introduction

Introduction
energy and district cooling

introduction energy and district cooling

This education material has been written by Capital Cooling. For further information or questions, please contact Anders Rubenhag at +46 (0) 70 617 77 24 or e-mail anders.rubenhag@capitalcooling.se. All rights reserved. Copyright Capital Cooling.

introduction energy and district cooling

1
The goal everyThing in The universe is made of energy greaT need of cooling disTricT cooling The markeT The hisTory of disTricT cooling noTes 3 4 9 17 20 21 22

course goal. After having participated in this course, participants shall have overall knowledge of energy use from a global perspective with a special focus on buildings, the environmental impact of global energy use and international agreements on how to reduce the environmental impact of energy production. Participants shall also learn about what maintaining good indoor climate requires, the technical solutions employed to achieve this, and how conventional comfort cooling methods influence the global and local environments. Finally, participants will learn what district cooling is, its advantages in relation to methods currently employed by customers, and what is required for the successful establishment of district cooling on the market.

introduction energy and district cooling

1 Everything in the universe is made of energy

These were the words of the physicist Albert Einstein who was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1921. Energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can only be changed from one form into another. All the resources in the world are part of one enormous energy system with the sun as its major driving force. Roughly translated, energy means inner power. Energy is movement or the ability to move. Energy is expressed in watt hours (Wh). A 40 watt light bulb switched on for twenty-five hours uses one kilowatt hour (1 kWh). The international standard unit is the joule (J). renewable and non-renewable energy sources Energy can be divided into renewable sources of energy (hydro-electric, solar, wind and bio-fuels) and nonrenewable sources of energy (nuclear power, oil, coal and natural gas). Renewable sources produce energy in a constant flow while non-renewable sources must be stored for immense periods of time before they can be used, and their renewal is an extremely long process. We need energy to provide us with heat, cooling and light. We also need energy to cook food, to make things and to transport goods and people. In order to make energy we can use, it is necessary to transform the energy provided by our sources. Sometimes the energy has to pass through a whole series of changes and be conveyed a number of times before it can be used. This sometimes causes loss of energy which disappears as a part of the transport and transformation processes.

oil products such as petrol account for more than one third of the energy currently produces in the world today.

energy use increases

We are using more and more energy in the world. The greatest cause being our increasingly better level of material welfare. We want to be more comfortable. That is why we manufacture and use an increasing number of goods which often need energy, goods such as cars, aeroplanes, vacuum cleaners, computers, mobile telephones. Another reason for our increased use of energy is that the worlds population continues to increase, and more and more people move into the cities. The total use of energy in the world has more than doubled since 1965 and increases by around 1 - 2% every year.

did you know that...

...a total of 112 000 TWh of energy is used worldwide each year? That is the equivalent of two hundred times the consumption in Sweden, and two hundred and forty five times the consumption in the Netherlands. However, this is still only one ten thousandth of all the solar energy that radiates down upon the Earth in one year.

introduction energy and district cooling

major differences among counTries USA, China and Russia use the most energy. USA and Canada together account for almost one third of total world energy use in spite of the fact that only one twentieth of the population of the Earth live in North America. Utilisation of energy differs greatly among countries. On average, a person in Africa uses 4.4 MWh per year. In Europe the average is 41 MWh, with Swedes using 73 MWh and the Netherlanders around 49 MWh. oil dominaTes Most energy used in the world comes from oil. Oil and its' derivatives, such as petrol and diesel, account for more than one third of the energy used in all the countries of the world. Fossil fuels oil, coal and natural gas provide around 80% of all fuels used (oil 37%, coal 23%, natural gas 20%). Bio-fuels, such as wood, provide approximately 11%. Electricity produced by nuclear and hydroelectric power plants account for 7, respectively 2%. Wind power is under expansion in many places in the world, however so far it accounts for less than 0.1% of the worlds energy needs.

what affects the environment?

modern energy use damages The environmenT Nearly all the ways we produce and manufacture energy cause damage to the environment. Combustion of oil and other fossil fuels contribute to most environmental problems. The most serious being the development of the greenhouse effect which is changing the climate of the Earth. naTural greenhouse effecT is beneficial The natural greenhouse effect is, in fact, the prerequisite of all life on Earth. Carbon dioxide and other gases in the Earths atmosphere capture and retain heat from the sun. Just like the panes of glass in a greenhouse do. Without this natural greenhouse effect it would be almost 35 degrees colder on Earth than it is today. The problem is that the activities of human beings tend to magnify this natural greenhouse effect, the primary culprit being their habit of burning fossil fuels. All fossil fuels emit carbon dioxide which is the most rapidly increasing greenhouse gas.

energy facts from some eu countries

On Iceland, two thirds of all housing is heated by geothermic heating systems, i.e. heat from deep in the Earths crust (which also give them their hot springs). Luxemburg is the smallest country in the EU, but it shows the highest level of energy use per person. To a great extent this is due to the fact that fuel prices in Luxemburg are low, so many goods transports through Europe choose to refill their diesel tanks in Luxemburg. EUs four largest countries, Germany, France, Italy and Great Britain, use approximately 70% of total EU energy. The fifteen member states of the EU use around 15% of the energy used in the world.

introduction energy and district cooling

carbon dioxide emissions change The earThs climaTe Currently the level of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is 30% higher than it was 150 years ago. Researchers at IPCC, the UN organisation, believe that this increase has already started to change our climate. For example the Earths average temperature has increased by half a degree during the last hundred years, glaciers have melted and sea level has risen by ten centimetres. No one knows for sure what will happen in the future. But researchers predict that the average temperature will rise by 1.5 - 5.5 degrees by 2100, which will mean serious climate changes all over the world. People who live in the third world suffer most. In the countries around the equator where it already is hot and dry, the risk of drought, harvest failure, starvation and mass movement of population is increasing. Sea level is expected to rise by 40 centimetres, which could mean severe flooding of islands and coastal areas. Plants and animals will disappear as climate zones shift.

acidificaTion, excessive ferTilizaTion and dangerous emissions Combustion of fossil fuels also causes or contributes to a number of other environmental problems. Emissions of sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides have upset the pH balance of thousands of Nordic lakes. Nitrogen emissions from traffic and energy plants have also contributed to acidification of water and soil. In the cities, fossil fuel emissions cause people to become ill, and old buildings and statues to crumble away.

eu
eu inTends To decrease The effecTs of energy on The environmenT The energy use picture differs between the countries of the EU. Countries determine their own energy and transport policies to a great extent, however there are joint EU objectives in some areas. sweden and The neTherlands rely on differenT resourses EU countries have many different climates and population sizes; another major dissimilarity is access to natural resources. For example Sweden is one of the largest users of bio-fuel (wood) in Europe and hydroelectric power produces almost half its electricity. The Netherlands has neither forests nor mountain rivers but it does have major natural gas resources, consequently around half its energy needs are supplied by natural gas. joinT efforTs for a beTTer environmenT... By mobilising joint efforts, EU countries intend to decrease the environmental effects of energy use and transport. Some examples of these efforts: Use of renewable sources of energy solar, wind and bio-fuels must increase from 6% of total energy use in 2000 to 12% in 2010. Currently oil is the dominating source of energy in the EU. Environmental impact of transport must decrease. Methods include shifting goods transport from trucks to railways and sea freight. EU has also agreed with

the netherlands has neither extensive forests not mountain rivers, but it does have significant natural gas resources which supply approximately half of its energy needs.

introduction energy and district cooling

automotive manufacturers in Europe, South Korea and Japan that their products carbon dioxide emissions are to decrease by one quarter between 1995 and 2008. Currently transport accounts for one third of EUs total energy utilisation and the amount of transport within the EU increases by 2 - 3% every year.

...and a common markeT for energy Since the end of the 1990's, the EU has been developing a common market for energy. This will be achieved by connecting the electricity grids of all the countries into one, border-to-border network covering all of Europe. The Nordic countries already use a common grid (Nordel) but many other EU countries still operate their own. A common grid would mean electricity could be exported and imported; companies and households would be able to select their own supplier. The EU hopes that this will increase competition and decrease energy prices for companies and consumers. Similar activities are underway concerning a common natural gas pipe network for all EU countries.

carbon dioxide is always emitted. It cannot be removed by any purifying processes. We must decrease our total energy utilisation instead and move to wind power, biofuels and other renewable sources which do not have a negative effect on the environment. This has, however, proved to be easier said than done. In the rich countries we have become used to travelling by car, use as much electricity, air-conditioning and heating we feel we need, and we do not want to change our habits. In addition, so far renewable types of energy have been much more expensive.

indusTrial counTries bear The main responsibiliTy Through their activities with the UN Climate Convention, many countries have promised to decrease their emissions of greenhouse gases. It is the responsibility of the richer, industrialised countries to ensure that this is done. In the Kyoto Protocol, which is a part of the Climate Convention, industrialised countries have undertaken to decrease their emission of greenhouse gases. EU countries must reduce emissions overall to 8% of the 1990 level by 2012. An internal division of responsibility has been agreed within EU in which emissions per capita have been taken into consideration. Consequently, the countries with the most emissions have to make the biggest decreases. emissions of oTher polluTanTs have decreased Emissions of sulphur, nitrogen oxides and other pollution have, in certain cases, already decreased thanks to international agreements. Through the UN Nitrogen Protocol several countries have promised to decrease nitrogen emissions by 30 - 80% between 1980 and 2010.

what is being done?

The mosT difficulT Task is To sTop climaTe change Through international conventions and agreements, the countries of the world have managed to decrease a number of dangerous emissions caused by use of energy. However, the most difficult task remains putting a stop to the greenhouse effect which is changing the climate of the Earth. The only way to decrease carbon dioxide emissions and human beings affect on the climate is to use less oil, coal and natural gas. Whenever fossil fuels are burned,

did you know that...

...the USA is responsible for 45 percent of OECD countries carbon dioxide emissions? Other major emission countries include Japan, Germany and Great Britain. On average, every American emits 21 tons of carbon dioxide every year.

introduction energy and district cooling

Emissions of nitrogen oxides have decreased thanks to various purification measures, however not to the same degree as for sulphur emissions. EU member states have agreed upon an emissions ceiling for nitrogen oxide. The fact that we nowadays use catalytic converters to purify exhaust from our vehicles has decreased nitrogen emissions considerably.

example of energy use in an office

LIGHTING

COOLING

HEAT vENTILATION COpyING HOT WATER ELECTRICAL AppLIANCES FAx

environmental impact of a building

The EU Commission has calculated that the share of greenhouse gas emissions in the EU produced by buildings amounts to 41% more than traffic (31%) and industry (28%)! A major part of the environmental impact of a building is generated by its use heating, cooling, lighting, hot tap water etc. On 16 December 2002, the Council of Ministers adopted a directive on the application of minimum energy requirements for new buildings. This directive has been in force since the beginning of 2003. The directive stipulates that the design and planning of all new buildings with a useful floor space of over 1 000 m2 must consider the feasibility of systems based on renewable energy sources, CHP, district or block heating/cooling (if available) and heat pumps before actual construction begins.

COmpUTERS

figure 1. An office building is dependent upon energy to be able to function. Computers, copying machines and lighting consume large amounts of energy while emitting large amounts of heat.

heating/cooling demands
n se ) ki ) l ) lo ay au ny uo a) sin nd osrw rh ma se ore el la h in be er o k ( o (g (f (n

nordic office building energy forms and Their average consumpTion per year
Heat 80 kWh/m2 Comfort cooling 42 kWh/m2 Process cooling 15 kWh/m2

office

kWh/m2, year

Specific heating demand Specific cooling demand

69 16

67 7

23 33

14 41

Electrical Power 57 kWh/m2 Water consumption 300 liter/m2

residential kWh/m2, year
Specific heating demand Specific cooling demand 99 13 119 13 72 17 51 24

Greenhouse effect 15 kg CO2 ekv/m2

introduction energy and district cooling

2 Great need of cooling

buildings
Building tenants have progressively increased their requirements concerning what features a commercial premises should offer. These include:
Attractive building interior and exterior Flexible working areas IT and communication Interior work environment Effective environmental and energy solutions Traffic, transport, parking and services
Thermal climaTe air qualiTy physiological facTors

interior environment
physical environmenT facTors linked To The individual

?
psychological facTors

whaT is an inTerior environmenT? How people perceive an interior environment is dependent upon a variety of factors. As seen in the figure, many important factors are based upon technology, e.g. sounds/noise, light, and the electrical environment. Aside from these physical factors, psychological and social factors also play an important role. It may also be important to the occupants of a building to feel that they can affect conditions in the indoor environment by doing such things as opening a window. In a work place, relationships with other people and the nature of the work also have an effect upon how the environment is perceived. comforT cooling Having a comfortable work place climate is an important element in the creation of a suitable indoor environment. For this reason, having comfort cooling is equally as important as having a good heating system. At present, about 10% of the worlds production of electricity is used to create process and comfort cooling. In the USA and Japan, about 80% of all commercial and institutional buildings now make use of it. In Europe however, the figure is only around 40 - 50%, but is increasing rapidly. To further illustrate this trend, presently 90% of all cars now have air-conditioning, while in 1990, it was only 10%. In offices and some industrial buildings, internal heat generation is significant. People, printers, computers, and other machines are all examples of locally generated
sound/noise social facTors

lighT

elecTrical environmenT

geneTic facTors

figure 2. How people perceive an interior environment is dependent upon a variety of factors. As seen in the figure, many important factors are based upon technology, e.g. sounds/noise, light, and the electrical environment. Aside from these physical factors, psychological and social factors also play an important role.

sources of heat. Since building technology has experienced great advances, resulting in increasingly better materials, the loss of heat through the roof, walls and floor in often slight. Newer buildings, such as office buildings, warehouses and hospitals almost always have a significant excess of heat during the day, while being deficient in heat during nights and weekends. A simple heating system can handle the modest lack of heat during the nights and weekends, however a much larger system is needed to deal with the potentially tremendous amounts of daytime excess heat to keep the indoor temperatures from varying too much and making the environment comfortable.

introduction energy and district cooling

Two systems are needed to be able to remove the excess heat, i.e. to meet the buildings cooling needs, and maintain a comfortable indoor temperature. A cooling system that produces cooling A climate control system that can remove excess heat from all areas of the building There are given requirements for the room temperature in a work environment. The cooling systems size is determined mainly by how much excessive heat must be removed. The greater the amount of excess heat, the more capacity the cooling system must have, and the more difficult it is to maintain a room temperature that is comfortable.

cooling systems and their components

Fan coil (refrigerant cooler)

+
heating medium circuit (refrigerant circuit) Condenser

Heat exchanger for heat recovery

+
Hot gas heat exchanger Compressor

Expansion valve refrigeration machine

cooling systems and their main components

The usual procedure for generating cooling energy is by means of local, electric motor driven refrigeration machines. Systems that exceed a rating of 1 000 kW normally feature heat recovery from the condensing circuit in order to improve the local energy efficiency.

cooling medium circuit

Connected to air cooler or room cooler

figure 3. Example of traditional cooling system. A roofmounted refrigeration machine unit cools the outdoor air either by means of a direct evaporation coil in the air handling system that delivers the cooled air, or by means of a refrigeration machine unit that produces chilled water, generally known as brine. The brine is conveyed by a secondary pipe system to a cooling coil in the air handling system of the building, which thus cools the premises.

AIR COOLED CHILLERS ROOF TOp UNIT.

DRy COOLER/COOLING TOWER.

WATER COOLED CHILLER.

LOCAL CHILLER SOLUTION IN STANDARD COmmERCIAL BUILDING.

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introduction energy and district cooling

Cooling accumulator

EvApORATOR

The cooling energy delivered by a refrigeration machine system in relation to the electrical energy consumed which is known as the coefficient of performance or COP for short normally ranges from 2 to 3. Alternative methods are available today to the conventional refrigeration machine systems, such as evaporative and sorption cooling systems. In large plants with a cooling energy demand of more than 1 000 kW, cooling energy produced by heat-driven absorption machines is also available. Evaporative and sorption systems differ on one fundamentally important score from other systems by being usable only in systems with airborne cooling energy. Cooling energy generated by means of absorption machines is suitable only for very large systems.

direct evaporative cooling

SUppLy AIR IS HUmIDIFIED AND THE TEmpERATURE SINkS

whaT is evaporaTive cooling? In evaporative cooling, the air temperature is reduced by the air being humidified by the evaporation of water from a wet surface over which the air flows. Humidification is possible as long as the air is not saturated with water vapour. Heat is needed to evaporate water. This heat, known as the latent heat of evaporation, is supplied by the air. As the water is evaporated and absorbed by the air, the air temperature will drop. The lowest temperature attainable by this type of cooling is limited by the wet bulb temperature of the air in its saturated condition, which is also known as the cooling limit of the air. Evaporative cooling can be classified into direct and indirect cooling: Direct evaporative cooling is a process in which the supply air in a ventilation system is humidified and its temperature is reduced, while the moisture content of the supply air simultaneously increases (see Figure 4). In indirect evaporative cooling, the exhaust air in the ventilation system is humidified and its temperature is thereby reduced. Heat exchange (without moisture transfer) then takes place between the exhaust air and supply air, in which the heat from the supply air is transferred to the exhaust air. This lowers the supply air temperature without its moisture content increasing. In the sorption cooling process, humidification from the evaporative process is supplemented by drying of the supply air before it is humidified.

figure 4. In evaporative cooling, the air temperature is reduced by the air being humidified by the evaporation of water from a wet surface over which the air flows. Humidification is possible as long as the air is not saturated with water vapour.

climaTe conTrol sysTem of a building The function of the climate control system in a building is to maintain both the thermal climate (air humidity and temperature) and the air quality. Maintaining the thermal climate involves mainly maintaining the room air temperature within specified limits, and also meeting any requirements on comfort cooling. Maintaining the air quality consists of controlling the room air cleanliness by ensuring that outdoor air at a sufficient flow rate ventilates the room. It sometimes also involves ensuring that the specified limits of particles and/or gases are not exceeded.

introduction energy and district cooling

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The climate control systems used for cooling buildings can generally be classified into three types: Airborne cooling systems Waterborne cooling systems Combined systems (the air and water both supply cooling energy)

airborne cooling sysTems The cooling system must be able to accommodate variations in cooling demand, both over a 24-hour period and over the year. The two fundamental types of airborne cooling systems are constant air flow systems, known as constant air volume or CAV systems, and variable air flow systems, known as variable air volume or VAV systems (although combinations of the two methods are sometimes also employed). In these systems, the rate of air flow and thus also the duct sizes are determined by the cooling requirements.

The sizing is thus determined by the thermal requirements, and not by the air quality requirements. The fundamental arrangement of an airborne cooling system is shown schematically in Figure 5. In existing systems, it is usually both difficult and costly to change the duct system. If the existing ducts are not capable of conveying sufficiently large air flows in order to meet the cooling requirements, the system is usually upgraded by installing water-borne cooling systems.

consTanT air volume (cav) sysTems The temperature of the air supplied to the building can be varied, but the air flow rate is kept constant. This type of system is known as a Constant Air Volume (CAV) system (see Figure 5). Rooms with the highest cooling requirements normally determine the temperature of the supply air delivered by the central air handling unit. The air supply to other rooms is then reheated. In CAV systems in which temperature control takes place centrally and in CAV systems with constant supply air temperature, corrections are made to achieve the right room temperature in individual rooms, which is done, for instance, by wall-mounted radiators. Although a CAV system supplies air at constant flow rate, the fans are sometimes driven by two-speed motors, which allows the fan speed to be reduced whenever the cooling requirements of the building allow. The air flow rate is then reduced in proportion to the fan speed. The use of two-speed motors in CAV systems should not be confused with Variable Air Volume (VAV) systems in which the air flow rate is varied continuously to suit the cooling energy demand. variable air volume (vav) sysTems The air flow rates supplied to each room are varied to suit the needs, but the supply air temperature is kept constant. On the other hand, the supply air temperature is normally varied to suit the season of the year, as a function of the outdoor temperature. This type of system is known as a Variable Air Volume (VAV) system (see Figure 6). The air flow rate supplied to each room is controlled by means of a damper in some form of chamber in direct communication with the room. The central sup-

constant air volume (cav) systems

ExHAUST AIR FAN HEAT RECOvERy SUppLy AIR FAN

HEATING COIL COOLING COIL

figure 5. Example of CAV system.

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introduction energy and district cooling

variable air volume (vav) systems

cooling supply to office areas

A room can be cooled in a variety of ways. A general explanation of how chilled beams, chilled panels, fancoil units and induction coils operate is given below. chilled beam

ExHAUST AIR FAN

HEAT RECOvERy SUppLy AIR FAN

HEATING COIL COOLING COIL vAv CHAmBER

The chilled beam is a unit that comprises a finned coil and cools the air in the room by natural convection, basically as shown in Figure 7. The chilled beam can also be combined with a supply air connection so that it also serves as a supply air device and often also raises the cooling output of the chilled beam. Some chilled beams can also incorporate a heating function. chilled panels Chilled panels of a variety of designs are available for mounting up against the ceiling, freely suspended, or integrated into the ceiling. Figure 8 shows a chilled panel suspended from the ceiling. Chilled panels operate basically as radiant coolers. Cold water flows through an aluminium plate in the chilled panel. Heat is transferred from the air to the plate and then to the chilled water. The chilled panel cools the warm room air and also absorbs heat from the room by low-temperature radiation.

figure 6. Example of VAV system.

ply and exhaust air fans are controlled by guide vane control or by speed control of the fan motors, usually by means of frequency converters. Control is normally carried out to maintain a constant static pressure of the supply air. The flow rate is varied from maximum capacity on the warmest day of the year, down to roughly 20% of maximum capacity during the coldest days of the year, when the only function of the air is to meet the air quality requirements.

chilled beam

combined sysTems Airborne cooling systems can be combined with water-borne cooling systems in a variety of ways. One case in which the systems must be combined is when an airborne cooling system is required but the cooling demand is so high that it cannot be met by air alone. The reason is that the air flow rates needed would then be so high that draught problems could occur.

REFRIGERANT

GRATING

COOLING FLANGE

figure 7. Cooling coil battery, schematic arrangement.

introduction energy and district cooling

13

chilled panel

fan coil unit

WARm WATER COLD WATER SUppLy AIR ExHAUST AIR

ALUmINIUm pLATES

FAN

figure 8. Chilled panel, schematic arrangement.

figure 9. Fan coil unit, schematic arrangement.

fan coil uniT A fan-coil unit is usually located under a window along an outer wall. A fan-coil unit can be used for supplying both heat and cooling energy to the room (although not at the same time). A schematic arrangement of a fan-coil unit is shown in Figure 9. A fan-coil unit is equipped with a fan that circulates the room air through the unit. The air is heated or cooled in the unit by a heating or cooling coil. The heating or cooling coil is supplied with hot or cold water from a central system in the building. The fan-coil unit is a room cooler that can meet the highest cooling demands, although its sound level is also highest. inducTion uniT An induction unit is usually located under a window along an outer wall. The induction unit can supply the room with heat or cooling energy. A schematic arrangement of an induction unit is shown in Figure 10. When the induction unit is in use, the room is supplied with ventilation air through the induction coil. The ventilation air flows at high velocity through a nozzle, which entrains the room air through the heating or cooling coil. This enables the room to be heated or cooled by the same unit, without the use of a fan.

induction unit
COLD WATER ROOm AIR OUT WARm WATER ROOm AIR IN

vENTILATION AIR IN

figure 10. Induction unit for outer wall placement, schematic arrangement.

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introduction energy and district cooling

a closed-circuit process

EmITS HEAT REFRIGERANT CONDENSER HOT SIDE, HIGH pRESSURE

+
figure 11. Schematic arrangement of a conventional heat pump or refrigeration machine. The figure shows the arrangement of a typical closed-circuit process. The operation is basically the same for a heat pump and for a refrigeration machine. The difference is that, in one case, the cold side is used as the useful side, whereas in the other case, the warm side is useful. The useful side of a refrigeration machine consists of the evaporator, in which heat is absorbed, i.e. something is cooled. The useful side of a heat pump is the condenser from which heat is emitted.

THROTTLING pOINT

WORk INpUT

COmpRESSOR

what are refrigerants and what are they used for?

Refrigerant is the collective name for media contained in generally closed circuit processes that deliver cooling or heating energy. Refrigerants are contained, for instance, in refrigeration machines and heat pumps. The common types of cooling-generating or heatgenerating closed-circuit processes must contain a medium that condenses and evaporates at suitable pressures and temperatures (see Figure 11). Many of the refrigerants that are best suited for the technical requirements in these closed-circuit processes also have the highest negative environmental impact.

ABSORBS HEAT

EvApORATOR

COLD SIDE, LOW pRESSURE

risks of leakage The refrigerant is contained in the refrigeration machine circuit. During normal operation, only minor refrigerant leakage occurs from machines that deliver heat or cooling energy to buildings. The main emissions occur during breakdowns, general handling of refrigerant, and when the machines are scrapped. In other applications, such as air conditioning systems in older cars and older direct-expansion systems in air conditioning plants, refrigerant leakage also occurred during normal operation. It is estimated that the average annual refrigerant leakage from a refrigeration machine during operation is 3 - 5%.

introduction energy and district cooling

15

climaTic impacT The two concepts normally used in discussions concerning the climatic impact of various refrigerants are Ozone Depletion Potential (ODP) and Global Warming Potential (GWP). ODP describes the impact in relation to the impact of refrigerant R11. GWP describes the impact in relation to carbon dioxide (CO2). Refrigerants with ODP effect contain chlorine or bromine, and hydro fluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants therefore have no ODP impact. On the other hand, they do have GWP impact. The additional concept of Total Environmental Warming Impact (TEWI) is beginning to come into use in order to take into account also the indirect effect caused by the generation of the driving electricity. Using TEWI, comparison is made of the effect over a certain period of time. However, it must be borne in mind that carbon dioxide and hydrocarbon compounds disappear from the atmosphere as a result of totally different mechanisms. Neither GWP nor TEWI is thereby comprehensive. The table shows a compilation of a number of refrigerants and their environmental impact (according to the ODP and GWP concepts). The use of refrigeranTs shall be phased ouT Many refrigerants have a negative effect on the environment, and in accordance with EU environmental regulations, the most aggressive refrigerants shall be phased out in accordance with the following timetable. refrigerant reductions
Reductions in industrialised countries (%) 0% Reductions in third world countries (%) 0% 0%

a selection of refrigerants and their environmental effects

refrigerant category R11 R12 R12B1 R13 R13B1 R22 R23 R32 R114 R123 R124 R125 R134a R141b R142b R143a R152a R290 R404A R407A R407C R410A R417A CFC CFC HALON CFC HALON HCFC HFC HFC CFC HCFC HCFC HFC HFC HCFC HCFC HFC HFC HFC HFC HFC HFC HFC CFC CFC HFC odp 1 1 3 1 10 0.055 0 0 1 0.02 0.022 0 0 0.11 0.065 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.74 0.33 0 gwp 4000 8500 * 11700 5600 1700 11700 650 9300 93 480 2800 1300 630 2000 3800 140 3 3260 1770 1600 1900 1940 6310 5590 3800

35% 65% 90%

1996* 2004** 2004
* CONSUmpTION CONTROL

R500 R502 R507

99.5% 100%
2020 2030

100%
2016* 2016** 2040

2010 2015

* * pRODUCTION CONTROL

figure 12.

figure 13. A selection of refrigerants and their environmental effects described with ODP and GWP. CFC, HCFC and haloner are marked in blue.

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introduction energy and district cooling

3 District Cooling
the production of district cooling
Capital Coolings district cooling production methods can take many forms, but the goal is to always find a method that is ecologically sustainable. This means for example, using methods such as free cooling, i.e. using chilled water from lake or ocean bottoms. When these methods are not possible, chilled water can also be produced by using heat pumps, or waste heat. There are a number of methods for producing chilled water for use in district cooling. They include: Refrigeration machines and heat pumps Waste chilled water Absorption methods via waste heat, district heating or natural gas Deep water sources such as lakes, rivers and oceans Groundwater Snow and ice Liquid Nature Gas
parison to the comfort cooling units that are presently used by customers.

heaT exchanger When lake or ocean water is introduced into a heat exchanger, its low temperature cools down the returning district cooling water. During the winter months all cooling is produced using this method, while during the summer months it usually ranges from between 20% to 50%. Plate exchangers are always used which are of higher quality than other types of heat exchangers. The equipment that cleans the heat exchangers fulfills a very important function and must be designed in accordance with prevailing local conditions to guarantee high operational reliability. free cooling sources The water in Capital Coolings system is transported to the production plant in a PE pipe. After arriving at the production plant the water is used to cool the chillers condenser, or the district cooling water itself. Thermal sTorage Thermal storage is one of many methods that Capital Cooling has used to store excess chilled water for future use, thus resolving capacity problems. Chilled water can be stored thermally during the winter, so that it can later be used during the summer months, or stored for shorter periods of time such as a twenty-four hours or thirty days. A variety of thermal storage methods may be chosen from when planning the installation of cooling facilities, so that optimal operational conditions are achieved. Three are listed below. Aquifer storage Accumulator tanks Ice storage

examples of production methods

chillers Capital Cooling does not normally use air/water cooled chillers because they are relatively expensive to buy and require a great amount of electrical energy. Using natural sources (free cooling sources) of cooling as a cooling medium reduces energy costs as they are less expensive than using air/water cooled units. During those times in which the capacity or temperature of the free cooling sources is not sufficient to meet cooling needs, air/water cooled chillers can of course be used. All project equipment is of the highest quality and provides a high degree of effectivity and safety in com-

capital coolings definition of district cooling:

District Cooling is considered to be all forms of cooling in which the cooling production is centralised, and the product is offered to a broader market.

introduction energy and district cooling

17

the principle of district cooling

4. air cools. The air that circulates in the ventilation system is cooled by the approximately 6 Celsius water being pumped through the District Cooling Grid. 2. cooling station. In the energy production centre the cold in the sea or lake water is transferred to the District Cooling Grid.

5. the warmed water. The warmed water which is about 16 Celsius is returned to the sea or lake.

sea

1. cold water. Water at a temperature of about 3 - 4 is taken from a sea or lake at a depth of between 20 - 50 metres.

3. district cooling grid. The District Cooling Grid is a closed system with pipes that are buried in the ground in which water is led to and from buildings.

figure 14.

distribution
underground pipes Prefabricated pipes are normally used for the underground transport of the chilled water, precisely the same as district heating, even though the investments costs are higher than other alternatives. This system has been chosen because it is the only system that can detect leakage. The demands and reliability of the underground systems that transport chilled water are equally as high as they are for systems carrying heating water, and a high level of quality is necessary. Capital Cooling tracks developments closely and chooses design and construction methods that best suit local conditions. indoor piping Pipes that are placed inside of a building are normally made of stainless steel, and have polyurethane insulation and an aluminium shell. Stainless steel is used instead of iron pipe because: Standard piping can be used They have a lower weight, easing transport and installation. pipe alarm The district cooling system is equipped with an alarm that detects leaks and monitors for any possible moisture or cable damage. The alarm signal can be sent to the production plant via a cable or wirelessly, and then directed further as necessary.

shuT-off valves When possible, the standard valve normally used is the ball valve. Underground valves are pre-insulated and equipped with an alarm cable. Larger versions of these valves, and valves that are placed in areas making if difficult to reach, e.g. under streets and roads, are normally remote controlled. waTer qualiTy The choice of water for use in a district cooling system is based upon an intelligent balancing of different elements. Characteristics of good district chilled water are: Free of oxygen Low hydrogen ion concentration Sludge and particle free No or low amount of ions contributing to hard water Optimal water flow speed

substations construction
The substation contains a heat exchanger which creates an interface between the suppliers primary distribution network, and the customers internal distribution system that cools the building. Substations with a capacity of under 2 MW can be designed as prefabricated units containing all necessary equipment to manage a substations functions. Those substations which have a capacity of more than 2 MW are built on-site with all necessary equipment to manage a substations functions. Figure 16 displays a system drawing of a substations design.

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introduction energy and district cooling

technical description of a substation

To minimise a systems weight and volume, a plate heat exchanger is used in the substation. The heat exchanger is built using acid-resistant AISI 316 stainless steel. Normally a single or double heat exchanger connected in-series is used, depending upon the cooling capacity that is required. conTrol equipmenT The control valves, sensors and technology that are used are standardized and well established on the market. The sizes of control valves are designed to match specific design conditions such as system differential pressure in the network and flow rates. The system is also designed so that it can be equipped with a computerised control system. pumps Vertical circulation pumps, electronic and motorized pressure control regulation are used in the substation. technical description of a substation

energy efficiency factor

figure 15. The efficiency of a District Cooling system as compared with local chiller solutions.

pipes The piping that is used is manufactured of carbon or stainless steel.

6 6 2 7

8 12 11 9

1 1

3 6 6 7

5 10

9 13

district cooling network 1. SERvICE vALvE 2. FILTER 3. pRESSURE GAUGE 4. THERmOmETER 5. CHILLED WATER ExCHANGER 6. INSTRUmENTATION 7. vENTILATION, DRAINING

secondary system circuit 8. CONTROL CENTRE 9. THERmOmETER 10. FILTER 11. ExpANSION vESSEL 12. pRESSURE GAUGE 13. CIRCULATION pUmp

figure 16. Technical description of a substation.

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4 The market
The customers who purchase district cooling are most often large companies with great energy needs, i.e. cooling, power and heating, see Figure 17. These customers constitute key customers for energy suppliers whaT is a key cusTomer? A key customer is a customer who has a major effect on an energy suppliers revenues. If the key customer discontinues purchasing the energy suppliers products, it has a negative effect on the energy suppliers financial profits. Key customers on the energy market have similar quality needs, but are often different in their outlooks concerning development and responsibility. A responsible energy supplier should be able to offer the customer:
A clear responsibility in relation to the development of supply An expanded administrative and information responsibility in relation to the key customers own customers Assistance in developing their energy business with a focus on improving their competitive position on the market. A good environmental profile, and the option of adjusting price levels with regard to the customers alternative prices. Capital Coolings energy concept makes it possible for new markets to take advantage of sustainable development. The concept integrates the following products and services: Chilled water production Heating Distribution and customer substations Energy optimisation Energy statistics available on the internet Control and regulation through remote control and monitoring Technical support Telecommunication Training and education

disTricT coolings posiTioning on The markeT District cooling methods and products have a robust and sustainable customer value not only for the customer, but also other parties on the market. Strong brand recognition has grown in recent years thanks in part to the fact that customers have always received a long term guarantee that the district cooling prices will compare favourable with competing alternatives. The price structure is easy to explain and understand, and available upon request. disTricT coolings foremosT advanTages and driving forces for disTricT cooling producTs
Low capital costs Low operational costs Save 20 - 75% of electrical costs for cooling Reduce electrical capacity/power needs Make more space available in commercial premises Economy of scale High rate of availability at least 99% Greater flexibility in design and structural architecture

distribution of key customer segments

pUBLIC pREmISES 11% OFFICES 82%

INDUSTRy 3% GALLERIES 4%

figure 17. Distribution of customer segments.

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the history of district cooling

Environmentally compatible HCFC and CFC free alternatives No difficulties with noise and emissions Free time to focus on core processes/business operations Is regulated according to need The property owner has access to a new product (cold water) that is possible to sell to tenants.

successfully esTablishing disTricT cooling Establishing new energy infrastructure products on the market such as district cooling clearly requires knowledge and competence. Creating a successful district cooling project requires:
Knowing what cooling needs and quality demands the customers have Make it possible to create new products and services Understand the customers alternative costs Have a unique business concept Make it possible for the end user to focus on his central business operations Have a clear focus on the key customers needs See problems as an opportunity to create new business Everyone involved must be an ambassador for the project.

district cooling systems were built in NYC as early as the 1930s. By 2002, district cooling was being supplied to about 500 customers in a variety of countries. In Sweden alone the energy volume was almost 500 GWh.

District cooling has its roots in the early 1800's when plans were made to distribute clean, cold air to buildings through underground pipes. It is not know if these plans were actually carried out, and district cooling was not introduced on a practical level before the Colorado Automatic Refrigerator Company was established in Denver in 1889. many of the earlier systems used ammonia and salt water to freeze meat and cool buildings used by the public such as restaurants, theatres etc. In the 1930's large cooling systems were built in Rockefeller Centre in New york City and the United States Capitol buildings. 1960's The first commercial district cooling systems were installed in the USA in commercial areas near cities. 1967 Europe received its first district cooling system. Climadef began supplying district heating and cooling to the La Dfense office complex in paris. 1989 Scandinavia received its first district cooling system in Baerum outside of Oslo. 1992 vsters Energi & production initiated the production of district cooling in Sweden. 1995 District cooling was successfully established in Stockholm. After 5 years of development this system is now one of the worlds largest, most environmentally compatible and energy effective in the world. The potential for district cooling that was estimated in the 1990's for the entire country has now been surpassed. The amount of energy per year doubled at the outset, and it currently appears that growth will continue at about a pace of 20% per year. Not many business fields can currently match this rate of growth. District cooling has been of the highest quality since it was introduced thanks to being able to draw upon the more than 50 years of technical development related to the production of district heating and distribution. In 2002, district cooling was supplied to about 500 customers with an energy volume of almost 500 GWh in Sweden alone.

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noTes

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Odelius New Media #2672 Tryck: Blomberg & Janson, 2004

introduction energy and district cooling