comparing the motions of a raw egg and a cooked egg.
7
CHAPTER 2. VIBRATION COMPENSATION 8
a tuned secondary (compensatory) system – the vibration absorber – to the

ship. However, the analytical treatment of the phenomenon of vibration com-
pensation started with the publication of a patent on damped passive vibration
compensators by Frahm [Fra09] some time later in 1909. Since then, signifi-
cant contributions to the understanding of vibration compensation were made
specifically by Den Hartog [OH28, Har56] in the field of mechanical oscillations
and by Ingard [Ing53, Ing88] in the field of continuous vibration compensators.
Nowadays, the field of vibration compensation is represented in both aca-
demia and industry by numerous specific branches (passive, semi-active or
active vibration compensation; continuous or discrete devices. . . ).
A good roundup of the principles involved in vibration compensation and
existing devices is given in the books by Hunt [Hun79] and Inman [Inm93]
respectively.
2.2 Mathematical foundations

Although the concept of vibration compensation is commonly known in Engi-
neering mechanics, a solution of the equations of motion for the simple case of
an un-damped single degree-of-freedom (DOF) mass-spring oscillator with me-
chanical compensation will be presented in Sec. 2.2.1 and the duality between
mechanical and hydraulic systems will be highlighted in Sec. 2.2.2.
2.2.1 Mechanical oscillator with vibration absorber
m 2
S e c o n d a r y ( c o m p e n s a t o r y )
s y s t e m
c 2
x 2
m 1
P r i m a r y ( e n g i n e e r i n g )
s y s t e m
x 1
c 1
x
E x c i t a t i o n 0
x 0
( t ) = X 0
c o s ( W t )
Figure 2.2: Schematics of a mass-spring system with compensator

The equations of motion [Zie91, p. 449] for this system may be written as
m1 ẍ1 = −c1 (x1 − x0 ) + c2 (x2 − x1 ) (2.1a)

m2 ẍ2 = −c2 (x2 − x1 ). (2.1b)
Using the functions
x1 (t) = X1 cos(Ω t) (2.2a)

x2 (t) = X2 cos(Ω t) (2.2b)
for the steady state solution of the equations of motion, the amplitudes X1 and
X2 of the masses m1 and m2 respectively are given as
−(−m2 Ω2 + c2 ) c1 X0
X1 = (2.3a)
−m1 Ω4 m2 + m1 Ω2 c2 + c1 m2 Ω2 − c1 c2 + c2 m2 Ω2
−c2 c1 X0
X2 = . (2.3b)
−m1 Ω m2 + m1 Ω c2 + c1 m2 Ω2 − c1 c2 + c2 m2 Ω2
4 2
A closer look at the numerator of Eq. (2.3a) makes clear that a properly
tuned secondary system, i. e. the natural frequency
r
c2
ωC = =Ω (2.4)
m2
of the compensatory system placed at the harmonic of the excitation x0 (t) =

X0 cos(Ωt) may be used to effectively cancel the movement of the primary
system with respect to the excitation x0 (t). In that case the amplitudes X1
and X2 are given as
X1 = 0 (2.5a)
c1 X0 c1
X2 = − 2
= − X0 . (2.5b)
Ω m2 c2
Furthermore, the mechanical system Fig. 2.2 may be associated with its
analogue hydraulic system depicted in Fig. 2.3.
2.2.2 Analogy between mechanical and hydraulic sys-

tems
Depending on the prime specialisation of an Engineer, it is sometimes helpful
to think in terms of an analogue representation of a system’s behaviour (e.g. to
think of a hydraulic system as an analogue mechanical or electrical system). In
the following section, the analogy between mechanical and hydraulic systems
will be developed.
C 1
C 2
Q 0
Q 1
Q 2
L 1
L 2
p 1
p 2
Figure 2.3: Analogue hydraulic system to mechanical system Fig. 2.2
The equations describing the dynamics of the hydraulic system depicted in

Fig. 2.3 are
1
ṗ1 = (Q0 − Q1 ) (2.6a)
C1
1
ṗ2 = (Q1 − Q2 ) (2.6b)
C2
p1 = L1 Q̇1 + p2 (2.6c)
p2 = L2 Q̇2 , (2.6d)
where hydraulic capacities, inductivities and flow rates are represented by C,

L and Q respectively.
Taking the derivatives of p1 and p2 results in
ṗ1 = L1 Q̈1 + ṗ2 (2.7a)

ṗ2 = L2 Q̈2 (2.7b)
and re-arranging the terms in the equations yields

1 1
(Q0 − Q1 ) = L1 Q̈1 + (Q1 − Q2 ) (2.8a)
C1 C2
1
(Q1 − Q2 ) = L2 Q̈2 . (2.8b)
C2
The equations describing the mechanical system Eqs. (2.1) and the equa-
tions describing the hydraulic system Eqs. (2.8) may also be written as
Mechanical system
µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
m1 0 ẍ1 c1 + c2 −c2 x1 c 1 x0
+ = (2.9)
0 m2 ẍ2 −c2 c2 x2 0
and
Hydraulic system
µ ¶µ ¶ µ 1 ¶µ ¶ µ1 ¶
L1 0 Q̈1 C1
+ C12 − C12 Q1 C
Q0
+ = 1 . (2.10)
0 L2 Q̈2 − C12 1
C2
Q2 0
As can be seen above, the equations describing the mechanical system may
be led over into the equations describing the hydraulic system by making the
following transformations
c ⇒ 1/C
m ⇒ L.
Coming back to our original problem of reducing fluid borne noise in a

hydraulic circuit, the excitation of the Engineering system x0 (t) (in case of
the mechanical system) and Q0 (t) (in case of the hydraulic system), may be
compensated by a properly tuned oscillator where the natural frequency of the
oscillator ωC is placed at the harmonic of the excitation Ω.
2.2.3 Duality between mechanical and hydraulic systems

Since the terms analogy and duality of systems often become mixed-up, the
duality between mechanical and hydraulic system will be briefly discussed in
the following section.
The dual-state variables may be identified by writing down the work W and
the power P of both mechanical and hydraulic systems in a one dimensional
formulation.
Mechanical system
dW = F ds (2.11)
Z Z s2
W = dW = F ds (2.12)
s1
d ds
P = W =F =F v (2.13)
dt dt
|{z}
v
Hydraulic system
dW = p dV (2.14)
Z Z V2
W = dW = p dV (2.15)
V1
d dV
P = W =p =pQ (2.16)
dt dt
|{z}
Q
Hence, the analogue and dual state variables are
Analogy →
Mechanical system Hydraulic system
F p
Duality ↓
v Q
The duality of mechanical and hydraulic systems is particularly useful for

the comparison of the function principles of mechanical and hydraulic compen-
sators.
Assuming a simple mass-spring system with one compensator (see Fig. 2.5(a))
but neglecting damping, the equations of motion may be written as
Inertia term (fictive force) Conventional forces
z }| { ¡z }| {¢
−mẍ + −cx + c1 (x1 − x) + F = 0 (2.17)
−m1 ẍ1 − c1 (x1 − x) = 0. (2.18)
An ideal mechanical compensator counterbalances the excitation force F
by the inertia force of its own mass m1 at resonance and consequently gets rid
of the oscillation of the main system.
An ideal hydraulic compensator, on the other hand, makes the node variable
– the pulsating flow – at the node – the junction where the compensator is
connected to the main system – to zero and hence also gets rid of the pressure
pulsation p in the main system.
This is a consequence of dual relations between mechanical and hydraulic
systems. In mechanical systems, the forces of all components connected to a
node sum up to null, whereas in hydraulic systems the flow rates Q balance
to zero. On the other hand, velocity (or displacement, respectively) and pres-
sure are nodal state variables of mechanical systems and hydraulic systems,
respectively.
2.3 Mechanical oscillator and arrangements of

vibration absorbers
Since the behaviour of systems with one or more vibration absorbers is some-
times not properly understood, some simple examples will be discussed in the
following paragraphs.
2.3.1 Mechanical oscillator without vibration absorber

According to elementary mechanics, the equation of motion of a single DOF
mass-spring oscillator with damping may be written as
m ẍ + d ẋ + c x = F, (2.19)
where the dimensionless damping ratio ζ reads as
d
ζ= √ . (2.20)
2 mc
The normalised frequency plot in Fig. 2.4 indicates that the response of a
system to a harmonic driving force F = F0 cos(Ω t) is particularly severe in
the vicinity of the natural frequency ω, where the resonance frequencies of the
systems with/without damping are
r
c
ω0 = (2.21)
m
p
ω = 1 − ζ 2 ω0 . (2.22)
15
No absorber
10
0
|G(s)| [dB]
−5
−10
−15
−20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ω
Figure 2.4: Normalised frequency plot: System (m = 10, c = 10, ζ = 0.1)

without absorber
2.3.2 Mechanical oscillator with one absorber

As outlined in the previous section, one vibration absorber tuned to the har-
monics of the excitation is sufficient to greatly attenuate the pulsations of the
main system close to the design frequency of the absorber.
The equations describing a mass-spring system with one absorber (see
Fig. 2.5(a)) are
m ẍ + (d + d1 ) ẋ + (c + c1 ) x = c1 x1 + d1 ẋ1 + F (2.23)
m1 ẍ1 + d1 ẋ1 + c1 x1 = c1 x + d1 ẋ, (2.24)
where the damping ratio d1 and the natural frequency ω1 of the absorber
neglecting damping are
√
d1 = 2 ζ1 m1 c1 (2.25)
p
ω1 = c1 /m1 . (2.26)
m m 1
m 2
1
F c , d c , d F
c 1
d 1
1 1 2 2
m m
- x - x - x 2
1 1
- x c d - x c d
x x
(a) One absorber (b) Two absorbers
Figure 2.5: System with compensator
The response of a simple mass-spring system with one vibration compen-

sator is depicted in Fig. 2.6. The frequency range where vibration attenuation
takes place depends heavily on both µ = m/m1 and on the damping in the
absorber ζ1 .
2.3.3 Mechanical oscillator with two absorbers

In case of more than one excitation of the system at specific frequencies Ω1 . . . ΩN ,
more than one vibration compensator may be fitted to the system. In this
paragraph, the influence of 2 compensators will be investigated.
The equations for a mass-spring system with two absorbers (see Fig. 2.5(b))
are
m ẍ + (d + d1 + d2 ) ẋ + (c + c1 + c2 ) x =
c1 x1 + c2 x2 + d1 ẋ1 + d2 ẋ2 + F (2.27)
m1 ẍ1 + d1 ẋ1 + c1 x1 = c1 x + d1 ẋ (2.28)
m2 ẍ2 + d2 ẋ2 + c2 x2 = c2 x + d2 ẋ, (2.29)
where
√
d1 = 2 ζ1 m1 c1 (2.30)
p
ω1 = c1 /m1 (2.31)
√
d2 = 2 ζ2 m2 c2 (2.32)
p
ω2 = c2 /m2 . (2.33)
The response of a system with two vibration compensators is depicted in

Fig. 2.7.
20
No absorber
µ=1
µ=10
10
0
|G(s)| [dB]
−10
−20
−30
−40
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ω
(a) ζ1 = 0.01
20
No absorber
µ=1
µ=10
15
10
5
|G(s)| [dB]
−5
−10
−15
−20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ω
(b) ζ1 = 0.1
Figure 2.6: Normalised frequency plot: System (m = 10, c = 10, ζ = 0.1) with
one absorber (ω = 1)
20
No absorber
Two absorbers
15
10
0
|G(s)| [dB]
−5
−10
−15
−20
−25
−30
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ω
(a) ζ1 = ζ2 = 0.01
15
No absorber
Two absorbers
10
0
|G(s)| [dB]
−5
−10
−15
−20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ω
(b) ζ1 = ζ2 = 0.1
Figure 2.7: Normalised frequency plot: System (m = 10, c = 10, ζ = 0.1) with
two absorbers (ω1 = 1, ω2 = 2, µ1 = µ2 = 10)
2.3.4 Implementation of a mechanical band-stop filter

Fig. 2.8 indicates that it is even possible to build-up a band-stop filter by means
of discrete vibration absorbers. However, if a broader noise attenuation char-
acteristics is required (e.g. frequency range 1 ≤ Ω ≤ 2 in Fig. 2.8) either many
compensators or the introduction of higher damping ratios – which obviously
deteriorates the peak attenuation ratio – may become necessary.
20
No absorber
Four absorbers
15
10
0
|G(s)| [dB]
−5
−10
−15
−20
−25
−30
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ω
(a) ζ1 . . . ζ4 = 0.01
15
No absorber
Four absorbers
10
0
|G(s)| [dB]
−5
−10
−15
−20
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Ω
(b) ζ1 . . . ζ4 = 0.1
Figure 2.8: Normalised frequency plot: Implementation of a “band-stop” filter

(system (m = 10, c = 10, ζ = 0.1) with four absorbers (ω1 = 1, ω2 = 2,
ω3 = 1.33, ω4 = 1.66, µ1 . . . µ4 = 10))
Chapter 3
Novel vibration compensators
3.1 Mechanical mass-spring resonators

As outlined in the papers [MS99, MS00], mechanical solid body compensators
may be utilised to effectively attenuate the effects of flow induced pressure
pulsations in hydraulic systems. In the following paragraphs, several aspects
concerning single degree-of-freedom (DOF) and multiple DOF systems will be
outlined. For systems featuring multiple DOFs, a novel mass-spring allocation
scheme will be presented [Mik00] which allows the placement of the natural
frequencies at Ω1 and integer multiples of it Ω2 . . . ΩN in case of an un-damped
system.
3.1.1 Single DOF

Since a mass-spring resonator for the compensation of fluid borne noise needs
to be sealed off from the hydraulic circuit and the dynamic behaviour of a single
DOF mass-spring system is commonly known, the attention of this paragraph
is focused on the influence of damping.
d a m p i n g b e t w e e n
m
m a s s m a n d c y l i n d e r w a l l
c
c d
P u m p L o a d
(a) Arrangement in hydraulic circuit (b) Equivalent

system
Figure 3.1: Single DOF system with damping
19
CHAPTER 3. NOVEL VIBRATION COMPENSATORS 20
The equation of motion and the dimensionless damping ratio ζ for the
(homogeneous) system depicted in Fig. 3.1 are given as
0 = m ẍ + d ẋ + c x (3.1)
d
ζ = √ . (3.2)
2 mc
The different responses of a single DOF mass-spring system with m = 1 kg,

ζ ∈ {0.01, 0.1, 1} and c = 1 N/m are depicted in Fig. 3.2.
Although the time responses are considerably different even for lightly
damped systems (ζ ≤ 0.1), Eqs. (3.3)–(3.4) indicate that the change in terms
of the resonance frequency is only of minor magnitude.
r
c
ω0 = (3.3)
m
p
ω = 1 − ζ 2 ω0 (3.4)
Hence, the resonance frequency ω0 of un-damped systems may also be used

as a good approximation for the natural frequency of lightly damped mass-
spring systems.
3.1.2 Multiple DOF

In order to attenuate more than one harmonic of the pulsating flow stream,
one may simply use several single DOF oscillators in a hydraulic circuit tuned
to different harmonics (see Fig. 3.3), or utilise a multi DOF oscillator tuned to
several harmonics of the flow pulsation [MS99, KI98].
Since a single device with multiple DOFs is sometimes of interest, a novel
concept for the frequency tuning of multi DOF mass-spring oscillators (see
Fig. 3.4), which places the natural frequencies ω1 . . . ωN at a certain base har-
monic Ω1 and N − 1 integer multiples of it Ω2 . . . ΩN , will be presented.
The equations governing the dynamics of an N -body oscillator (see Fig. 3.5
for a third order system) may be written as
m1 ẍ1 + c1 x1 − c2 (x2 − x1 ) = 0 (3.5)

m2 ẍ2 + c2 (x2 − x1 ) − c3 (x3 − x2 ) = 0 (3.6)
..
.
mN −1 ẍN −1 + cN −1 (xN −1 − xN −2 ) − cN (xN − xN −1 ) = 0 (3.7)
mN ẍN + cN (xN − xN −1 ) + dN ẋN = F. (3.8)
In vectorial notation, above equations may also be written as
M ẍ + D ẋ + C x = F (3.9)
z = 0 . 0 1
2
1 . 8
1 . 6
1 . 4
1 . 2
z
e
= 1
s
n
1
o
p
s
e
R
0 . 8
0 . 6
0 . 4
z = 0 . 1
0 . 2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 0
T i m e [ s ]
(a) Step response
B o d e D i a g r a m
4 0
z = 0 . 0 1
z = 0 . 1
2 0
z = 1
)
B
( d
e
0
d
i t u
n
g
- 2 0
a
M
- 4 0
- 6 0
- 5 0
)
g
e
( d
e
- 1 0 0
s
a
h
P
- 1 5 0
- 2 0 0
- 1 0 1
1 0 1 0 1 0
F r e q u e n c y ( r a d / s e c )
(b) Normalised frequency response
Figure 3.2: Characteristics of a single DOF mass-spring oscillator with m =

1 kg, ζ ∈ {0.01, 0.1, 1} and c = 1 N/m
c d
1 1
c d 2
2
c d 3
3
m 1
m 2
m 3
(a) Serial arrangement
c 1
d 1
m 1
3
c
d
2
m
3
2
m
3
d
c
(b) Oscillators arranged at

circumference
Figure 3.3: Arrangement of several single DOF oscillators
c 1
m 1
c 2 d 3
m 2
c 3
m 3
Figure 3.4: Multi DOF oscillator in hydraulic circuit

m 3
d 3
F ( t )
m m 2
1
E x c i t a t i o n
c c 2
c 3
1
Figure 3.5: Structure of a third order system
where x = [x1 . . . xN ]T is the position-vector, M is the mass matrix, D is the

damping matrix, C is the stiffness matrix and F is the force vector of the
system.
Assuming an undamped system (dN = 0), the natural frequencies of the
oscillator may be calculated as the roots of the characteristic polynomial
| − ω 2 M + C| = 0. (3.10)
¡ ¢
A closer look at Eq. (3.10) reveals that the characteristic matrix −ω 2 M + C
has tri-diagonal structure and may be written as
 −ω2 m1 +c1 +c2 −c2 0

−c2 −ω 2 m2 +c2 +c3 −c3

 ... ... ... 
. (3.11)
−cN −1 −ω 2 mN −1 +cN −1 +cN −cN
0 −cN −ω 2 mN +cN
By defining the first natural frequency of the oscillator as Ω and integer

multiples of it as
Ω1 = Ω (3.12)
Ω2 = 2 Ω (3.13)
..
.
ΩN = N Ω, (3.14)
the natural frequencies of an (un-damped) chain structure oscillator ω1 . . . ωN

may be placed at Ω1 . . . ΩN simply by making the masses m1 . . . mN to
m1 = m (3.15)
m2 = m/2 (3.16)
..
.
mN = m/N (3.17)
and utilising the springs stiffnesses c1 . . . cN

c1 = N c (3.18)
c2 = (N − 1) c (3.19)
..
.
cN = c = Ω2 m. (3.20)
To make this approach more plausible, the characteristic matrix [Str88,
ZF86] may then be written as
 2 2 2

−ω +(2N −1)Ω −(N −1)Ω 0
2
 −(N −1)Ω2 − ω2 +(2N −3)Ω2 −(N −2)Ω2 

m ... ... ... 
. (3.21)
 2

 −2Ω2 − (Nω−1) +3Ω2 −Ω2 
2
0 −Ω2 − ωN +Ω2
Although a formal proof for arbitrary N cannot yet be given, the mass-
spring allocation scheme was made plausible in MAPLE up to an order of
N = 8. According to this analysis, the characteristic polynomial has the form
N µ ¶
N
Y −ω 2 2
m + iΩ , (3.22)
i=1
i
which places the natural frequencies ω of the oscillator exactly at Ω1 . . . ΩN .

Due to the fact that the resonance frequencies of a weakly damped multi body
oscillator are only marginally different from the natural frequencies in an un-
damped case (see Fig. 3.6 and Eqs. (3.3)–(3.4)), the frequency tuning concept
presented in this paragraph is also suitable for lightly damped oscillators (ζ̄ ≤
0.1), where a dimensionless damping ratio ζ̄ may be defined as
dN
ζ̄ = q . (3.23)
cN
2 mN mN
However, although the results of numerical simulations (see Sec. 3.4) indi-
cate a good noise attenuation performance for both single and multiple DOF
systems, some problems hindering the practical utilisation of these devices re-
main:
1. What sort of spring would be particularly suitable and how big would it
have to be to withstand the static pressure in hydraulic systems?
2. Is there a cheap and robust way of frequency tuning for these devices in
a semi-active or even active way?
These and other questions relating to a practical implementation of vibra-
tion absorbers will be discussed in Chapter 4.
1 5 0
S i n g u l a r i t i e s o f u n d a m p e d s y s t e m
1 0 0
z = 0
5 0
z = 0 . 0 1
]
B
[ d
i n
a
G
z = 0 . 1
- 5 0
- 1 0 0
1 0 4 * 1 0 6 * 1 0
3
2 * 1 0 8 * 1 0
3 3 3 3
1 0
4
F r e q u e n c y [ r a d / s ]
Figure 3.6: Normalised bode diagram of a 3rd order system featuring damping
ratios ζ̄ ∈ {0, 0.1, 0.01}
3.2 Resonators based on plate/shell elements
2 a
2 a
z
h r
r
P u m p L o a d
Figure 3.7: Principle of an oscillator based on a circular plate
In order to discuss the principle of compensators based on plate or shell

elements, the simplest possible compensator of this kind will be discussed in
this section. This is a plate of homogeneous thickness h, clamped at the cir-
cumference (see Fig. 3.7) and tuned in such a way to place the first natural
frequency at the base harmonic of the pulsating flow stream. In addition to
that, the stresses in the plate due to the maximum hydraulic pressure pSys
must not exceed the maximum permissible stress σmax of the material.
The first natural frequency Ω11 of a circular plate of constant thickness h

being clamped at the circumference is given as [Pil94]
s
λ11 D
Ω11 = 2 (3.24)
a ρ
λ11 ≈ 10.216 (3.25)
E h3
D= , (3.26)
12(1 − µ2 )
where the specific mass, the radius and the flexural rigidity of the plate are
denoted by ρ, a and D respectively.
The induced bending moments per unit length due to a constant pressure
distribution at the bottom surface in radial and tangential direction, M r and
Mϕ respectively, are given as
1
Mr = p a2 [1 + ν − (3 + ν)α2 ] (3.27)
16
1
Mϕ = p a2 [1 + ν − (1 + 3 ν)α2 ] (3.28)
16
where α = r/a.
At the circumference r = a, above equations simplify to
1
Mr = − p a2
8
ν
Mϕ = − p a 2
8
and result in maximum stresses at the bottom/top layer of
6 Mr 6 Mϕ
σr = and σϕ = . (3.29)
h2 h2
These stress components σr and σϕ respectively may be combined to an
equivalent stress σE according to the “von Mises”hypothesis
q
σE = σr2 − σr σϕ + σϕ2 . (3.30)
Since the dynamic deflection of a compensator based on plate/shell elements

depends heavily on parameters commonly un-known during the design process,
such as the dynamics of the entire system and the flow pulsation Q̂, only the
mean pressure component pM ean may be considered as a first approximation in
the stress analysis of the compensator.
- 0 . 5
w = W
- 1
1 1 3
0 l l l l
4 2 4
0 . 5
w = 3 W
0
l=λ /4 - 0 . 5
- 1
1 1 3
0 l l l l
4 2 4
x 1
0 . 5
w = 5 W
0
Pump Load - 0 . 5
- 1
1 1 3
0 l l l l x
4 2 4
(a) Principal arrange- (b) Pressure mode shapes for ω =

ment Ω, ω = 3 Ω and ω = 5 Ω
Figure 3.8: Arrangement and pressure mode shapes for a λ/4 side branch
resonator
3.3 λ/4 Side branch resonators

As known in the literature (e.g. Backé [Bac94]), a side branch resonator of
length λ/4 may be used to compensate incoming pressure pulsations of a base
harmonic Ω1 = Ω and odd multiples Ω3 = 3 Ω, Ω5 = 5 Ω. . . of it.
However, since the length of the device l = λ/4 directly determines the first
filtering frequency f with
s
B cS
cS = and λ = , (3.31)
ρ f
long pipes are required for the attenuation of low frequency pulsations (typi-
cally λ/4 ≈ 1.1 m for a resonance frequency of 300 Hz in hydraulic oil). In the
following paragraphs, the influence of wall flexibility, as well as the influence
of flexible elements in the resonator chamber will be discussed and how these
effects may be exploited to build more compact resonators.
3.3.1 Influence of wall flexibility

According to the theory of thin walled tubes and neglecting the longitudinal
extension of the tube1 , the increase in volume of a tube due to an increase in
pressure [Bac94] is
∆p d
∆VT ube = V0 . (3.32)
ET ube s
1
A much more detailed analysis is given in Sec. 4.2.2.
I n f l u e n c e o f w a l l
f l e x i b i l i t y c o n s i d e r e d
d p
I n f l u e n c e o f w a l l
f l e x i b i l i t y n e g l e c t e d
l = l / 4
Figure 3.9: λ/4 side branch resonator considering the influence of wall flexibility
Therefore, the total increase in volume ∆VT ot is

∆p d ∆p ∆p
∆VT ot = ∆VT ube + ∆VOil = V0 + V0 = V0 ′ . (3.33)
ET ube s BOil BT ot
Hence, the bulk modulus BT′ ot considering both effects is given by
BOil
BT′ ot = , (3.34)
1 + EBTOil d
ube s
which results in a natural frequency f of the resonator of

s s
1 BT′ ot 1 1 BOil
f= = . (3.35)
4l ρ 4 l ρ 1 + EBOil ds
T ube
A simple model to estimate the circumferential stresses in a cylindrical

vessel with diameter d and wall thickness s due to a homogeneous pressure
distribution p results in
pd
σθ = . (3.36)
2s
3.3.2 Compact λ/4 side-branch resonators

Another way to build more compact resonators is by inserting flexible elements
into the resonator chamber. One possible arrangement of such a system is
depicted in Fig. 3.10.
As in the previous paragraph of this section, the insertion of flexible ele-
ments into the resonator chamber results in a reduced bulk modulus BT′ ot of
c l o s e d e n d
o i l
f l e x i b l e e l e m e n t / 4
l
c o n n e c t i o n t o
t h e h y d r a u l i c c i r c u i t
(a) Total system
w ( x )
E , I y
(b) Beam element
Figure 3.10: λ/4 resonator with flexible elements in the resonator chamber
the resonator and consequently in a shorter length of the resonator chamber

for a given frequency.
This time neglecting the influence of wall stiffness, the equations governing
BT ot are as follows
′
VOil ∆p VElem ∆p
∆VT ot = ∆VOil + ∆VElem = +
BOil EElem
(3.37)
VOil ∆p
= ,
BT′ ot
where
∂p 1
EElem = 1/βElem and βElem = . (3.38)
VElem ∂V
Provided that membrane stresses may be neglected and also neglecting the
influence of the boundaries at y = 0 and y = λ/4, the deformation of the
element due to a pressure p may be approximated using simple beam theory.
Doing so, the deflection of an element due to p is
2 3 x4
1 p b l4 ( xl2 − 2 xl3 + l4
)
w(x) = , (3.39)
24 E Iy
where
b h3
Iy = . (3.40)
12
Thus the displaced volume V of one “half-element” due to p is
Z l
b p l5
V =b w(x) dx = (3.41)
x=0 60 E h3
and the coefficient of compression βElem for the element may be written as
1 ∂V b l5
βElem = = . (3.42)
V0Elem ∂p 60 V0Elem E h3
This approach is particularly vivid if we assume that the flexible elements
are shaped according to the deformation due to a static pressure pStat . In that
case, the un-deformed volume of one half-element is
b pStat l5
V0Elem = (3.43)
60 E h3
and hence the value of EElem = 1/βElem is simply given by
1
EElem = = pStat . (3.44)
βElem
Furthermore, if we assume that the oil volume in the resonator chamber

VOil is related to the volume covered by the flexible element V0Elem by
VOil = δ V0Elem , (3.45)
the combined bulk modulus BT′ ot may be written as
δ
BT′ ot = δ 1
. (3.46)
BOil
+ pStat
Since the value of δ is crucial for BT′ ot , the qualitative behaviour of BT′ ot
over δ is depicted in Fig. 3.11. As can be seen in this figure, particularly
compact resonators may be accomplished by small ratios δ = VOil /VOElem
which, on the other hand, results in increased damping within the resonator.
Since this problem is rather complicated2 , further work is required. As in the
previous paragraph, the required length of the resonator l for a given resonance
frequency f may be calculated using Eq. (3.35).
4
x 10
2
1.5
[bar]
1
Tot
δ → ∞: B’Tot → BOil
B’
0.5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
δ
Detail
3000
2500
δ =1: B’Tot = pStat
2000
B’Tot [bar]
1500
1000
500
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
δ
VOil
Figure 3.11: Combined bulk modulus BT′ ot over δ = V OElem
for BOil =
16000 bar and pStat = 300 bar
Since the flexible elements, as well as the surrounding resonator tube are
exposed to the hydraulic system pressure, the mechanical stresses in these
2
The influence of damping in fluids in combination with movement of components is still
a challenging problem for both analytical and numerical methods.
elements are of interest. Again making use of the beam theory, the maximum
normal stress in the flexible element due to the system pressure pSys is
pSys l2
σmax = . (3.47)
2 h2
However, since the shape of the tube surrounding the resonance chamber
may be non–circular, the stresses in this element due to pSys require a more
detailed investigation.
3.4 Comparative analysis and discussion

In order to highlight the merits and shortcomings of different solid body com-
pensators presented in the previous section, the following example will be dis-
cussed: Suppose two hydraulic systems, firstly a low pressure system with
pSys = 40 bar and secondly a conventional hydraulic system with pSys =
200 bar, are both driven by a 9 piston pump with a nominal flow of QN om =
50 l/min running at a speed of nN om = 1450 rpm. The hydraulic circuit con-
sists of a pump, one compensator, a pressure line (modelled by its hydraulic
resistance, capacity and inductivity) and a hydraulic load, modelled by a con-
stant pressure boundary condition pSys .
R L
9 P i s t o n p u m p
n = 1 4 5 0 r p m C
N o m p S y s
Q N o m
= 5 0 l / m i n
H y d r . l i n e
Figure 3.12: Structure of application example
In case of the multi DOF mass-spring compensator, a simulation study will

be carried out in order to evaluate the performance of the device.
3.4.1 Multi degree-of-freedom mass-spring compensator

The first N harmonics of the incoming flow pulsations may be attenuated by a
mass-spring oscillator of order N . Assuming a third order system (N = 3) and
Table 3.1: Parameters of application example
nP ist 9 Number of pistons

Hydr. Pump n 1450 1/min Pump speed
QN 50 l/min Rated pump flow
B 16000 bar Bulk modulus
Hydr. Fluid ρF 850 kg/m3 Mass density
νF luid 46 mm2 /s Kinematic viscosity
System 40 and
pSys Maximum system pressure
pressure 200 bar
E 2.1E5 N/mm2 Young’s modulus of steel
ν 0.3 Poisson’s ratio
Compensator
ρ 7800 kg/m3 Mass density of steel
material
Maximum permissible
σmax 500 N/mm2
stress
lL 1m Length of pressure line
Pressure line dL 50 mm Diameter of pressure line
bar
RH 4 × 10−3 l/min
Hydraulic resistance
a mass m = 0.6 kg, the masses m1 = m, m2 = m/2 and m3 = m/3 are given
accordingly. Since the base harmonic f = 435 Hz (see Eq. (1.5) and Tab. 3.1)
and hence Ω = 2πf = 2733 rad/s, the spring stiffness cN = c (see Eq. ((3.20)))
is fixed to c = Ω2 m = 4.482 kN/mm with c3 = c 3 , c2 = 2c and c1 = 3c.
Since no experimental work was carried out for this system, a simulation
study was performed in order to estimate noise attenuation characteristics of
this device. For this purpose, a model was developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK
(see Fig. 3.13 and [Mat96]).
For the motion of the piston, the sealing gasket acts as a damper assuming
Newtonian behaviour of the hydraulic fluid in the gap between mN and the
cylinder surface. The damping ratio d due to the sealing gap is
D π lGap DCyl − DP iston
d3 = ρ νF luid where sGap = . (3.48)
| {z } sGap 2
ηF luid
Because the magnitude of the damping ratio d3 is crucial for the perfor-
mance of the compensator, the influence of different dimensionless damping
ratios ζ̄ (see Eq. (3.2)) has been investigated.
3
This stiffness is equivalent to the combined stiffness of six screw-springs with a diameter
of D = 36 mm, a wire diameter of d = 10 mm and a spring length of l = 67 mm.
T o W o r k s p a c e 2
Q 0
Q - K -
T o W o r k s p a c e 1
A P is t o n
Q E f f
F E f f
x 1 ' [ m / s ]
p C
n M o t o r [ r p m ] Q [ l/ m i n ]
x 1 [ m ]
E / 6 0
1 x 2 ' [ m / s ]
S t e p
S u m 1 - K - F [ N ]
S u m 5 x 2 [ m ]
p C [ b a r ]
9 P is t o n E / 6 0 s
x 3 ' [ m / s ]
P u m p I n t e g r a t o r
A P is t o n 2
x 3 [ m ]
P r o d u c t
3 M a s s
O s c illa t o r
A P is t o n 1
V C V o lu m e n - K -
V L in e [ l ]
p B a c k p B a c k [ b a r ]
S u m 2
R H
1 / L H R H
m ^ 3 / s - > l / m in
1
6 0 e 3 - K -
Q H I n t e g r a t o r 1
Figure 3.13: Simulation model in MATLAB
As can be seen in Tab. 3.2, good levels of noise attenuation4 LQ [BV92]

h Q i2 Qi
i
LQ = 10 log = 20 log (3.49)
Qi ref Qi ref
may be achieved even with fairly high damping ratios ζ̄, where Qi is the at-
tenuated pulsation at the ith harmonic (compensator in operation) and Qi ref
is the pulsation without compensation.
LQ [dB]
ζ̄ = 0.01 ζ̄ = 0.1
Ω1 -38.7 -19.3
Ω2 -44.6 -25.1
Ω3 -33.7 -15.4
Table 3.2: Attenuation performance of a multi DOF mass-spring resonator

with ζ̄ ∈ {0.01, 0.1}
4
Due to the linearity of the system behaviour, the attenuation performance is independent
of pSys .
Evaluation
⊕ Adjustment of resonant frequency is simple
⊕ Ability to compensate one base harmonic and

N − 1 higher order harmonics by utilising a single
device
⊖ Sealing element between mN and the cylinder wall

causes damping
⊖ Expensive
3.4.2 Compensator based on plate/shell element

To facilitate a natural frequency of f = 435 Hz and to limit the equivalent
stresses at the boundary to σmax = 500 N/mm2 , the Eqs. (3.24) – (3.30) need
to be solved for the plate thickness h and the plate radius a. Doing so results
in the following geometries
pmax [bar] a [mm] h [mm]

40 13.4 1
200 150 24.5
Evaluation
⊕ Simple mechanical design
⊖ Compensator is tuned to one frequency only
⊖ Plates become large and bulky for high system

pressures and low frequencies of the pulsating
pump flow
3.4.3 Compact λ/4 side-branch resonator

Influence of wall flexibility
Assuming a diameter of the resonator of d = 40 mm, the required wall thickness
s for σmax = 500 N/mm2 is given by Eq. (3.36) and results in
pmax [bar] s [mm]

40 0.16
200 0.8
The frequency condition in Eq. (3.35) may be fulfilled by making the length
of the resonator tube to
pmax [bar] l [mm]

40 463
200 671
Evaluation
⊕ Simple mechanical design
⊕ Attenuation of one base harmonic and odd higher

order harmonics
⊖ Device becomes rather long for high system pres-

sures
Flexible elements in the resonator chamber

Again, assuming a diameter of the resonator of d = 40 mm and a pre-deformation
of the element according to the deformation at pStat = 300 bar, the neces-
sary thickness h of the flexible element due to pSys may be calculated using
Eq. (3.47). In case of the low pressure system (pSys = 40 bar), the required
thickness for σmax = 500 N/mm2 is h = 2.5 mm and for the conventional
hydraulic system (pSys = 200 bar), the required thickness h = 5.6 mm. By
making the maximum width of the oil layer surrounding the element to 5 mm
(this can be achieved by making δ = 7 for the low pressure system and δ = 75
for the conventional hydraulic system – see Fig 3.14), the combined bulk mod-
ulus BT′ ot may be calculated according to Eq. (3.46).
5
O i l l a y e r
4
]
]
m
m
[ m
[ m
4
n
n
t i o
t i o
3
a
a
r m
r m
P r e - d e f o r m a t i o n
3
f o
f o
e
e
D
o f e l e m e n t
2
1
1
0 0
1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0 1 0 2 0 3 0 4 0
x [ m m ] x [ m m ]
p S y s
= 2 0 0 b a r p S y s
= 4 0 b a r
Figure 3.14: Element shape and oil layer for pSys ∈ {40, 200} bar
In order to achieve a resonance frequency of f = 435 Hz, the length of the

device may be calculated to
pSys = 40 bar l = 268 mm

pSys = 200 bar l = 603 mm.
Evaluation
⊕ Attenuation of one base harmonic and odd higher

order harmonics
⊖ Device becomes rather long for high system pres-

sures
Chapter 4
Vibration compensators
featuring a hydraulic spring
4.1 Fundamental working principle
1
F ( t )
p ( t )
2
V H S
x
A P
Figure 4.1: Schematics: Proposed pulsation compensator
The device depicted in Fig. 4.1 is connected to the main hydraulic system
(1). A working piston (3) with mass m is excited by the pressure pulsation
p(t) in the main system. Furthermore, the neck of the working piston seals off
(e.g. by a gap seal between the piston (3) and the housing (0) as depicted in
Fig. 4.1) the hydraulic volume (2) – also called the hydraulic spring – from the
main system (1) and permits only the (slow) balancing of the mean pressures
between (1) and (2).
In order to keep the working piston (3) in a centered position after the
mean pressure compensation, two centering springs (4) may be used.
Due to the pressure pulsation p(t) in the main system or the excitation
38
CHAPTER 4. COMPENSATOR WITH HYDRAULIC SPRING 39
force
F (t) = (p(t) − pHS (t)) AP (4.1)
respectively, the piston (3) is accelerated and a displacement x(t) of the piston
(3) takes place. In effect, this yields an increased pressure pHS in the hydraulic
spring (2).
Neglecting the cross flow between the hydraulic spring (2) and the main
system (1) and assuming that VHS ≫ AP x, the equation for ṗ may be simplified
to
BT′ ot B′
ṗ = AP ẋ ≈ T ot AP ẋ, (4.2)
VHS − AP x VHS
Accordingly, a displacement ∆x of the piston yields an increase in pressure
∆pHS in the hydraulic spring
BT′ ot
∆pHS = AP ∆x. (4.3)
VHS
Multiplying Eq. (4.3) by the piston area AP yields the stiffness of the hy-
draulic spring cHS
B ′ A2
∆F = AP ∆p = T ot P ∆x. (4.4)
VHS
| {z }
cHS
The behaviour of the system represents a resonator with mass m (the mass
of the working piston (3)1 ), stiffness cHS (due to the stiffness of the hydraulic
spring2 (2)) and damping d due to the shear stresses in the fluid and leakage,
where BT′ ot represents the combined bulk modulus of hydraulic oil consider-
ing the flexibility of the surrounding enclosure, AP represents the area of the
working piston and VHS represents the oil volume in the hydraulic spring.
As already outlined in Chapter 2, a properly tuned resonator called the
vibration compensator may be used to greatly attenuate the effects of an ex-
citation of the primary system if the frequency of excitation Ω is close to the
natural frequency ω of the vibration compensator. In our case, the excitation
is given by the flow pulsation, the vibration compensator is represented by the
presented device and the primary system is the main hydraulic system.
1
Neglecting both the proportionate mass of the oscillating oil column in the hydraulic
spring and the proportionate mass of the centering springs.
2
For simplicity, neglecting the stiffness of the centering springs.
4.2 Resonance frequency

4.2.1 Basic model
Neglecting the influence of the centering springs, the natural frequency of the
vibration compensator is given as
r s
cHS BT′ ot
ω0 = = AP . (4.5)
m VHS m
Basic consideration, i.e. considering the stiffness but not their respective
masses, of the centering springs yields
r
cHS + 2 cCS
ω= . (4.6)
m
4.2.2 Advanced model

In order to make the descriptions and calculations as clearly as possible, the
influence of cCS on ω will be neglected in the following paragraphs (cHS →
cHS + 2cCS ).
Linear damping
Assuming linear damping in the vibration absorber (see also Sec. 3.1.1 and
Fig. 4.2), the resonance frequency ω of the device may be written as
r
cHS
ω0 = (4.7)
m
p
ω = 1 − ζ 2 ω0 (4.8)
, where
d
ζ= √ . (4.9)
2 m cHS
Since the influence of leakage between the piston and the housing does ap-
pear as additional damping, only the influence of shear stresses in the sealing
gap between the housing and the piston will be investigated in this paragraph
(see Sec. 4.3.1 for a detailed investigation of leakage). The coefficient of damp-
ing due to the shear stresses between the piston and the housing may be written
as (see also Eq. (3.48))
lGap η D π
d= , (4.10)
sGap
since F = d v = D π lGap τ and
∂v (4.11)
τ =η .
∂z
z l G a p
s G a p
Figure 4.2: Damping in sealing gap
Compressibility of the hydraulic spring BT′ ot

In analogy to Sec. 3.3.1, the increase in volume of an oil filled containment
depicted in Fig. 4.3 due to an increase in pressure in the hydraulic spring ∆p
may be written as
∆p
∆VT ot = ∆VOil + ∆VCyl + ∆VP late = VHS . (4.12)
BT′ ot
Although a fairly good approximation for ∆VCyl assuming thin-walled shells
is already given in Eq. (3.33), the influence of the screws, as well as the plate
is investigated in the following paragraphs.
According to Parkus [Par88, p. 122],
∂(W + U )
= 0. (4.13)
∂qi
needs to be fulfilled in static and conservative systems3 .
For the system depicted in Fig. 4.3, the energy of deformation of the solid
bodies may be written as
U = nScrew UT russ + UCyl + UP late (4.14)
with
cT russ 2
UT russ = u2 (4.15)
2
EAScrew
cT russ = , (4.16)
lScrew
3
An analogous formulation may be found using Gibbs’ principle which states that δ(W +
+W )
U ) = 0. Since both W and U are functions of ui , δ(U + W ) = ∂(U∂u i
δui results in N
equations for u1 . . . uN , where N is the number of DOFs in the system.
Figure 4.3: Schematics of vibration absorber with hydr. spring

where u2 is a the deformation of the truss element4 .

Considering membrane stress state only, thus neglecting the effect of shell
bending, UCyl may be written as
σx ǫx + σθ ǫθ
UCyl = 2RπSL , (4.17)
| {z } 2
VCyl
where
u1 ES
nx = + µpR nθ = Rp (4.18)
L
1
2
Rp − µRp Rp − 21 µRp
ǫx = ǫθ = . (4.19)
ES ES
Consequently, the deformation of the cylinder in radial and axial direction
wCyl and uCyl result as
wCyl = Rǫθ (4.20)

Z L
uCyl = ǫx dx = u1 . (4.21)
0
The energy of deformation for circular plates is (see [Par88, p. 278])

"Z µ ¶2 ¯ #
a
∂w ¯r=a
U = πD (∇2 w)2 r dr − (1 − µ) ¯ , (4.22)
0 ∂r r=0
where D is given in Eq. (3.24). Using a Ritz formalism for the plate deformation
w with
³ ¡ r ¢2 ´
w(r) = A2 1 + α22 (4.23)
a
and making use of the boundary conditions
w(r1 ) = u1 w(a) = u2 (4.24)
the parameters A2 and α22 follow accordingly. The work of the external forces
is
W = WP late + WCyl (4.25)

Z r1
WP late = − 2rπpw(r) dr (4.26)
0
WCyl = −2RπLpwCyl , (4.27)
4
Screws may be quite accurately modelled as truss elements.
where wCyl is the radial deformation of the cylinder defined in Eq. (4.20). The
sum of W and U may now be combined and, according to Eq. (4.13), must
satisfy the criterion
∂(U + W )
=0 (4.28)
∂u1
∂(U + W )
=0 (4.29)
∂u2
which results in two linearly independent equations. These equations may be
solved for u1 and u2 which also fully specifies ∆VCyl and ∆VP late as
¡ ¢
∆VCyl = (R + wCyl )2 − R2 πL (4.30)
Z r1
∆VP late = 2rπw(r) dr. (4.31)
0
Wave propagation, mass of the hydraulic spring and damping

In order to investigate the effects of wave propagation, mass of a mechani-
cal/hydraulic spring and (nominal) damping5 , the two simplest possible ar-
rangements – a system with a mechanical spring (see also Sec. 2.2.2, Analogy
between a mechanical and hydraulic system) and a system with a hydraulic
spring – depicted in Fig. 4.4 will be investigated.
The approach presented here is taken from Ingard [Ing88]. A brief descrip-
tion of the complex formalism used for the analysis of vibration problems is
also given in Sec. C.
Mechanical system Using the common notation for the wave number k,
the speed of wave propagation v and the wave resistance Z (see Secs. C.1–C.2)
ω
k= (4.32)
vr
cSpring
v=L (4.33)
mSpring
√
Z= µ v = cSpring mSpring , (4.34)
|{z}
mSpring
L
the equations for the complex amplitudes of force F (x) and velocity u(x) re-
spectively may be written as
F (x) = A∗ ei k x + B ∗ e−i k x (4.35)
1
u(x) = (A∗ ei k x − B ∗ e−i k x ). (4.36)
Z
5
Although most texts do not consider damping in combination with wave propagation, a
combined treatment makes particularly sense if one is interested in the quantitative response
close to resonance and not just in the natural frequency.
x
L
F 0
m S p r i n g
, c S p r i n g
(a) Mechanical system
x
L
F 0
M V , B , r A
O i l P
(b) Hydraulic system
Figure 4.4: Resonance of a mass on a hydraulic/mechanical spring

Incorporating the boundary condition
u(x)|x=0 ≡ u(0) = 0, (4.37)
above equations become
F (x) = 2 A∗ cos(k x) (4.38)

1
u(x) = 2 A∗ i sin(k x), (4.39)
Z
since
1 ∗
u(0) = (A − B ∗ ) = 0
Z (4.40)
⇒ A∗ = B ∗ .
The differential equation for the motion of the mass M including damping
may be written as
M (−i ω) u(−L) + d u(−L) = F0 − F (−L). (4.41)

√|{z}
2 ζ M cSpring
Consequently, the complex amplitude A∗ of the solution of Eq. 4.41 in the

stationary case reads as
F0
A∗ = √ (4.42)
M M cSpring
−2 ω Z
sin(k L) − 4 i ζ Z
sin(k L) + 2 cos(k L)
and the amplitudes of velocity u(−L) and displacement ξ(−L) respectively

may be written as
2 F0 i sin(k L)
u(−L) = − √ (4.43)
M M cSpring
Z(−2 ω Z sin(k L) − 4 i ζ Z sin(k L) + 2 cos(k L))
u(−L)
ξ(−L) =
−i ω
2 F0 sin(k L) (4.44)
= √
M M cSpring
Z ω(−2 ω Z sin(k L) − 4 i ζ Z sin(k L) + 2 cos(k L))
Hydraulic system In analogy to Eqs. (4.33)–(4.34), the speed of wave prop-

agation v and the wave resistance Z may be written as
p
v = B/ρ (4.45)
p
Z = ρ v = B ρ. (4.46)
Using this notation, the complex amplitudes for linear wave propagation
are simply
p(x) = A∗ ei k x + B ∗ e−i k x (4.47)

1
u(x) = (A∗ ei k x − B ∗ e−i k x ), (4.48)
Z
where consideration of the boundary condition
u(x)|x=0 ≡ u(0) = 0 (4.49)
yields
p(x) = 2 A∗ cos(k x) (4.50)

1
u(x) = 2 A∗ i sin(k x), (4.51)
Z
since
1 ∗
u(0) = (A − B ∗ ) = 0
Z (4.52)
⇒ A∗ = B ∗ .
The differential equation for the mass M is similar to Eq. (4.41) and may
be written as
M (−i ω) u(−L) + d u(−L) = F0 − p(−L) AP ,
√|{z} (4.53)
2 ζ M cSpring
where
B A2P B AP
cSpring = = . (4.54)
AP L L
Hence, the complex amplitude A∗ and the amplitudes of velocity u(−L)
and displacement ξ(−L) may be written as
F0
A∗ = √ (4.55)
M M cSpring
−2 ω Z sin(k L) − 4 i ζ Z sin(k L) + 2 cos(k L) AP
2 F0 i sin(k L)
u(−L) = − √
M M cSpring
Z(−2 ω Z sin(k L) − 4 i ζ Z sin(k L) + 2 cos(k L) AP )
(4.56)
2 F0 sin(k L)
ξ(−L) = √
M M cSpring
Z ω(−2 ω Z sin(k L) − 4 i ζ Z sin(k L) + 2 cos(k L) AP )
(4.57)
Channel length from main system to absorber

Again making use of the analogy between hydraulic and mechanical systems,
the channel from the main system to the vibration absorber may be approx-
imated by an additional (mechanical) system which also shifts the natural
frequencies of the coupled system.
D C
F 0
p 0
m C
L
E
L
N
E
N
N
L C
A
A ,
N
r C
H
A
C
H
C
- x C
m
R
m
O
R
T
O
A
T
c
A
- x
N
S
H S
E
c
N
H S
E
M
P
O
M
C
O
C
(a) Hydraulic system (b) Mechanical system
Figure 4.5: Coupled oscillation: Channel - Vibration absorber
Neglecting damping, the dynamics of the coupled system may be described

by
Mẍ + Cx = F, (4.58)
where
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
mC 0 cC −cC F0
M= C= F= (4.59)
0 mHS −cC cC + cHS 0
and
m C = VC ρ (4.60)
VC = AC LC (4.61)
D2 π
AC = C (4.62)
4
B A2C
cC = . (4.63)
VC
The natural frequencies of the coupled system Eq. (4.58) may be calculated
as the square-root of the eigenvalues of the characteristic matrix A∗ , where
A∗ = C · M−1 . (4.64)
Radiation damping
Perhaps the most involved issue to be discussed in this section is commonly
referred to as radiation damping. A brief description of the phenomenon may
be found in Carlstone [Car92]:
. . . In this case the primary spring (in our case the hydraulic
spring) is considered to possess mass and an infinitely long (sec-
ondary or radiating) spring is considered to be attached to the mass.
Thus, if the mass is set in motion, the infinite spring is excited and
energy is carried out of the system. The mechanical wave in the
secondary spring is analogous to radiation and is referred to as me-
chanical radiation . . .
E
x
c i t a t i o
n
x 1
A u , p , Z M e
i k x
e
- i k x u , p , Z
P 1 1
x F
1
L x 0
x
M
2
2
S
e m
E x c i t a t i o n
i - i n
f i n
u * , p * , Z *
e
- i k x
i t e
u * , p * , Z *
s p
r i n
g
A P
(a) Hydraulic model (b) Mechanical model
Figure 4.6: Hydraulic and equivalent mechanical system: Radiation damping

The complex amplitudes of the solution of the basic wave equations (see also
Sec. 4.2.2) for system I (vibration absorber) and system II (radiation spring)
are
System I:
p(x1 ) = A∗ ei k x1 + B ∗ e−i k x1 (4.65)
1
u(x1 ) = (A∗ ei k x1 − B ∗ e−i k x1
) (4.66)
Z
System II:
p∗ (x2 ) = C ∗ e−i k x2
∗
(4.67)
1 k ∗ x2
u∗ (x2 ) = ∗ (−C ∗ e−i ). (4.68)
Z
Considering the boundary condition
u(x1 )|x1 =0 ≡ u(0) = 0 (4.69)
yields (see Eq. (4.40))
p(x1 ) = 2 A∗ cos(k x1 ) (4.70)

1
u(x1 ) = 2 A∗ i sin(k x1 ). (4.71)
Z
Assuming equality of the wave resistances and wave propagation speeds in
the absorber and in the radiation spring
Z = Z∗ (4.72)
k = k∗ (4.73)
and making use of the fact that the displacement of the mass M needs to be
continuous yields
1 1
u(−L) = u∗ (0)
−i ω −i ω (4.74)
⇒ 2 A∗ i sin(k L) = C ∗ .
The differential equation for the mass M may then be written as
M (−i ω) u(−L) + p(−L) AP = F0 − p∗ (0) AP

1 (4.75)
−M (−i ω) 2 A i sin(k L) + 2 A cos(k L) AP = F0 − C AP
Z
Consequently, the complex amplitude A∗
F0
A∗ = 1 (4.76)
2 (−M ω Z
sin(k L) + cos(k L) AP + i sin(k L) AP )
and the amplitudes of velocity u(−L) and displacement ξ(−L) respectively

may be written as
2 F0 i sin(k L)
u(−L) = − 1 (4.77)
Z(−M ω sin(k L) + cos(kL) AP + i sin(k L) AP )
Z
u(−L) F0 sin(k L)
ξ(−L) = = 1
−i ω Z ω(−M ω Z sin(k L) + cos(kL) AP + i sin(k L) AP )
(4.78)
Application example
The influence of different phenomena described in Sec. 4.2.2 shall be discussed
in an application example which roughly uses the data for a vibration absorber
with a nominal resonance frequency of f0 = 500 Hz (see Tab. 4.1).
Table 4.1: Design parameters of application example

BOil 16000 bar Bulk modulus of oil
3
ρ 850 kg/m Mass density of oil
ν 46 mm2 /s Kinematic viscosity of oil
m 0.474 kg Piston mass
Basic data
VHS 0.17 l Volume VHS
dP 30 mm Diameter of working piston
Stiffness of one centering
cCS 12000 N/m
spring
lGap 10 mm Length of sealing gap
Linear
Sealing gap measured at
damping sGap 12 µm
the diameter
R 40 mm Radius of tube enclosure
S 10 mm Thickness of tube enclosure
E 210000 N/mm2 Modulus of elasticity
nScrew 6 Number of screws
Compress-
dScrew 16 mm Screw diameter
ibility
lScrew 130 mm Screw length
r1 40 mm r1 = R
a 60 mm Plate radius
h 30 mm Plate thickness
Wave mHS VHS ρ Mass of hydr. spring
prop. lHS 50 mm Spring length
Channel DC dP Diameter of channel
length lC 50 mm Length of channel
Radiation Diameter of
dRS dP
damping “radiating spring”
Basic model Neglecting the stiffness of the centering springs, the natural
frequency of the resonator according to Eq. (4.5) is f0 = 501.3 Hz. Basic
consideration of the stiffness cHS of the centering springs yields f = 502.6 Hz.
Linear damping The damping coefficient considering Newtonian behaviour

N
of the fluid in the sealing gap is d = 6.14 m/s . Hence, the dimensionless
damping ratio ζ = 0.002 and the resonance frequency of the system considering
damping f is only marginally different from f0 (f ≈ 501.3 Hz).
Compressibility of the hydraulic spring BT′ ot Assuming the properties

given in Tab. 4.1, the compressibility due to the flexibility of the tube enclosure,
the plate and the elasticity of the screws is reduced to BT′ ot = 15600 bar
(f = 495 Hz).
Wave propagation, mass of the hydraulic spring and damping
Mechanical system In case of the system depicted in Fig. 4.4(a), the

speed of wave propagation v and the wave resistance Z may be written as
p
v = lHS cHS /mHS (4.79)
√
Z = cHS mHS . (4.80)
Since in linear systems the resonance frequency is independent of the force

amplitude (see Eq. (4.57)), a nominal driving force of F0 = 1 N will be used.
The frequency plot considering a nominal damping ratio of ζ = 0.02 in Fig. 4.7
indicates that the effect of wave propagation in the system is only of minor
magnitude and the change in the natural frequency may be attributed to the
mass of the hydraulic spring6
Hydraulic system According to Eqs. (4.45)-(4.46), v and Z may be

written as
p
v = B/ρ (4.81)
p
Z = B ρ. (4.82)
Since the system depicted in Fig. 4.4(b) is just a simplification of the system
used, i.e. VHS 6= AP lHS , the length lHS of the device needs to be adapted to
lHS = VHS /AP to give meaningful results. The frequency plot for the hydraulic
system considering nominal damping (ζ = 0.02) is depicted in Fig. 4.8.
6
The resonance frequency
q of a mechanical system considering the spring mass m HS may
be calculated as ω = m+c1HSm = 477.6 Hz.
3 HS
x [ m ]
f [ H z ]
Figure 4.7: Frequency plot ξ(−L) over f : Mechanical system
x [ m ]
f [ H z ]
Figure 4.8: Frequency plot ξ(−L) over f : Hydraulic system

Channel length
Analytical model The natural frequencies f1 and f2 of the coupled sys-

tem due to the length of the channel connecting the main hydraulic system to
the vibration absorber are
f1 = 486 Hz (4.83)
f2 = 7644 Hz. (4.84)
FE model In order to verify the influence of the channel connecting the

compensator to the main system, a FE analysis in ABAQUS [HKS95] was
performed. The first analysis (see input files in Sec. B.1.1) considers a channel
length of lC = 5 cm and yielded a natural frequency of the system of f =
462 Hz. The system not covering the influence of the channel (see Sec. B.1.1)
resulted in a natural frequency of f = 493 Hz.
According to the numerical analysis, the influence of the channel length
is more dramatic than anticipated by the simple model in Sec. 4.2.2. How-
ever, this fact is not surprising if one considers that the natural frequency of
Helmholtz resonators may depend heavily on a particular design, especially at
high frequencies [Ing53, p. 1039].
Radiation damping In order to compare the responses of the system with

wave propagation and nominal damping (ζ = 0.002) and the system also cov-
ering the influence of radiation damping, equality of the wave resistances of
the hydraulic spring Z and the semi-infinite (the radiation spring) Z ∗ will be
assumed.
The wave resistances may be written as
p
Z = Z ∗ = B ρ. (4.85)
The plot of the amplitude of displacement ξ(−L) over the frequency f is

depicted in Fig. 4.9 and yields that not only the amplitude of oscillation but
also the resonance frequency of the coupled system is dramatically reduced by
the influence of radiation damping (f ≈ 443 Hz).
4.3 Some design aspects

So far there is no clear rule of how big a vibration compensator needs to be
for a given flow pulsation QP ump , thus the following very simple procedure was
developed.
Assume, that a vibration absorber7 is parameterised in the way depicted
in Fig. 4.10, with independent design parameters D, H and dP . Also assum-
7
The parameterisation follows roughly the design of the first prototype (see Sec. 5.1).
x [ m ]
f [ H z ]
Figure 4.9: Frequency plot ξ(−L) over f : Radiation damping
dP
D
4 (1-1/Ö2)
dP
6
dP dP
6 2
D
4 (1-1/Ö2)
D
2 (1-1/Ö2)
H
D
Ö2
Figure 4.10: Parametrised vibration absorber

ing that the height of the hydraulic spring is equal to the diameter, H = D 8 ,
the mass m, the volume of the hydraulic spring VHS and hence also the res-
onance frequency of the absorber9 ω0 are fully expressed as functions of the
independent parameters.
However, since the resonance frequency ω0 of the absorber is defined by two
parameters, another equation needs to be found to fully constrain the system.
4.3.1 System dynamics

Neglecting the eccentricity of the piston in the sealing gap, the equations de-
scribing the dynamic behaviour of the system depicted in Fig. 4.12 are
m ẍ + d ẋ + 2 cCS x = AP (pSys − pHS ) (4.86)
· ¸
B dP π s3Gap
ṗHS = AP ẋ + (pSys − pHS ) , (4.87)
VHS 12 η lGap
where (see Sec. 4.2.2)
lGap η dP π
d= . (4.88)
sGap
s G a p
A P
p S y s
p H S
l G a p
Figure 4.11: System overview: Sealing gap optimisation

In the frequency domain, the transfer function describing the piston dis-
placement x̂ as a function of the system pressure p̂Sys is
x̂(s) 12 s VHS η lGap d2P π sGap
G(s) = = (4.89)
p̂Sys (s) DEN
8
For the sake of a compact shape of the compensator.
9
Using the simple model described in Sec. 4.2.1.
where
DEN = 48 s3 VHS η lGap m sGap +48 s2 VHS η 2 lGap

2
dP π +4 s2 B dP π s4Gap m +
96 s VHS η lGap cCS sGap + 4 s B d2P π 2 s3Gap η lGap +
3 s B d4P π 2 η lGap sGap + 8 B dP π s4Gap cCS . (4.90)
Eq. (4.89) may now be used to both optimise the sealing gap geometry and
to fully constrain the dimensioning of the absorber.
4.3.2 Optimisation of sealing gap geometry

Evaluating the magnitude of G(s) at the design frequency of the compensator
for different parameters sGap and lGap yields an optimised sealing gap geometry.
However, although a short length lGap appears to be beneficial, a certain length
of the sealing gap is necessary to guide the piston in the housing.
4.3.3 Dimensioning
Assuming a purely sinusoidal motion of the piston with frequency ω, the flow Q
taken-up by the displacement of the compensator due to the pressure pulsation
p̂Sys may be written as
|x| = |G(s)| p̂Sys (4.91)

⇒ |ẋ| = |x| ω (4.92)
⇒ |Q| = AP |ẋ| = AP ω |G(s)| p̂Sys . (4.93)
Eqs. (4.89) and (4.93) in combination with the parameterisation given in

Fig. 4.10 is therefore sufficient to fully constrain the compensator. The dimen-
sioning charts for two compensators with fRes = 450 Hz and fRes = 225 Hz
using the parameterisation given in Fig. 4.10 are given in Fig. 4.13 and Fig. 4.14
respectively. Using these charts, the general procedure of absorber dimension-
ing is as follows:
1. Select dP according to the pulsating flow stream Q̂P at frequency fRes

(see chart a)
2. Read height H of the hydraulic spring (see chart c)
3. For a given diameter dP of the piston, read the mass of the piston m (see
chart b) and the volume VHS of the hydraulic spring (see chart d)
f [ H z ]
| G ( s ) |
[ m m / b a r ]
s [ m ]
l G a p
[ m ] G a p
(a) |G(s)| vs. lGap , sGap
| G ( s ) |
[ m m / b a r ]
s G a p
[ m ]
(b) |G(s)| vs. sGap (lGap = 10 mm)
Figure 4.12: Optimisation of sealing gap geometry (Parameters see Tab. 4.1,
Basic Data) at f = 450 Hz
CHAPTER 4. COMPENSATOR WITH HYDRAULIC SPRING
2 1 5 0 0
1 . 8
Q P u l s a t i o n
= 0 . 6 l / m i n
1 . 6
a t Q N o m
= 1 0 0 l / m i n
1 . 4
1 0 0 0
]
1 . 2
i n
[ l / m
]
[ g
1
n
t i o
s s
a ) b )
l s a
a
0 . 8
M
u
P
5 0 0
Q
0 . 6
0 . 4
0 . 2
0 0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5
d [ m m ] d [ m m ]
P P
2 5 0
8 0
7 0
2 0 0
]
m
6 0
[ m
g
r i n
1 5 0
³ ]
5 0
s p
c ) d )
[ c m
r .
y d
4 0
h
S
f
H
1 0 0
o
t
e
3 0
h
m
i g
l u
e
o
H
V
2 0
5 0
1 0
0 0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5
d [ m m ] d [ m m ]
P P
59
Figure 4.13: Dimensioning of compensator with fRes = 450 Hz (assuming Bapp = 12000 bar and p̂Sys = 2 mbar)
1 5 0 0
1 . 5
1 0 0 0
]
i n
[ l / m
]
[ g
a ) b )
n
t i o
s s
1
l s a
a
M
u
P
5 0 0
Q
0 . 5
0 0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5
d [ m m ] d [ m m ]
P P
2 5 0
8 0
7 0
2 0 0
]
m
6 0
[ m
g
r i n
³ ]
1 5 0
5 0
c ) d )
s p
[ c m
r .
y d
4 0
h
S
f
H
1 0 0
o
t
e
3 0
h
m
i g
l u
e
o
H
V
2 0
5 0
1 0
0 0
0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5 0 5 1 0 1 5 2 0 2 5 3 0 3 5
d [ m m ] d [ m m ]
P P
60
Figure 4.14: Dimensioning of compensator with fRes = 225 Hz (assuming Bapp = 12000 bar and p̂Sys = 2 mbar)
The following sections Sec. 4.4 to Sec. 4.4.3 are taken from a joint pub-
lication with my colleague Bernhard Manhartsgruber (see [MM01]) and were
presented at PTMC10 at Bath University, UK in September 2001.
4.4 Semi-active compensators

Since the performance of noise-attenuators deteriorates for greater ∆ω = Ω Sys −
ωRes , where ΩSys is the harmonic of the fluid pulsation and ωRes is the natu-
ral frequency of the vibration compensator, semi-active (sometimes also called
adaptive passive) devices or even (fully) active devices may become necessary.
Whereas fully active devices offer the greatest flexibility and effectiveness
in dealing with pulsations, they are generally complex and require fast and
expensive actuation. Adaptive devices, on the other hand, are comparatively
simpler than fully active systems and offer the following benefits:
1. Minimise transient pulsations during start-up and shut-down, and
2. adapt to changes in steady-state operating conditions such as might occur

in pumps when load conditions vary [WL92]
4.4.1 Generic adaptive-passive vibration absorber

Modification of resonance frequency (tuning)
In order to change the natural frequency of a vibration compensator in an
on-line manner, i.e. while the system is in operation, two possibilities exist:
1. modification of mass: m → m + ∆m
2. modification of spring rate: c → c + ∆c

With respect to a practical implementation of an adaptive vibration ab-
sorber, a modification of the spring stiffness (see Fig. 4.15) appears to be
easier to accomplish and will hence be discussed in the following paragraphs.
Furthermore, the modification of the spring rate may be either continuous or
discrete in value. While a continuous modification may result in a better per-
formance of the compensator, a discrete modification of the spring stiffness
may be easier to accomplish.
The force exerted by a spring with discretely adjustable stiffness may be
written as:
Domain I F = cI s (4.94)
Domain II F = FSW 1 +cII (s − sSW 1 ), (4.95)
| {z }
sSW 1 cI
10
Annual workshop on Power Transmission and Motion Control.
m m m
c = m a x
s p r i n g s s p r i n g s
v a r i a b l e
c a c t i v e i n - a c t i v e
c l a m p i n g
c = m i n p o s i t i o n
A A I A I A
C o n n e c t i o n t o
}
c = 4 c
E n g i n e e r i n g s y s t e m
M a x
(a) Generic adaptive (b) Continuously (c) Discretely adap-

absorber adaptive absorber tive absorber
Figure 4.15: Concepts of adaptive vibration absorbers
where FSW 1 and sSW 1 (see Fig. 4.16) are respectively the force and the dis-
placement of the spring at the time where the modification of the stiffness, e.g.
the clamping of the spring, takes place.
F
I I
c
F
I I
S w 1
c I
I
s
s S w 1
Figure 4.16: Stiffness of a spring with discretely adjustable spring rate
Control strategy
In general, the reference signal for the resonance frequency of a vibration ab-
sorber connected to a hydraulic system may be deduced from the following
information11 :
1. Speed signal of hydraulic pump:

In case the flow pulsation primarily originates at the hydraulic pump,
the harmonics of the flow pulsation are directly determined by the pump
speed and the number of piston elements [Bac94]. This reference fre-
quency may then be used to directly set the parameters of the compen-
sator.
11
Pros and Cons are represented by ⊕ and ⊖, respectively.
⊕ Simple method, computationally inexpensive, pump speed signal

easily detectable
⊖ Parameter uncertainties may result in non-optimal tuning of oscil-
lator
2. Phase difference between the system pressure and displacement signal of

the compensator:
As outlined in Sec. 2.2, a properly tuned vibration compensator features
a phase difference of −π/2 at resonance between the excitation F (t)
and the displacement of the oscillator x(t). Locally, this information is
sufficient to tune the absorber.
⊕ Accurate method, compensation of parameter uncertainties

⊖ Computationally more expensive, 2 signals (system pressure and
absorber displacement) required
3. FFT of pressure pulsation:

The most general method is based on a direct FFT analysis of the pressure
pulsation. The identified harmonic of the pressure pulsation is, as in
point 1, used to set the parameter of the compensator.
⊕ Accurate method — also suitable for pseudo-random oscillations

⊖ Computationally expensive, no compensation of parameter uncer-
tainties
4.4.2 Simulation model

In order to study the steady-state and transient behaviour of passive and
adaptive-passive vibration absorbers, a simulation model depicted in Fig. 4.17
was investigated in MATLAB [Mat96].
H y d r a u l i c l i n e
m o d e l b a s e d u p o n
V i b r a t i o n
Z i e l k e - S u z u k i - M e t h o d
c o m p e n s a t o r
2 1 n o d e s
s e e [ Z i e 6 8 , S T S 9 1 ]
I d e a l i s e d f l o w s o u r c e S h a r p e d g e d
V V
Q = Q 0
+ Q 1
c o s ( W t ) H H o r i f i c e
Figure 4.17: Structure of simulation model

The model comprises an idealised flow source12
Q = Q0 + Q1 cos(Ω t) (4.96)
with constant mean flow Q0 and constant amplitude of the pulsation Q1 , a

hydraulic line [Zie68, STS91] and a sharp edged orifice. For simplicity, the
vibration absorber was modelled as a constant mass m, a stiffness c (constant
or either continuously or discretely variable in value) and damping d. The
simulation parameters are given in Tab. 4.2.
Table 4.2: Simulation parameters

B 14000 bar Bulk modulus
3
Hydr. fluid ρ 860 kg/m Mass density
2
ν 46 mm /s Viscosity
Q0 50 l/min Mean flow
Flow source Amplitude of flow pul-
Q1 0.5 l/min
sation
Additional Additional volume be-
VH 0.1 l
capacities fore/after hydraulic line
dIn 12 mm Internal diameter
l 2.11 m Length
Number of discreti-
Hydr. line
sation elements for
nDist 20
method of characteris-
tics
Nominal pressure drop
∆pN om 200 bar
Orifice at QN om
QN om 50 l/min Nominal flow
m 2 kg Mass
Compensator d 135.7 N/(m/s) Damping ratioa
A 707 mm2 Piston area (mass m)
a
This damping ratio corresponds to a dimensionless damping ratio of ζ = 0.03 for a
mass of m = p2 kg and a stiffness c = 2.558 kN/mm, which results in natural frequency
f = 2ωπ = 21π c/m = 180 Hz of the compensator.
The effect of a linear frequency rise of the flow pulsation was modelled by
F = Ω/(2 π) rising from 120 Hz to 240 Hz within a time t = tRise .
∗
5 0
Q M e a n
C o n s t a n t 1
0 . 5 A m p l i t u d e
Q A m p
O u t 1
F l o w p u l s a t i o n
A n g l e [ r a d ]
C o n s t a n t 2
Q T o t a l
S i n u s G e n e r a t o r
f [ H z ] o m e g a [ r a d / s ] 1
- K -
s
R a m p S a t u r a t i o n G a i n 1 I n t e g r a t o r
Q [ l / m i n ] p [ b a r ]
C a p a c i t y
p
p _ L [ b a r ] Q _ L [ l / m i n ]
Q [ l / m i n ] p [ b a r ] d p [ b a r ] Q D r [ l / m i n ]
p _ R [ b a r ] Q _ R [ l / m i n ]
C a p a c i t y 1 O r i f i c e
p i p e - m o d e l d u e t o Z i e l k e , S u z u k i , e t . a l .
Figure 4.18: Simulation model: System without absorber
System without absorber

As can be seen in the simulation results given in Fig. 4.19 for tRise = 1 s, the
system without compensator has a resonance at f ≈ 180 Hz. The amplitudes
of the pressure pulsation pi Ref without absorber are given in Tab. 4.3 for
different frequencies Fi∗ of the excitation.
Table 4.3: Simulation results: System without absorber (tRise = 1 s)

Fi∗ [Hz] pRefi [bar]
120 0.26
180 2.7
240 0.69
System with passive absorber

In the simulation model depicted in Fig. 4.20, the natural frequency of the
absorber f = ω/(2 π) was kept constant at f = 180 Hz.
Tab. 4.4 lists the pressure amplitudes pi and pRefi (with and without vi-
bration absorber, respectively) and the insertion loss LPi (see also Eq. (3.49))
h p i2 pi
i
LPi = 10 log = 20 log , (4.97)
pRefi pRefi
12
This simplification makes it possible to easily compare different vibration compensators
(purely passive or adaptive passive absorber – continuously adjustable or discretely ad-
justable) and furthermore allows a simple calculation of the insertion loss L P , since the
effect of higher order harmonics of the flow pulsation does not need to be considered.
2 5 0
2 0 0
]
z
[ H
F
1 5 0
- 0 . 2 0 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 1 . 2
T i m e [ s ]
2 0 4
r ]
2 0 2
a
[ b
s
y
S
2 0 0
P
1 9 8
- 0 . 2 0 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 1 . 2
T i m e [ s ]
Figure 4.19: Simulation results: System without absorber (tRise = 1 s)
5 0
Q M e a n
C o n s t a n t 1
0 . 5 A m p l i t u d e
Q A m p
O u t 1 Q T o t a l
F l o w p u l s a t i o n
A n g l e [ r a d ]
C o n s t a n t 2
Q T o t a l
S i n u s G e n e r a t o r
Q T o t a l
1
I n t e g r a t o r
s
o m e g a [ r a d / s ] Q
p
p W i t h
( 1 8 0 * 2 * p i ) ^ 2 * m a s s e c
G a i n 1
- K -
S y s w i t h C o m p e n s a t o r
C o n s t a n t
f [ H z ]
f [ H z ]
S a t u r a t i o n
p
Q p
p W i t h o u t
S y s w i t h o u t C o m p e n s a t o r
R a m p
Figure 4.20: Simulation model: System with passive absorber

2 5 0
2 0 0
z ]
[ H
F 1 5 0
- 0 . 0 2 0 0 . 0 2 0 . 0 4 0 . 0 6 0 . 0 8 0 . 1 0 . 1 2
T i m e [ s ]
2 0 1 . 8
2 0 1 . 6
r ]
2 0 1 . 4
a
[ b
y s
S
2 0 1 . 2
P
2 0 1
0 0 . 0 2 5 0 . 0 5 0 . 0 7 5 0 . 1
T i m e [ s ]
Figure 4.21: Simulation results: System with passive absorber (tuning fre-
quency f = 180 Hz, tRise = 0.1 s)
at different frequencies Fi∗ of the excitation.

As can be seen in Tab. 4.4, the attenuation performance of a passive ab-
sorber is best at the resonance frequency of the device. Further away from that
frequency, the pulsations in the system may be even worse than without com-
pensator. With respect to different rising times tRise of the excitation, passive
absorbers deliver good attenuation results even for fast rise times.
System with adaptive-passive absorber

Whereas the performance of passive vibration absorbers deteriorates further
away from the resonance frequency of these devices, adaptive-passive absorbers
are able to overcome this problem.
Absorber with continuously adjustable resonance frequency Assum-

ing continuous adjustment of the spring-rate of the vibration absorber and
neglecting the dynamics of the adjustment process, excellent levels of pulsa-
tion attenuation may be achieved (see Tab. 4.5), although the design equation
ωResonator (t) = ΩP ulsation (t) is strictly speaking only valid for a constant fre-
quency of the excitation13 .
13
According to Ascari [Asc80], a quasi steady-state tuning law for the absorber (i.e.
ω(t) = Ω(t) for linear frequency rise of excitation) delivers good attenuation results if the rise
time from standstill to the nominal frequency tRise ≥ 100/fN om . However, the simulation
results presented in Sec. 4.4.2 indicate that the quasi steady-state tuning law delivers good
Table 4.4: Simulation results: System with passive absorber (tuning frequency
f = 180 Hz)
tRise [s] Fi∗ [Hz] pi [bar] pRefi [bar] LPi [dB]
a
120 0.29 0.26 0.95
a
0.1 180 0.035 2.7 -38
240a 0.34 0.69 -6.1
a
Transient considered
tRise [s] pM ax [bar] pRef M ax [bar]
1 0.33 2.7
0.1 0.34 2.7
0.01 0.41 2.7
2 5 0
2 0 0
z ]
[ H
F
1 5 0
- 0 . 0 2 0 0 . 0 2 0 . 0 4 0 . 0 6 0 . 0 8 0 . 1 0 . 1 2
T i m e [ s ]
0 . 0 5
r ]
a
[ b
0
y s
S
P
D
- 0 . 0 5
0 0 . 0 2 5 0 . 0 5 0 . 0 7 5 0 . 1
T i m e [ s ]
Figure 4.22: Simulation results: System with continuously adjustable absorber

(tRise = 0.1 s)
Table 4.5: Simulation results: System with continuously adjustable absorber

tRise [s] Fi∗ [Hz] pi [bar] pRef i [bar] LPi [dB]
a
120 0.025 0.26 -20
a
0.1 180 0.035 2.7 -38
240a 0.045 0.69 -24
a
Transient considered
1 0.043 2.7
0.1 0.045 2.7
0.01 0.058 2.7
Similarly to passive devices, absorbers with continuously adjustable reso-

nance frequency seem to be suitable for fast rise times tRise of the excitation.
Absorber with discretely adjustable resonance frequency Since com-

pensators with continuously adjustable spring-rate are generally quite difficult
to accomplish, vibration absorbers with discretely adjustable spring rate may
be of interest. In Fig. 4.23, the performance of a vibration absorber featuring
three spring rates14 is presented.
As can be seen in the second case of Fig. 4.23 featuring spring rates of
cSpring 120 , cSpring 180 and cSpring 240 , the steady-state performances at F ∗ =
120 Hz and F ∗ = 240 Hz compare well with Fig. 4.22. Although the steady-
state attenuation performance in the first case of Fig. 4.23 is inferior to the
second case, there’s a lower maximum pulsation considering transient effects.
In general, discretely adjustable absorbers seem to be a viable alternative
to continuously adjustable devices even for fast rise times tRise .
4.4.3 Optimal adaption

The stiffness adaption of the continuously adjustable absorber has been com-
puted from a quasi-stationary point of view. The result in Fig. 4.22 shows
the excellent performance of this adaption scheme. A further improvement
of the remaining pressure pulsation can be achieved by an optimal adaption
function for the absorber spring stiffness. An optimal control input is now
computed with the nonlinear sparse solver HQP and the optimal control front-
end Omuses 1.5 [FA96]. The optimization model is simplified with respect to
results even for fast rise times tRise .
14
Note that a spring rate of e.g. cSpring 180 corresponds to a resonance frequency of the
absorber of f = 180 Hz.
0 . 3
c c
0 . 2 S p r i n g 1 4 0 S p r i n g 1 8 0
0 . 1
r ]
a
[ b
0
s
y
S
- 0 . 1
P
D
- 0 . 2
c S p r i n g 1 8 0
c S p r i n g 2 2 0
0 0 . 2 5 0 . 5 0 . 7 5 1
T i m e [ s ]
0 . 3
c S p r i n g 1 2 0
c S p r i n g 1 8 0
0 . 2
r ]
0 . 1
a
[ b
0
s
y
S
- 0 . 1
P
D
- 0 . 2
c S p r i n g 1 8 0
c S p r i n g 2 4 0
0 0 . 2 5 0 . 5 0 . 7 5 1
T i m e [ s ]
Figure 4.23: Simulation results: System with discretely adjustable absorber

(tRise = 1 s)
Table 4.6: Simulation results: System with discretely adjustable absorber

tRise [s] Fi∗ [Hz] pi [bar] pRefi [bar] LPi [dB]
a
120 0.1 0.26 -8
a
0.1 180 0.035 2.7 -38
a
240 0.1 0.69 -17
1ab 0.17 2.7
a,b
0.1 0.16 2.7
0.01a,b 0.16 2.7
a
First case of Fig. 4.23 featuring spring rates of cSpring 140 , cSpring 180 and cSpring 220 .
b
Transient considered.
c [kN/mm]
3
1
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
0.02
∆pSys [bar]
−0.02
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07
Figure 4.24: Optimal stiffness copt (solid), steady-state solution c (dashed)
the pipeline dynamics. A simple lumped parameter model with one degree of
freedom replaces the distributed parameter model (method of characteristics).
The optimisation criterion (cost functional) is to minimise the time integral
of the squared pressure pulsation. The time interval of the optimization model
covers one period of oscillation at 120 Hz, the linear frequency rise from 120
Hz to 240 Hz within 0.05 s and four periods of oscillation at 240 Hz. The state
values at t = 0 and at the end of the first period are constrained to match
each other and the control input is zero during the first period. Thus, the opti-
mization model starts with the steady state system answer. The optimization
interval is divided into 720 subintervals each having a constant rate of change
of absorber stiffness. Special attention has to be paid to the constraints on
the control input. Constraining the maximum absolute value of the stiffness
change rate results in a bang-bang type control input. Therefore, the abso-
lute stiffness change, i.e. the integral of the absolute value of its change rate,
has been constrained to the difference between the steady state optimum at
120 Hz and the optimum at 240 Hz. The result of this optimization is given
in Fig. 4.24. The optimal control function is very similar to the steady-state
solution even at this high rate of change of the excitation frequency.
In the following sections, some tuning principles for absorbers featuring a
hydraulic spring will be investigated.
4.4.4 Hydraulic adaptation

Perhaps the most straight forward frequency tuning principle makes use of the
very nature of a hydraulic spring itself, i.e. by changing the volume VHS of
the hydraulic spring in an either discrete (see Fig. 4.25(a)) or continuous (see
Fig. 4.25(b)) manner.
4.4.5 Mechanical adaptation

Alternatively, the resonance frequency of a device may be modified by the
utilisation of an additional (mechanical) spring with adjustable spring stiffness.
As a first approximation, the stiffness of the mechanical spring (i.e. the
plate in Fig. 4.26) may be described by the combined stiffness of an array of
beam elements
According to the beam theory of second order, the equation describing the
deflection w(x) of a beam with constant stiffness may be written as
∂4w ∂2w
E Iy + P = 0, (4.98)
∂x4 ∂x2
where the compression force is denoted by P . Prescription of a transversal
force Q at x = L (see Fig 4.27) yields another equation, namely
¯ ¯
∂ 3 w ¯¯ ∂w ¯¯
E Iy +P = Q. (4.99)
∂x3 ¯x=L ∂x ¯x=L
The boundary conditions for the above system are
¯
¯
w¯ =0 (4.100)
¯x=0 ¯
∂ ¯¯ ∂ ¯¯
w = 0 and w = 0. (4.101)
∂x ¯x=0 ∂x ¯x=L
These equations may be solved for the beam deflection w(x) and the stiffness
in transversal direction, where the stiffness
Q
c=
w|x=L
p (4.102)
P E Iy P sin(α)
= p
−2 E Iy + 2 E Iy cos(α) + L P E Iy sin(α)
and
p
P E Iy L
α= . (4.103)
E Iy
Although the stiffness c of the beam element in transversal direction is non-
linear (see Eq. (4.102)), the behaviour of c as a function of P appears to be
practically linear (see plot depicted in Fig 4.28).
(a) Discrete adjustment
3 2
SV2
4
SV1
D1
(b) Continuous adjustment
Figure 4.25: Frequency tuning by modification of VHS

Figure 4.26: Arrangement of mechanical springs
Figure 4.27: Equivalent model featuring one spring

1 5 7 0 0
6 0 0
1 2 . 5
5 0 0
1 0
]
4 0 0
]
[ %
m
d
7 . 5
y
/ m
H
c
[ N
3 0 0
/
c
2 0 0
2 . 5
1 0 0
0 0
0 2 0 0 0 4 0 0 0 6 0 0 0 8 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 2 0 0 0
P [ N ]
c
Figure 4.28: Spring stiffness c and ratio cHS vs. compression force P (Rectangular beam: length = 20 mm, with = 20 mm,
2
height = 1.1 mm and E = 210000 N/mm ; cHS see Tab. 4.1)
75
The stresses in the beam element may be found by combining the stationary
stress σC due to the stationary compression force P with a dynamic bending
stress σB due to the movement of compensator mass at x = L. These stresses
may be written as
P P
σC = = (4.104)
A wh
Mh ∂2w h
σB = = 2
E . (4.105)
I 2 ∂x 2
According to the laws of strength of materials [Sch99], the combination of
stationary stresses and a dynamic stresses needs to be below the fatigue limit
of materials.
Chapter 5
Numerical and experimental

results
5.1 First prototype (fRes ≈ 140 Hz)

Based on the working principle presented in Sec. 4.1, a prototype was built
featuring a (nominal) resonance frequency of fRes = 140 Hz (see Tab. 5.1 for
design parameters and Sec. A for the actual design).
Table 5.1: Design parameters of first prototype

Bapp 12150 bar Apparent bulk modulus1
dP 29.98 mm Diameter of working piston
Hydraulic
spring
Resulting stiffness of hydr.
→ cHS 1.52 kN/mm
spring
Mass m 1.962 kg Mass of working piston
Gap seal Sealing gap measured at the
sGap 12 µm
diameter
5.1.1 Experimental setup

In order to specify the attenuation performance of the prototype, an experi-
mental setup depicted in Fig. 5.1 was used. In this setup, the flow pulsation
was generated by the sinusoidal excitation of a servo-valve (MOOG D760-995A,
super high response type, cutoff frequency fCutOf f = 350 Hz) between a high
1
The apparent bulk modulus Bapp considers all the effects described in Sec. 4.2.2
which apparently reduce
q the bulk modulus of the resonator. The governing equation is
1
p cHS 1 Bapp A2P
f=2π m = 2 π VHS m .
77
CHAPTER 5. NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS 78
pressure side with pSys = 160 bar and the tank side. Between the servo-valve
and the compensator, a hydraulic line with length l = 250 mm and an internal
diameter of d = 12 mm was used. This type of line with a length of l = 300 mm
was also used to connect the compensator to the load, which was represented
by a sharp edged adjustable orifice. After the adjustable orifice, a cavity with
a volume of V = 0.75 l was used to reduce pressure pulsations in the tank line.
Figure 5.1: Schematics: Experimental setup
Servo−valve Orifice
Compensator
Figure 5.2: Experimental setup
The servo-valve was excited electrically using a displacement signal

s(t) = s0 + ŝ cos(ωt), (5.1)
whereby the excitation frequency f = ω/(2π) was varied in the range between
10 and 300 Hz using a step width of 10 Hz. The resulting pressure pulsation p(t)
in the main hydraulic system was detected by a pressure transducer (KULITE

34345, pN om = 160 bar and fCutof f = 800 Hz). Additionally, the supply
pressure pSys and the pressure pHS in the hydraulic spring were monitored.
The performance of noise attenuation was graded using the insertion loss (see
also Eq. (3.49))
h p i2 piF F T
iF F T
Lp = 10 log = 20 log . (5.2)
pi RefF F T pi RefF F T
Due to the non-linearity of the system behaviour2 , frequencies different from

the excitation frequency were found in the steady state response of the system.
In order to end up with the correct insertion loss Lp at a specific frequency fi ,
the values piF F T and pi RefF F T represent the amplitudes in the spectrum of the
pressures signals pi and pi Ref at frequency fi after performing a FFT analysis.
5.1.2 Attenuation performance

The insertion loss Lp of the prototype is depicted in Fig. 5.6. As can be seen
in this figure, the pressure pulsation in the main hydraulic system may be
attenuated by up to −30 dB, where the frequency range of noise attenuation
with 10 ≤ f ≤ 220 Hz is rather broad. Some characteristics of the pressure
signals p(t) in the main system with and without vibration compensator are
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.1
s (t)
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
t [s]
Figure 5.3: Valve displacement s(t)|f =140 Hz
2
This is mainly due to the non-linear flow characteristics of the servo-valve and the
adjustable orifice. In the servo-valve also the effects of over- or underlap may add significant
non-linearities.
160
158
156
154
152
[bar]
Sys
p
150
148
146
With absorber
144
Without absorber
142
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
t [s]
(a) pSys (t)|f =100 Hz
157
156
With absorber
Without absorber
155
154
153
[bar]
152
Sys
p
151
150
149
148
147
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
t [s]
(b) pSys (t)|f =140 Hz
153
152
151
150
[bar]
Sys
p
149
148
147
With absorber
Without absorber
146
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0.012 0.014 0.016 0.018 0.02
t [s]
(c) pSys (t)|f =180 Hz
Figure 5.4: Experimental data: Pressure signals pSys (t) with/without absorber
5.1.3 Simulation study

In addition to the experimental investigation of the device, a simulation study
was conducted using MATLAB (see Mathworks [Mat96]). The model depicted
in Fig. 5.5 features a 3/3 servo-valve, a simple hydraulic line (represented by
a hydraulic resistance, inductance and capacity – with an additional volume
representing the connection block) and a sharp edged orifice. The design pa-
rameters of the simulation model are listed in Tab. 5.2.
O u t 1
M A T L A B
E x c i t a t i o n
F u n c t i o n
u [ 1 ] x V e n t [ 1 ]
O r i f i c e
1 6 0 p P [ b a r ] Q P [ l / m i n ]
x V a l v e
p T [ b a r ] Q T [ l / m i n ]
p S y s
p 1
p A [ b a r ] Q A [ l / m i n ] Q 1 [ l / m i n ] Q 2 [ l / m i n ]
p
0 p 2 [ b a r ] p 1 [ b a r ]
3 / 3 S e r v o - v a l v e
S i m p l e l i n e
C o n s t a n t 1
( w i t h b l o c k )
x ' [ m / s ] A K
x '
- K - F [ N ] x [ m ]
A P i s t o n 3
p K [ b a r ]
A P i s t o n 2
Figure 5.5: Simulation model
Table 5.2: Simulation parameters representing the first prototype

fCutOf f ≈ 350 Hz Cut-off frequency
Servo
QN om 20 l/min Nominal flow
valve
∆pN om 35 bar Pressure drop at QN om
l 0.55 m Length
Hydraulic d 12 mm Internal diameter
line Additional volume (repre-
VAdd 0.06 l
sents connection block)
QN om 1.5 l/min Nominal flow
Orifice
∆pN om 145 bar Pressure drop at QN om
2
AP 707 mm Piston area
m 1.962 kg Piston mass
cSpring 24 N/mm Stiffness of centring springs
Apparent bulk modulus of
Compen- Bapp 12500 bar
the device
sator
Volume of the hydraulic
VHS 0.4 l
spring
Dimensionless damping ratio
ζ 0.03
of piston motion
As can be seen in the comparison between experimental data and simula-

tion results depicted in Fig. 5.6, the behaviour of the prototype may be fairly
well described by the simple simulation model using an apparent compression
modulus of Bapp = 12500 bar.
1 0
E x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s
5
S i m u l a t i o n r e s u l t s
- 5
]
B
[ d
s
- 1 0
s
l o
n
r t i o
- 1 5
e
s
I n
- 2 0
- 2 5
- 3 0
- 3 5
0 5 0 1 0 0 1 5 0 2 0 0 2 5 0 3 0 0
Figure 5.6: Insertion loss of first prototype
5.2 Second prototype (fN omRes ≈ 225 Hz)

Following the patent application in May 2001 (see [Pat01]), the working prin-
ciple and the experimental results of the first prototype were presented to
Bosch Rexroth Industries. Since the design frequency of the initial prototype
of f ≈ 140 Hz is not commonly found in industrial hydraulics3 , two more
prototypes were built for nominal resonance frequencies4 of f = 225 Hz and
f = 450 Hz on the basis of the first prototype, i.e. solely by modifying the
volume of the hydraulic spring VHS (see Tab. 5.35 and actual design in Sec. A).
3
Many larger hydraulic appliances in an industrial environment are powered by nine
piston pumps running at a speed of n ≈ 1500 1/min.
4
According to the simple flow generation mechanism presented in Sec. 1.1.1, the first
harmonic of the flow pulsation is f1 = 2nP ist n (see Eq. (1.5)) and f = 225 Hz does not
occur.
5
All other parameters see Tab. 5.1
Table 5.3: Design parameters of second prototype

Bapp 15700 bar Apparent bulk modulus
Hydraulic VHS 0.294 l Volume VHS
spring Resulting stiffness of hydr.
→ cHS 2.67 kN/mm
spring

Differently to the experimental setup described in Sec. 5.1.1, the pulsations
in this experiment were created by a gear pump with a specific capacity of
Qspec = 13 cm3 (see Fig. 5.7 and pictures in Fig 5.8). As in the first experiment,
the pulsations were detected both before and after the compensator by two
pressure transducers.

The attenuation performance of the second prototype is depicted in Fig. 5.9
both before and after the compensator. Some reason explaining the deteriora-
tion of the attenuation performance are given below:
• Sealing gap between piston and housing was optimised for f ≈ 150 Hz.
• The pressure pulsations generated by the gear pump were very low com-
pared to experimental setup 1.
Gear pump Electric drive
Compensator Orifice
(a) Front view
(b) Side view
Figure 5.8: Experimental setup: Second prototype

B e f o r e c o m p e n s a t o r
A f t e r c o m p e n s a t o r
- 5
]
- 1 0
B
[ d
s
s
l o
n
r t i o
- 1 5
e
s
I n
- 2 0
- 2 5
2 1 0 2 2 0 2 3 0 2 4 0 2 5 0 2 6 0 2 7 0 2 8 0
Figure 5.9: Experimental data: Insertion loss of second prototype
5.3 Third prototype (fRes ≈ 450 Hz)

Based on the understanding of the phenomena presented in Sec. 4.2.2 and by
experimental investigation of the previous prototypes, a novel prototype for a
resonance frequency of fRes = 450 Hz was designed and built jointly with my
student Herbert Reiter (see design drawings in Sec. A, pictures in Fig. 5.10,
main data in Tab. 5.4 and [Rei02]).
Table 5.4: Design parameters of third prototype

Bapp 13400 bar Apparent bulk modulus
dP 20 mm Diameter of working piston
Hydraulic
spring
Resulting stiffness of hydr.
→ cHS 1.18 kN/mm
spring
Gap seal Sealing gap measured at the
sGap 50 µm
diameter
The main differences between the initial design and the novel design were:
• The volume of the hydraulic spring VHS and hence the resonance fre-
quency of the device are easily adjustable (see Sec. 4.4.4).
• The sealing gap is optimised for a frequency of f = 450 Hz.
• Both the form of the piston and the form of the hydraulic chamber itself
were designed “more smoothly” (i.e. trying to avoid sharp edges. . . ),
therefore reducing the damping in the hydraulic spring.
• Simpler and quicker venting of the hydraulic spring.

As for the other prototypes, the compensator was subject of an experimen-
tal investigation (see experimental setup in Fig. 5.11). In order to receive
practically relevant data, the pulsation was created by a 9 piston variable
displacement axial-pump driven at a speed of n = 1500 1/min. Since the
rated power of the servo motor is limited to P = 11 kW , the pump flow
was adjusted to Q = 18.7 l/min and a resonance pipe with a length of
l = 1400 mm, di = 12 mm was used.

As can be seen in Fig. 5.12, the device has an excellent noise attenuation
performance (IL = −29 dB at f = 450 Hz) over a fairly broad frequency
range. In addition to that, Fig. 5.13 indicates that the amplitudes of the first
and third order harmonics remain almost unaffected by the device.
(a) Front view
(b) Top view
Figure 5.10: Third prototype


CHAPTER 5. NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
1 0
- 5
- 1 0
]
B
[ d
I L
- 1 5
- 2 0
1 s t H a r m o n ic
- 2 5
2 n d H a r m o n ic
3 r d H a r m o n ic
- 3 0
1 1 0 0 1 2 0 0 1 3 0 0 1 4 0 0 1 5 0 0 1 6 0 0 1 7 0 0
n [ 1 / m i n ]
3 2 0 3 4 0 3 6 0 3 8 0 4 0 0 4 2 0 4 4 0 4 6 0 4 8 0 5 0 0 5 2 0
f [ H z ]
Figure 5.12: Experimental data: Attenuation performance
89
CHAPTER 5. NUMERICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
1 . 6
F F T ( c o m p e n s a t o r a c t i v e )
F F T ( c o m p e n s a t o r i n a c t i v e )
1 . 4
1 . 2
1
r ]
a
[ b
0 . 8
n
t i o
a
l s
u
P
p
0 . 6
0 . 4
0 . 2
0
0 1 0 0 2 0 0 3 0 0 4 0 0 5 0 0 6 0 0 7 0 0 8 0 0 9 0 0 1 0 0 0
f [ H z ]
Figure 5.13: Experimental data: FFT of pressure pulsations at n = 1500 1/min
90
Chapter 6
Further work
Although a quite broad variety of systems was covered in the previous chapters,
much work remains to be done.
Compact λ/4 side-branch resonators

Based on the concept presented in Sec. 3.3.2, compensators based on compact
λ/4 side-branch resonators appear to be an interesting alternative to conven-
tional devices given in Tab. 1.1. As can be seen in Fig. 3.11, particularly com-
pact resonators may be accomplished by small ratios δ = VOil /VOElem which, on
the other hand, results in increased damping within the resonator. Since this
problem is rather complicated1 , experimental work is required to gain further
insight.
Compensators featuring a hydraulic spring

Although the validity of the concept presented in Chapter 4 was proven in a
lot of experimental work (see Chapter 5), some other aspects appear to be
worthwhile investigating.
Multi DOF resonators

According to Sec. 3.1.2, a multi DOF mass-spring resonator with natural fre-
quencies of Ω1 . . . ΩN , where
Ω1 = Ω (6.1)
Ω2 = 2 Ω (6.2)
..
.
ΩN = N Ω, (6.3)
1
The influence of damping in fluids in combination with movement of components is still
a challenging problem for both analytical and numerical methods.
91
CHAPTER 6. FURTHER WORK 92
may be built up by making the masses m1 . . . mN to
m1 = m (6.4)
m2 = m/2 (6.5)
..
.
mN = m/N (6.6)
and making the stiffnesses of the springs c1 . . . cN to
c1 = N c (6.7)
c2 = (N − 1) c (6.8)
..
.
cN = c = Ω2 m. (6.9)
This concept is of course also valid for compensators featuring a hydraulic

spring (see Fig. 6.1).
(a) δ = AHS /AP = 4 (b) δ = 1
Figure 6.1: Multi DOF compensators with hydraulic spring (Centering springs
not depicted for clarity)
However, although the concept is very simple and allows the attenuation of
more than one harmonic in a single device, experimental work is required to
investigate the usefulness of the concept.
Utilisation of membranes
An increase in performance and hence a more compact design of the compen-
sator (see Sec. 4.3.3) appears to be possible by the utilisation of membranes as
Figure 6.2: Compensator with membrane
This design variant offers the following benefits:
• Increase in performance
In steady-state operation of the compensator, the membrane would re-
duce the damping in the device since there are no shear stresses between
the housing an the piston. The slow balancing of the mean pressures
could be fulfilled by a sealing gap between the carrier element and the
housing.
• Wear avoidance
Another big advantage of this concept would be reduced wear between
piston and housing.
• Resolution of tradeoff problem

However, possibly the biggest advantage of this concept – at least in
terms of systematic design – is the resolution of the tradeoff problem
between the sealing gap and leakage between the main system and the
hydraulic spring. In the conventional design, a large sealing gap yields
high leakage which, consequently, reduces the performance of the device.
On the other hand, a tight sealing gap yields high damping in the gap
which also results in reduced performance of the device.
Adaptive passive compensator

Although the third prototype (see Sec. 5.3) was strictly speaking already a
semi-active resonator, more work (both theoretical and experimental) is re-
quired especially for relatively fast response times (time to change the reso-
nance frequency) of the vibration absorber.
Chapter 7
Conclusions
In this dissertation, several vibration compensators for the attenuation of fluid

flow pulsations were investigated.
In Chapter 1, the sources of fluid flow pulsations in hydraulic systems were

briefly discussed and conventional devices, including their strengths and short-
comings were presented.
The historical development and mathematical foundations of vibration com-

pensation were presented in Chapter 2. Furthermore, the analogy between hy-
draulic and mechanical systems – which have been drawn upon several times
in subsequent chapters – and the fundamental behaviour of systems with one
or more compensators were investigated.
Several novel concepts of vibration compensators, such as single and mul-

tiple degree-of-freedom (DOF) mass-spring resonators, resonators based on
plate/shell elements and compact λ/4 side branch resonators were presented
in Chapter 3. In order to extend the practical usefulness of the concepts pre-
sented, the theoretical description was supplemented by a comparative analysis
and discussion in Sec. 3.4.
Almost as a by-product of the investigation of mass-spring resonators, a
novel scheme for the frequency tuning of multi DOF mass-spring oscillators
was presented. This concept allows an exact placement of the natural frequen-
cies ω1 . . . ωN at a certain base harmonic Ω1 and N − 1 integer multiples of it
Ω2 . . . ΩN in case of un-damped systems.
However, the main contribution of this dissertation, a vibration compensator

featuring a so-called hydraulic spring, was presented in Chapter 4. After a
description of the fundamental working principle in Sec. 4.1 and a basic deriva-
tion of the resonance frequency of the device, some aspects shifting the natural
frequency particularly at high frequencies were investigated. Amongst these
95
CHAPTER 7. CONCLUSIONS 96
influences were linear damping, compressibility of the hydraulic spring covering

the elasticity of the surrounding enclosure, screws and plate deflection, wave
propagation and mass of the hydraulic spring, channel length from the main
system to the absorber and radiation damping. As in Chapter 3, the theoreti-
cal description of these influences was supplemented by an application example
which roughly used the parameters of an absorber with a (nominal) resonance
frequency of f = 500 Hz.
In Sec. 4.3 some aspects regarding the practical implementation of vibration
compensators with a hydraulic spring, such as system dynamics, the optimisa-
tion of sealing gap geometry and dimensioning were covered.
A theoretical treatment of adaptive passive (also known as semi-active)
vibration compensators was given in Sec. 4.4. In order to estimate the per-
formance of such devices in case of a linear frequency rise of the excitation, a
simulation model featuring passive absorbers, adaptive passive absorbers, ab-
sorbers with continuously or discretely adjustable resonance frequencies and
optimal adaptation were presented. Some aspects concerning hydraulic (mod-
ifying the volume VHS of a hydraulic spring) and mechanical (utilisation of an
additional spring with continuously variable stiffness) adaptation closed this
chapter.
In May 2001, a patent application [Pat01] was made for the compensator
presented in Chapter 4 and currently, the compensator appears to be close to
the start of serial-production by a major European hydraulics manufacturer.
Finally, the experimental results of three prototypes were presented in Chap-

ter 5. The first prototype featured a resonance frequency of fRes = 140 Hz with
a maximum achievable insertion loss of IL = −30 dB. Since this resonance
frequency is not commonly found in industrial hydraulics, two more prototypes
– one with fRes ≈ 225 Hz and one with fRes ≈ 450 Hz – were built. The exper-
imental verification of the second prototype made clear that some effects (see
Sec. 4.2.2) must not be neglected at higher frequencies and, under certain cir-
cumstances, adaptive-passive absorbers become necessary. The lessons learned
from the second prototype resulted in a modified design of the third prototype,
which resulted in an excellent noise attenuation performance (IL = −29 dB)
at f = 450 Hz.
An outlook and future work in Chapter 6 concluded the dissertation.

Appendix A
Design drawings
97
APPENDIX A. DESIGN DRAWINGS 98
Figure A.1: Design drawing: Prototype 1

APPENDIX A. DESIGN DRAWINGS 99

Appendix B
FE models
In the following section, two input files for the FE software ABAQUS [HKS95]
are briefly presented, which were used in the coupled elasto-acoustic analyses
in Sec. 4.2.2.
B.1 Acoustic analysis
Figure B.1: FE mesh (channel length 5cm)
B.1.1 Channel length lC = 5 cm

*HEADING
Eigenfrequency analysis of a vibration compensator featuring a hydraulic spring
m = 0.474 kg, V_{HS} = 0.169 l
Channel legnth 5cm
100
APPENDIX B. FE MODELS 101
*NODE,NSET=OUT
** Node at which the excitation takes place
3, 0, 0.03
*NODE
303, 0.015, 0.03
...
*NGEN
3,16,1
...
*ELEMENT,TYPE=ACAX4,ELSET=AKUSTIK
** Acoustic channel
1, 3,103,104,4
...
*ELGEN,ELSET=AKUSTIK
1, 5,1
...
*ELEMENT,TYPE=CAX4,ELSET=SOLID
** Piston mass
1001, 8,108,109,9
...
*ELGEN,ELSET=SOLID
1001, 7,1
...
** Hydraulic spring
301, 312,412,413,313
...
401, 4,1
...
*ELEMENT,TYPE=ASI2A,ELSET=INTERFACE
** Interface elements between solids and acoustic elements
2001, 15,115
...
*MATERIAL,NAME=AKUSTIK
*DENSITY
850,
*ACOUSTIC MEDIUM,BULK MODULUS
16000e5
*MATERIAL,NAME=STAHL
*ELASTIC
2.1e11,0.3
*DENSITY
7840
*SOLID SECTION,MATERIAL=AKUSTIK,ELSET=AKUSTIK
1,
*SOLID SECTION,MATERIAL=STAHL,ELSET=SOLID
1,
*INTERFACE,ELSET=INTERFACE
1,
*STEP
** Direct integration of the coupled system
*STEADY STATE DYNAMICS, DIRECT
400,500,100,1,1
*BOUNDARY, OP=NEW
** Pressure excitation (DOF 8)
*CLOAD,LOAD CASE=1
out, 8,1
*CLOAD,LOAD CASE=2
out, 8,1
*NODE PRINT,SUMMARY=NO,NSET=OUT
** Output: Pressure at the node where the excitation takes place
por
*END STEP
B.1.2 Channel length lC = 0 cm

*HEADING
Eigenfrequency analysis of a vibration compensator featuring a hydraulic spring
m = 0.474 kg, V_{HS} = 0.169 l
No channel modelled (channel length 0cm)
*NODE
3, 0, 0.03
*NODE
303, 0.015, 0.03
...
*NGEN
3,16,1
...
*NSET,NSET=OUT
** Node at which the excitation takes place
8
*ELEMENT,TYPE=CAX4,ELSET=SOLID
** Piston mass
1001, 8,108,109,9
...
*ELGEN,ELSET=SOLID
1001, 7,1
...
** Hydraulic spring
301, 312,412,413,313
...
401, 4,1
...
*ELEMENT,TYPE=ASI2A,ELSET=INTERFACE
** Interface elements between solids and acoustic elements
2001, 15,115
...
*MATERIAL,NAME=AKUSTIK
*DENSITY
850,
*ACOUSTIC MEDIUM,BULK MODULUS
16000E5
*MATERIAL,NAME=STAHL
*ELASTIC
2.1E11,0.3
*DENSITY
7840
*SOLID SECTION,MATERIAL=AKUSTIK,ELSET=AKUSTIK
1,
*SOLID SECTION,MATERIAL=STAHL,ELSET=SOLID
1,
*INTERFACE,ELSET=INTERFACE
1,
*STEP
** Direct integration of the coupled system
*STEADY STATE DYNAMICS, DIRECT
400,600,200,1,1
*BOUNDARY, OP=NEW
** Force excitation (DOF 2)
*CLOAD,LOAD CASE=1
OUT, 2,1
*CLOAD,LOAD CASE=2
OUT, 2,1
*NODE PRINT,SUMMARY=NO,NSET=OUT
** Output: Displacement at the node where the excitation takes place
u2
*EL PRINT,FREQUENCY=0
*END STEP
Appendix C
Mathematical foundations
C.1 Complex amplitude of harmonic functions

This section deals merely with some aspects of the complex formalism used for
the analysis of vibration problems (see also Sec. 4.2.2). A much more complete
reference is given in Ingard [Ing88].
Assuming a simple mass-spring resonator with damping and a harmonic
excitation F0 cos(ω t), the equation of motion is simply
m ξ¨ + d ξ˙ + c ξ = F0 cos(ωt). (C.1)
Since the steady-state response of a linear system due to a harmonic exci-

tation is also harmonic, the displacement ξ may be written as
ξ(t) = ξ0 (ω) cos(ωt − α(ω)). (C.2)
Using the shorter notations ξ0 and α for ξ0 (ω) and α(ω), the displacement ξ(t)
may be written as the real part of the function z
ξ(t) = ξ0 cos(ωt − α) = ℜ {ξ0 ei(ωt−α) } (C.3)

| {z }
z
or its complex conjugate z ∗
ξ(t) = ℜ {ξ0 e−i(ωt−α) } . (C.4)

| {z }
z∗
Using the latter option, z ∗ may be written as
z ∗ = ξ(ω) e−iωt , (C.5)
where the complex displacement amplitude ξ(ω) is
ξ(ω) = ξ0 eiα . (C.6)
105
APPENDIX C. MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS 106
Obviously, the velocity is
u(t) = ξ˙ = ℜ{(−iω)ξ(ω) e−iωt }, (C.7)

| {z }
u(ω)
where we have introduced the complex amplitude amplitude of velocity u(ω).

Analogous, the complex amplitude of acceleration is
a(ω) = (−iω)u(ω) = (−iω)2 ξ(ω) = −ω 2 ξ(ω). (C.8)
If we now re-write the force of excitation F0 cos(ωt) as ℜ{F0 e−iωt } and

combine it with Eq. (C.1) we get
© ©
(−ω 2 m − iωd + c) ξ(ω) ©
e−iωt 0 e
© =F © −iωt
© . (C.9)
Consequently, the amplitude of displacement is given as

F0
ξ(ω) = . (C.10)
−ω 2 m−i ω d+c
C.2 Wave propagation

Using the field equations in standard form [Ing88, pp. 173]
∂u ∂F
µ =− (C.11)
∂t ∂x
∂F ∂u
κ =− , (C.12)
∂t ∂x
where µ and κ are the mass and the compliance per unit length respectively1 ,
M
µ= (C.13)
L
1
κ= , (C.14)
KL
the familiar wave equation for linear wave propagation follows as
∂ 2F ∂ 2F
= µκ (C.15)
∂x2 ∂t2
1 ∂2F
= 2 2, (C.16)
v ∂t
1
Usually, when we apply these equations to fluid and solid columns, the force refers to
unit area. The mass per unit area is then the same as the mass density ρ, and the compliance
per unit length becomes the compressibility of a fluid and the inverse of the Young’s modulus
E for solids [Ing88, p. 168].
APPENDIX C. MATHEMATICAL FOUNDATIONS 107
where the speed of wave propagation is

1
v=√ . (C.17)
µκ
Furthermore, assuming the knowledge of the steady-state solution of Eq. (C.15)

for harmonic excitation as the superposition of one wave η+ (x, t) travelling in
positive x direction and one wave η− (x, t) travelling in negative x direction,
these functions may be written as
η+ (x, t) = A0 cos(ω(t − x/v) − α) = A0 cos(ωt − kx − α) (C.18)

η− (x, t) = B0 cos(ω(t + x/v) − α) = B0 cos(ωt + kx − α), (C.19)
where the wave number k is

ω
k= . (C.20)
v
Making use of the complex amplitudes η+ (x, k) and η− (x, k) (see also Sec. C.1)
η+ (x, k) = A eikx (C.21)

η− (x, k) = B e−ikx , (C.22)
Eqs. (C.18)-(C.19) may also be written as
η+ (x, t) = ℜ{η+ (x, k) e−iωt } (C.23)

−iωt
η− (x, t) = ℜ{η− (x, k) e }, (C.24)
where A and B are the wave amplitude constants
A∗ = A0 eiα (C.25)
∗ iα
B = B0 e . (C.26)
The general solution for the complex force amplitude F and the complex
amplitude of velocity u may then be written as
F (x, k) ≡ F (x) = A∗ eikx + B ∗ e−ikx (C.27)

1 ¡ ∗ ikx ¢
u(x, k) ≡ u(x) = A e − B ∗ e−ikx , (C.28)
Z
where the wave impedance Z is
p
Z = µv = µ/κ. (C.29)
Appendix D
Notation
Table D.1: Nomenclature

a Radius m
A Area m2
A∗ Complex amplitude of a force or pressure N, P a
wave running in positive x-direction
b Width m
B Bulk modulus N/m2
B∗ Complex amplitude of a force or pressure N, P a
wave running in negative x-direction
β Compression coefficient m2 /N
c Spring stiffness N/m
C Acoustic capacity m5 /N
cS Speed of sound m/s
N
d Damping ratio m/s
δ Ratio of VOil /V0Elem −
E Young’s modulus N/m2
ηF luid Dynamic viscosity N s/m2
f Frequency Hz
F Force N
F∗ Frequency of the excitation Hz
h Thickness m
i Imaginary unit −
I Area moment of Inertia m4
l Length m
L Acoustic inductivity kg/m4
λ Wave length m
LQ , L P Logarithmic measure of noise attenuation dB
108
APPENDIX D. NOTATION 109
continued from previous page

m Mass kg
N m
M Bending moment per unit length m
µ Poisson’s ratio −
n Pump speed rpm
N Order of system −
nP ist Number of pistons −
νF luid Kinematic viscosity mm2 /s
p Pressure Pa
P Compression force N
Q Volume flow m3 /s
Qspec Specific pump flow m3 /rpm
ρ Specific mass kg/m3
s, S Wall thickness m
t Time s
σ Mechanical stress N/m2
V Volume m3
ω, Ω Angular frequency rad/s
x Displacement m
ζ Dimensionless damping ratio −
Appendix E
Curriculum vitae
Name: Josef Mikota
Date and Place of Birth: February 24, 1971, Steyr
Nationality: Austria
Home Address: Dürnberg 3, 4460 Losenstein, Austria
Affiliation: Institute of Mechanics and Machine Design

Department of Foundations of Machine Design
Johannes Kepler University Linz
Altenbergerstr. 69, A-4040 Linz, Austria
Homepage: http://aml.mechatronik.uni-linz.ac.at/staff/josef
Title: Dipl.-Ing., M.Sc.
110
APPENDIX E. CURRICULUM VITAE 111
Education:
1977 - 1981 Primary school, Losenstein
1981 - 1985 Secondary school, Losenstein
1985 - 1990 College for Mechanical and Automotive Engineering,
Steyr
1990 High School Diploma (”Matura”)
1991 - 1997 Degree studies in Mechatronics, Johannes Kepler Uni-
versity Linz. Thesis: ”Non-linear control of a hydraulic
system for wheeled loaders”
1997 Graduation to Dipl.-Ing., Johannes Kepler University
Linz
1995 - 1996 M.Sc. Course ”Mechatronics and Optical Engineer-
ing”, Loughborough University, UK. Thesis: ”Com-
puter Aided Traction Control System for Wheeled
Loaders”
Employment:
1990 Military service
1997 - 1998 Development Engineer,
J C Bamford Excavators Ltd, Research Division,
Main work areas: Experimental work, Simulation of
mechanical systems, IT
since 1999 Research and Teaching Assistant,
Institute of Mechanics and Machine Design,
Department of Foundations of Machine Design,
Johannes Kepler University Linz
Appendix F
Statutory declaration
Ich, Dipl.-Ing. Josef Mikota, geboren am 24. Februar 1971 in Steyr, erkläre
hiermit, dass ich die vorliegende Dissertation selbständig verfasst habe und
keine anderen als die im Text angegebenen Quellen verwendet habe. Weiters
erkläre ich, dass ich die vorliegende Dissertation bisher an keiner inländischen
oder ausländischen Universität vorgelegt habe.
Linz, im Mai 2002
(Dipl.-Ing. Josef Mikota)
112
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Mikota J. (2002) : Contributions To The Development of Compact and Tuneable Vibration Compensators For Hydraulic Systems. PHD Thesis, Johannes Kepler University of Linz, Austria.

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

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• The department of CA-Methods in Mechanical Engineering produced the

Linz, May 2002 (Dipl.-Ing. Josef Mikota)

However, the main contribution of this thesis is a compact and adjustable

• Simple and compact design.

• Excellent noise attenuation characteristics.

• Suitable for all pressure levels by mean pressure compensation.

• Frequency tuning of the device is easily possible in both a semi-active

After a description of the function principle and a discussion of some phenom-

A section devoted to further work will finish this contribution.

Diese Dissertation beschäftigt sich mit Schwingungstilgern für die Abschwäch-

• Einfache und kompakte Konstruktion.

• Sehr gute Pulsationsabschwächungswirkung des Tilgers.

• Eignung des Konzeptes für alle Druckniveaus durch Mitteldruckausgleich.

Ein Ausblick auf noch durchzuführende weiterführende Arbeiten beschließt die-

3 Novel vibration compensators 19

4 Compensator with hydraulic spring 38

4.2.1 Basic model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

5 Numerical and experimental results 77

C Mathematical foundations 105

E Curriculum vitae 110

F Statutory declaration 112

Positive displacement pumps and motors, as well as the utilisation of discon-

• Simple and compact design.

• Excellent noise attenuation characteristics.

• Suitable for all pressure levels by mean pressure compensation.

• Frequency tuning of the device is easily possible in both a semi-active

After a description of the function principle and a discussion of some phenom-

1.1 Sources of hydraulic noise

1.1.1 Positive displacement pumps/motors

Thus the total pump flow generated is

Fig. 1.1 shows the flow characteristics of a 9 piston pump with QN om =

Figure 1.1: Flow characteristics of a 9 piston pump

1.1.2 Switching type converters

Figure 1.2: Frequency spectrum of flow characteristics given in Fig. 1.1

Figure 1.3: Schematics of the resonance converter

Although this method of hydraulic control is more energy efficient than

1.2 Conventional devices for the suppression

• complex or expensive design

• bulky design (e.g. λ/4 resonators)

• no simple method of frequency tuning

• unsystematic parameter selection (e.g. for accumulators the relevant pa-

• low noise attenuation performance

Furthermore, no conventional devices but the Multi-volume resonators pro-

Table 1.1: Conventional noise suppressors

⊕ simple device, readily M e m b r a n e

⊖ low performance (es- C

pecially at high fre-

In-line noise suppressor

λ/4 Line silencer

der harmonics only

ger multiples of a base V a r i a b l e r e s o n a n c e M u l i t D O F t y p e

2.1 Historical development

Figure 2.1: Warship HMS Inflexible

Again according to Hunt, the first research on man-made vibration ab-

a tuned secondary (compensatory) system – the vibration absorber – to the

2.2 Mathematical foundations

2.2.1 Mechanical oscillator with vibration absorber

Figure 2.2: Schematics of a mass-spring system with compensator

m1 ẍ1 = −c1 (x1 − x0 ) + c2 (x2 − x1 ) (2.1a)

Using the functions

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