Definition of Knowledge Management: A Working Perspective

Knowledge Management (KM) is the set of professional practices which improves the capabilities of the organizations human resources and enhances their ability to share what they know.

Knowledge Life Cycle

Knowledge in business can be seen to have a lifecycle of its own. It must be created either within or outside the organization. This is typically comprised of iterative tacit and explicit loops until the knowledge is ready for distribution to those outside the creating Create group. It can then be stored somewhere, either tacitly or explicitly so that it is accessible for others to find and use. Learn Store Those who need the specific knowledge must then find out where it is, when they need it, by searching in the right places and / or asking the right people. Once the knowledge source is found, the user will then go through the act of actually acquiring it. This will involve gaining personal Use Find knowledge from other humans or documented sources. Once acquired, the knowledge can be put to use towards some productive purpose. Having been used, perhaps repeatedly, the user will Acquire learn what worked well and not so well as a result of applying the knowledge gained. This can then be taken as significant input into further iterations of the knowledge creation and distribution process. A key contributor to the effective management of this cycle is the concept of learning. Without the learning component, the cycle is devoid of knowledge. It merely, becomes an information delivery strategy, which becomes disconnected from the leverage of more effective human experience. The application of the delivered knowledge to operating the business (Find, Acquire and Use) will have some initial value but the delivered knowledge will be immediately out of date unless continuously renewed with the latest lessons learned from the application of the delivered knowledge (Learn, Create and Store). Knowledge Management is the management of this cycle for optimal performance across all aspects of the Knowledge six pack.

Optimizing the Knowledge Management Process

The objective of knowledge management is to make this cycle more effective as well as more efficient. This implies that corporate knowledge be made available in forms which are readily accessible. This could take the form of Knowledge Documents, Processes, and Rules. These could be found embedded in Lessons Learned Internally Human Resources, Information Technologies, or in the design of Facilities. The embedded Documented knowledge, in this way is accessible for Rules Processes Knowledge reuse and ongoing evaluation for Deliver Enhanced effectiveness and improvement. This Knowledge challenge of performance improvement Capability Lessons 1 of the knowledge management lifecycle Learned Externally is critical to organizational success, for without it, overall business performance will suffer. Getting the best knowledge through the cycle quickly before it erodes is a major goal of many organizations in intellect-based fastOperate paced companies. Business I1 This challenge applies at the individual, workgroup, company-wide and inter-company levels. Each new level offers a greater degree of Capable Humans Technologies Facilities leverage and business results but also brings with it a set of more difficult issues, as long standing ways of doing things must be overcome.
2

Business Opportunities

O1 Business Results

Knowledge management is all about creating and maintaining the optimum environment to make this happen. Knowledge Management closes the loop, which continuously converts tacit knowledge, based on experience into explicit knowledge for wider communication and back into tacit again through inference, experience and learning.

Journal of Knowledge Management Practice, October, 2005

Book Review
The Encyclopedia of Communities of Practice in Information and Knowledge Management

Reviewed By: Peter A.C. Smith, The Leadership Alliance Inc.

The implementation of knowledge management is still a daunting task in most organizations as the pages of this journal can amply testify. The emergence over the last decade of multi-purpose organizational building blocks that promise to significantly facilitate knowledge management has created considerable excitement and interest. These unique organizational elements are Communities of Practice (CoPs), one of three types of practical Collective Work-Based Learning explored at length by Raelin (2000; pp. 74 89), and for which Wenger et al have proposed the following definition: Communities of Practice are groups of people who share a concern, a set of problems, or a passion

about a topic, and who deepen their knowledge and expertise in this area by interacting on an ongoing basis (Wenger et al, 2002; pp. 4). A search of Amazon for Communities of Practice yields three books (Wenger, 1998; Wenger et al, 2002; Saint-Onge & Wallace, 2003), a reprint of a journal piece (Wenger & Snyder, 2000), and one book dealing with a closely related theme (Lave & Wenger, 1991). All but one of these books feature Etienne Wenger as author or co-author. In my opinion this has led to a somewhat narrow view of CoPs, and I think its fair to say that the jury is still out on whether CoPs will live up to their billing. What is required to cut through the mystery surrounding the current theory, practice, and promise of CoPs is an authoritative, broad-based, up-to-date review of the CoPs field. Such a book has now appeared and is reviewed here; it is enthusiastically recommended to all who seriously seek to optimize organizational performance. This new holisitic view of CoPs is contained in Idea Groups most recent publication The Encyclopedia of Communities of Practice in Information and Knowledge Management (Coakes & Clark, 2005). The encyclopedia is a blockbuster that more than amply fulfills the publishers corporate goals of publishing only .high quality, blind peerreviewed, comprehensive, and authoritative reference titles, edited by some of the most recognized researchers worldwide. I believe that this encyclopedia will become the leading reference source for dynamic and innovative research in the field of CoPs for some time to come. I hope that the titles emphasis on Information and Knowledge Management will not limit its readership, since on reviewing the book I have been struck by its relevance to so many disciplines and interests. In any event, this single volume encyclopedia certainly provides a comprehensive, critical and descriptive examination of all facets of CoPs in information and knowledge management in societies and organizations. The encyclopedia contains in its 601 pages 100 articles contributed by more than 120 researchers from 22 countries highlighting concepts, issues, and future challenges facing the field of CoPs. It also offers more than 550 technical and managerial terms with their full definitions. The articles and terms are supported by more than 19,050 references providing additional sources of information. Key features include organization by titles, indexing by topics, and cross referencing of key terms, figures and information pertinent to CoPs. The encyclopedia is divided into seven major categories: 1. Generic aspects of CoPs 2. CoPs and the business environment 3. Organizational aspects of CoPs 4. Virtual teams and the role of communities 5. The role of knowledge management 6. Enabling technology 7. The philosophy theory of CoPs/KM

Topics covered are encyclopedic as one would expect, and include: Collective learning within CoPs CoPs and knowledge management CoPs and organizational development-ethics and values CoPs for cross functional working CoPs and the development of core competencies Intellectual capital Language and simple developments in CoPs Leadership issues within CoPs Knowledge management infrastructure Narrative inquiry and CoPs Rewards systems and formal CoPs Reward systems and informal CoPs Social and intellectual capital in CoPs The philosophy and theory of CoPs The strategic advantage of CoPs Using CoPs for organizational learning Using communities to support political action (charitable organizations) As with any major undertaking there are strengths and weaknesses here; however, I do not feel that based on my own interests and mindset it would be helpful in this review to pick over this bountiful work. Rather let me just conclude by saying that for focused information retrieval or synergistic browsing, no-one seriously interested in CoPs should be without access to this encyclopedia. References Coakes, E. and Clarke, S. (Eds), 2005, The Encyclopedia of Communities of Practice in Information and Knowledge Management, Idea Group Reference, Hershey, PA; available from the publisher www.idea-group-ref.com or through online bookstores Raelin, J.A., 2000, Work-Based Learning, Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle, NJ Saint-Onge, H. and Wallace, D., 2003, Leveraging Communities of Practice for Strategic Advantage, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, MA

Lave, J. and Wenger, E., 1991, Situated Learning: Legitimate Peripheral Participation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Wenger, E. 1998, Communities of Practice: Learning, Meaning and Identity, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK Wenger E. and Snyder, W.M., January February 2000, Communities of Practice: The Organizational Frontier, Harvard Business Review; pp. 139 - 145 Wenger, E., McDermott, R. and Snyder, W.M., 2002, Cultivating Communities of Practice, Harvard Business School Press, Boston, MA About the Reviewer: Peter AC. Smith is President, The Leadership Alliance Inc. (www.tlainc.com); Alliance Partner, KonvergeandKnow KM Solutions (www.konvergeandknow.com); Alliance Partner, NewMindsets e-Learning Systems (www.newmindsets.com); Managing Editor, Journal of Knowledge Management Practice (www.tlainc.com/jkmp.htm); Consulting Editor, The Learning Organization (http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/viewContainer.do? containerType=Journal&containerId=10943); Member Editorial Review Board, Management Decision, (http://www.emeraldinsight.com/Insight/viewContatiner.do? containerType=Journal&containerId=18); Visiting Professor of Management Learning Processes, Canadian School of Management; Ex-Chair, International Community of Action Learners (ICAL). Peter can be reached at: The Leadership Alliance Inc., 12 Kilpatrick Drive, Holland Landing, Ontario L9N 1H6, CANADA; Tel: +1 (905) 853-9553; Fax: +1 (905) 8539553; Email: pasmith@tlainc.com; or in the UK at Mob: +44 07762 155747 Journal of Knowledge Management Practice, July 2001 Managing Knowledge-Workers In Accounting Firms: The Role Of Nutrient Information And Organisational Information Consciousness

Dennis W Taylor, Curtin University of Technology, Perth; Jeanne Yamamura, University of Nevada, Reno; Yvonne Stedham, University of Nevada, Reno; & Mort Nelson, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo
ABSTRACT: How an accounting firm manages the way information in the work context is accessed and transferred will affect its success. This study tests hypotheses about the relationships between the job satisfaction in accounting firms and measurable dimensions of the concepts of the individuals nutrient information and their firms information consciousness. Professional staff who are employed in a large international accounting

firm in Australia and the US are surveyed. The results, after controlling for demographic factors, provide strong support for the positive effects of nutient information management and information consciousness management on job satisfaction. Conclusions are drawn about ways for professional accounting firms to manage the information needs of their knowledge workers as they accelerate into the information age. 1. Introduction Professional accounting firms are in the information business in an information age. Advances in information and communications technologies, combined with the impact of global competition, rising customer expectations and the need to do more with less, has forced professional accounting firms to become more agile and responsive (Robitaille and Elitzur, 1998). Large and medium-sized accounting firms have been particularly affected by the advent of information technology. These accounting firms have been impacted from two directions: the changing nature of information services required to satisfy their clients; the changing nature of information access and management required to satisfy their knowledge workers. The emphasis of this study is on the latter direction, which considers how information technology has impacted on the mindsets and practices of the professional staff in accounting firms. Within accounting public practice, there is mounting pressure for professional staff to be knowledge workers who can deliver customized services at high speeds, coupled with the ability to perform their job at any time or place. This is the emergence of the virtual accounting services enterprise which will transcend concrete walls as collaborative networks link workers (Chapman, 1998, p 23). More than ever, how an accounting firm manages the skills and contributions of its knowledge workers will determine its success. The retention of highly trained professional staff whom possess specialized knowledge and expertise, and can contribute to their organisations knowledge spiral, becomes increasingly critical to the competitiveness of large to medium-sized accounting firms. To attract and retain the best available knowledge workers, accounting firms will need to appear as attractive as possible to those workers. In this respect, Chapman (1998) argues as follows: Increasingly, individuals will be drawn to organizations whose structures and cultures take into consideration the values and needs of workers. Most experts agree that, next to advances in technology, workers increased desire for personal satisfaction will change the way we work more than any other trend. Competitive companies will need to make work satisfying for employees. (p.25) A consistent theme in the literature about professionals job satisfaction and retention is the importance of information in their work context (e.g., Gregson (1992), Patten (1995), Quinn et al (1996), Reed et al (1994) and Robson et al (1992). In addressing a research question about effects of information in the work context on the satisfaction of professionals in large accounting firms, this study draws from two bodies of literature (which, in fact, have tended to become aligned), namely, managing

professionals and knowledge management. From this literature, two particular concepts of relevance to the research question in this study are identified. The first concept, from the earlier literature on managing professionals, is Shaperos (1985) concept of nutrient information. This is said to be the type of information that allows professionals to direct and develop their own personal expertise. In the information age, the need for individuals to achieve growth in their nutrient information becomes even more important than envisaged by Shapero. For an accounting firm to be propelled by the energies of new technologies, mindsets and visionaries (sometimes called information imagineering), the role of nutrient information becomes central to the needs of individual knowledge workers. The second relevant concept identified for use in this study is that of information consciousness created within an organisation. Drawing from the literature on knowledge management, Brown and Starkey (1994) relate this concept to organisational culture. It concerns a firms attitudes towards valuing information as a resource and the consequent processes of making information available, or facilitating knowledge sharing, amongst that firms professional staff. Prior studies have not attempted to measure these concepts of an individuals nutrient information or an organisations information consciousness, or to empirically test their effects on job satisfaction. The objectives of this study are to: 1. Develop hypotheses about the relationships between the job satisfaction of professional accountants (as knowledge workers) and measurable dimensions of the respective concepts of an individuals nutrient information growth and their firms information consciousness. 2. Empirically test these hypotheses through a survey of professional staff who are employed at a large international accounting firm, sampling staff based in Australia and the US. Demographic variables will be controlled for in such tests. 3. Draw conclusions from the findings about ways for professional accounting firms to manage the information needs of their knowledge workers as they accelerate into the information age. 2. Literature Review And Development Of Hypotheses 2.1 Nutrient Information And Information Consciousness Within The Knowledge Management Literature The knowledge management literature is dominated by the writings of practitioners and contains limited empirical research (Roos et al, 1997). In a review of this literature, Baxter and Chua (1999) suggest that there is curiously little agreement about what constitutes knowledge in organisations, except that knowledge can be highly situated in nature, dependent on the knower and the particular organisational activities (p.4). Nevertheless, there is an emerging set of shared concepts about the way in which knowledge is classified and knowledge management is characterised (Baxter and Chua, 1999, p 4).

Considerable attention has been given to the different levels of knowledge in organisations. Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) classify knowledge at the individual, group, organisational and inter-organisational levels. At the individual level, knowledge is said to reside within individuals, usually as tacit knowledge which is not articulated directly with others (Polanyi, 1997). This individual or personal level of knowledge represents know-how that is embodied in the habitual practices and reflexivity of individuals (Lakoff and Johnson, 1999). At this individual level, Shapero (1985) drew an analogy between knowledge and organic life. He referred to nutrient information as the information that furnishes nourishment, or promotes growth and repairs the natural wastage, of an individuals knowledge base. When knowledge of individuals is made explicit it can be shared orally or in written/pictorial form with others and becomes knowledge at the group level. When individual or group knowledge is appropriated by the organisation (e.g., in standard operating procedures, internal databases, training manuals or joint venture agreements) to create structural capital, it is referred to as knowledge at the organisational or interorganisational level (Mouritsen, 1998; Sullivan, 1998). A main branch of the literature on knowledge management per se is the process paradigm which, as explained in Baxter and Chua (1999), is unified by a concern to facilitate the sharing of knowledge throughout an organisation (p.5). From this perspective of knowledge management, the task of an organisation is to generate a knowledge spiral through the process of a dynamic interaction between tacit and explicit knowledge (Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995, p.70). This knowledge spiral is achieved, according to Nonaka and Takeuchi (1995) by knowledge being appropriated by individuals and from individuals in the organisation. The extent to which an organisation is active in encouraging and facilitating the appropriation of knowledge by and from its individual professional workers is referred to by Brown and Starkeys (1994) as organisational information consciousness. This is the processes of making information available, or facilitating knowledge sharing, amongst that firms professional staff. 2.2 Job Satisfaction and Nutrient Information Research on job attitudes such as job satisfaction has been founded on a need-satisfaction theoretical model (Salancik and Pfeffer,1977). The model posits that when the characteristics of a job are compatible with the needs of the individual assigned to performing the job, the individual is satisfied. This will result in positive effects on attitudes, motivation and behavior. Studies on job design and motivation have been based on this model and confirmed that identifying and meeting employees' needs is critical to individual and organizational performance (e.g., Herzberg 1966; Herzberg et al. 1969; Locke, 1976; Smith et el. 1969; Vroom 1964). More specifically, the results of that research imply that employers who identify and meet employees needs tend to experience high job satisfaction and low turnover. As already argued, information in the work context will be a major need of professionals (as knowledge workers) and be expected to affect their job satisfaction level. Davenport et al (1996) describe knowledge workers as those employees performing work whose essential activities are comprised of the acquisition, creation, packaging, or application of knowledge.

Existing research on information and satisfaction of accountants shows that information on co-workers' perceptions of the employee's work and feedback on the employee's performance are important to satisfaction and turnover of accountants (Gregson 1990b). Other studies support the importance of feedback and career development to job satisfaction among accountants (Albrecht et al. 1981; Bullen and Flamholtz 1985; Hellriegel and White 1973; Greenhaus et al. 1997; McKee and Stead 1988; Patten. 1995). The concept of nutrient information enables an understanding of why feedback is so important. Nutrient information impacts the professional's ability to develop and maintain his/her expertise. Such information is developed starting from a minimum base of technical information and then growing with the knowledge and skills obtained from on-the-job performance. Feedback from other professionals, particularly formal performance evaluations by superiors, provides the neophyte professional with information that is needed to gauge his/her extent of develop of skills and expertise. Likewise, formal performance feedback enables the established professional to gauge whether his/her skills and expertise have been nourished to the desired level. The individual in an accounting firm will also be concerned with maintaining his/her status as a professional. Such maintenance requires consideration of the long-term development opportunities available at current and higher levels within the firm as well as opportunities outside the firm. Hope and Hope (1997) point out that for professionals, personal development is of primary importance. Similarly, Bartlett and Goshal (1995) emphasize that employers must provide professional workers with the opportunity for continuous learning and skill updating, and facilitate the planning of their career direction in pursuit of such opportunities. Hence, in this study we base nutrient information management on two elements: feedback on performance and career planning. An accounting firm that can meet its professional staffs' needs for nutrient information would be expected to have a more satisfied staff. Thus, two proposed hypotheses related to nutrient information management are: Hypothesis l: The receipt of feedback in the form of formal performance evaluations is positively related to job satisfaction. Hypothesis 2: The receipt of demonstrated interest in career development is positively related to job satisfaction. 2.3 Job Satisfaction and Organisational Information Consciousness Brown and Starkeys (1994) study on the effect of organizational culture on information and communication found that attitudes toward information and communication had a strong influence on the effectiveness of the organization. In the work context, they identified five major elements of information and communication. Four of the elements related to the process of how information is made available in an organization - through a formal MIS system, through operational communication taking place outside the MIS, through the grapevine, and through oral or written media. The fifth element, the degree of information consciousness, focused on how much value is placed on information as a resource and on the systems that have been implemented to retrieve, manipulate and transmit information. It captures the company's attitude towards information. It also

concerns the resources devoted by an organization to information activities and information seeking, evaluation and dissemination. These elements of valuing information and making efforts to actively seek and use information represent the concept of information consciousness of an organization. Brown and Starkey (1994) applied this concept of information consciousness in a case study of the relationship between organizational culture, communication, and information. In their study, the degree of information consciousness was determined by evaluating the firm with respect to two factors. The first factor was the extent to which employees, including senior executives, had a sophisticated understanding of the concepts of information as a resource and information management. The second factor was the existence of on-site availability of published resources, including the circulation of documents, with professional information. Shapero (1985) focused on the facilitation of access to information and made recommendations concerning the physical arrangement of offices, financial resources to support access to information, and the provision of training in accessing information. Considering the research of both Brown and Starkey (1994) and Shapero's (1985), the following four elements may appropriately capture the construct of information consciousness: (1) the extent employees feel that seeking information is encouraged throughout the organization; (2) the extent employees are familiar with the types of information sources available in the organization and receive training on how to access different sources; (3) the extent information is easily available and accessible; and, (4) the extent financial resources are provided to employees to access information. At this point, no study on job satisfaction among accountants has focused on the degree of information consciousness. We propose that a firm that provides an environment that facilitates access to relevant information and in which seeking and using information is encouraged and supported will be likely to meet accountants information needs. Hence, accountants in such firms are likely to be more satisfied with their jobs than accountants in other firms. Four hypotheses testing the degree of information consciousness are: Hypothesis 3: The firm's encouragement of networking and outside involvement is positively related to job satisfaction, Hypothesis 4: Training on how to use available information resources is positively related to job satisfaction. Hypothesis 5: Ease of obtaining information is positively related to job satisfaction Hypothesis 6: Financial support for information access and sharing is positively related to job satisfaction. Based on the above discussion, the study variables and their expected impact on the job satisfaction of accountants (Knowledge Workers) in the professional accounting firm are:
Performance feedback and career planning impacting Nutrient Information: Encouragement of networking, training on use of info resources, ease of obtaining information, and financial support for info access impacting Organisational Information Consciousness:

Autonomy, age, gender, country, division in firm, level of position, and tenure are Control Variables:

3. Methodology 3.1 The sample The sample for this study was drawn from professional staff employed by a large international accounting firm. After consultation with firm management, survey questionnaires were mailed to the managing partners of offices in the United States (U.S.) and Australia who distributed them to all professional staff below the level of partner. Partners were excluded as they oversee all professional staff and are responsible for meeting employee needs. Out of 330 questionnaires distributed, 141 responses were received from two U.S. and three Australian offices located in metropolitan areas for a response rate of 43 percent. One response was completed by a partner and was therefore discarded, leaving 140 useable responses. Respondents ranged in age from the early 20's to over 50. Most of the respondents were in their late 20's and early 30's. Over 80 percent of the sample were under 35. About 60 percent of the respondents were male and 40 percent were female. On average, respondents had been in public accounting for 5.51 years and the majority of the respondents were in the tax and auditing areas. 3.2 Measures Study variables and their measures are described in Tables 1 and 2. Table 1 provides detailed information on the information constructs developed for this study. We identified twenty-six items designed to measure the employees perceptions of nutrient information provided and the degree of information consciousness within the firm. We conducted a factor analysis based on these items to explore to what extent they related to the two elements assumed to capture nutrient information and the four elements assumed to capture information consciousness. As given in Table 1, a varimax rotation resulted in six factors - EVALUATION, CAREER, MOTIVATION, TRAINING, EASE and FINANCIAL SUPPORT. The first two factors, EVALUATION and CAREER, relate to the nutrient information management concept. EVALUATION relates to the provision of feedback in a formal evaluation process. The CAREER factor emphasizes recognition of accomplishments and interest in the employee's career by more senior members of the firm. The last four factors, MOTIVATION, TRAINING, EASE and FINANCIAL SUPPORT, relate to the information consciousness concept. MOTIVATION addresses perceived encouragement to expand knowledge through reading, participating in organizations, and networking with other professionals. TRAINING refers to whether or not sufficient information and training on the available resources in the office and in the firm had been provided. EASE includes the ease of sharing information in the office as well as ready access to necessary information resources. The measure for FINANCIAL SUPPORT addresses reimbursement for the costs of attending meetings or obtaining technical publications.
Table 1

Factor Analysis of the Dimensions of Nutrient Information and Information Consciousness

Factor Loading 1 2 3 4 5 6

FACTOR 1 EVALUATION [eigenvalue 3.007]

1. My performance is formally evaluated by job/project. 2. The formal evaluation is provided on a timely basis. 3. I am provided with written comments on performance. 4. Based on the feedback on my performance, I know what improvements are expected of me. .778 .661 .833 .660 .092 .297 .135 .438 .107 .277 .164 .220 .203 .175 .118 .092 .049 .119 .038 .214 .002 .053 .094 -.096

FACTOR 2 CAREER [eigenvalue 2.614]

1. My supervisor(s) acknowledges good performance, helps me to understand my future opportunities, and inquires about my concerns and plans. 2. People in more senior positions help me to understand my future opportunities and inquire about my concerns and plans. 3. My achievements and performance are recognized. .448 .760 .179 .154 .148 .101

.393

.755

.248

.159

.104

.058

.190

.747

.134

.274

.158

.186

FACTOR 3 MOTIVATION [eigenvalue 4.449]

1. Firm members encourage me to read, eg. the Wall Street Journal, Journal of Accountancy. 2. I am encouraged to contact outside colleagues for information. 3. I am encouraged to attend conferences and professional meetings. 4. I am encouraged to network with other professionals. 5. I am encouraged to be involved with outside educational activities, eg. taking or teaching classes or seminars. 6. I am encouraged to participate actively in professional organizations. 7. I am encouraged to contact other specialists within the firm to obtain needed information. .241 .089 .175 .210 .135 .121 .184 .145 .088 .010 .668 .766 .593 .750 .785 .225 .082 .186 .082 .146 .174 -.055 .286 -.024 .213 .070 .115 .304 .137 .074

.110 .007

-.001 .208

.783 .658

.150 .148

.124 .105

.020 .048

FACTOR 4 TRAINING [eigenvalue 4.251]

5. I am informed of the types of technical resources available to me in the office. 6. I am informed of the types of technical resources available to me throughout the firm. 7. I fully understand how to access the information resources available in the office. 8. I fully understand how to access the information resources available throughout the firm. 9. I have received adequate training on the types of information available in the office and how to access them. 10. I have received adequate training on the types of information available throughout the firm and how to access them. .042 .178 .171 .179 .057 .167 .163 -.026 .013 .260 -.029 .125 .123 .248 .249 .752 .795 .772 .806 .768 .302 .183 .283 .147 .134 .241 .150 .123 .053 -.123

.135

.211

.324

.762

.111

-.148

FACTOR 5 EASE [eigenvalue 2.911]

1. The office is arranged so that it is easy for me to meet and talk to my colleagues. 2. The office maintains sufficient information resources for normal, daily requirements, eg. there is ready access to current professional standards, industry performance data, etc. 3. When information is needed from an outside source, the office readily obtains and provides such information. 4. The office provides ready access to the information needed to stay current in my field. -.094 .165 .444 .010 .141 .010 .169 .254 .665 .814 -.027 .158

.022

.127

.257

.258

.735

.022

.226

.067

.157

.279

.815

.068

FACTOR 6 FINANCIAL [eigenvalue 1.409]

18. The office reimburses expenses I incur to attend professional meetings and conferences. 19. The office reimburses me for the cost of additional professional or technical publications that I am interested in. .172 -.193 .033 .308 .211 .388 .111 .051 .187 -.031 .804 .625

Table 2 presents the dependent and control variables and their measures. The dependent variable, job-satisfaction (SATISFACTION) was measured using the Job Descriptive Index (JDI) (Smith et al. 1969). The JDI is a widely used measure of job satisfaction, validated in public accounting settings, (e.g., Gregson 1992; Reed et al. 1994; Schell & DeLuca 1991). It measures job satisfaction in terms of satisfaction with the work itself, the supervisor, co-workers, pay, and opportunity for promotion. The reliability of the measure for SATISFACTION was evaluated and found to be acceptable with a Cronbach alpha of 0.89 (Cronbach 1951).

Control variables included in the regression analysis are AUTONOMY, AGE, DIVISION, GENDER, LEVEL, TENURE, and COUNTRY. Prior research has shown that each of the variables of autonomy, age, gender, position or level in the firm, and tenure have been factors related to job satisfaction among accountants (Aranya and Ferris 1984; Albrecht et al. 1981; Barkman et al. 1987; McKee and Stead 1988; Benke and Rhode 1980; Gregson 1990a, 1990b; Hellriegel and White 1973; Norris and Niebuhr 1983). The measure for AUTONOMY consists of three items from the Job Diagnostic Survey (JDS) (Hackman and Oldham 1980), an instrument extensively used in the social sciences. The items address the freedom and independence available in the job and the opportunity to exercise personal judgment. The reliability of the AUTONOMY measure was evaluated and found to be acceptable with a Cronbach alpha of 0.72. The measurement of AGE, DIVISION, GENDER, LEVEL, and TENURE is described in Table 2. COUNTRY is included in this study to control for country differences because the data were collected in two countries.
Table 2 Dependent and Control Variables Variable Dependent Variable: Job Satisfaction Control Variables: Autonomy in the job Age of respondent AUTONOMY AGE Job Diagnostic Survey [3 items] 1=20-24; 2=25-29; 3=30-34; 4=3539; 5=40-44; 6=45-49; 7=50-54; 8=55-59; 9=60+ 1=U.S.; 2=Australia 1=Audit; 2=Tax; 3=Consulting; 4=Mixture 0=Male; 1=Female 1=Staff; 2=Senior; 3=Supervisor; 4=Manager; 5=Senior Manger Nn SATISFACTION Job Descriptive Index [72 items*] Variable Name Measure

Country in which office located Division Gender Level Number of years employed in public accounting

COUNTRY DIVISION GENDER LEVEL TENURE

* One question pertaining to promotion was inadvertently left out of the survey. Smith et al. 1969 indicate that results are robust given the particular missing item.

3.3 Analysis Factor analysis is used to confirm that the information related items in fact captured the dimensions of interest. Pearson correlations are analyzed to assess the bivariate

relationships between the six dimensions of the knowledge management-based variables and the other study variables. Multivariate regression analysis is used to test the hypotheses about the relationships between job satisfaction and the variables of interest while controlling for the effect of demographic factors related to job satisfaction. 4. Results Descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations are summarized in Tables 3 and 4. Except for FINANCIAL SUPPORT, the correlations for the six knowledge management factors and job satisfaction were positive and significant, thus providing initial support for five of the six hypotheses. DIVISION and TENURE were the only control variables significantly related to job satisfaction. Some significant correlations were also found among the control variables. In particular, AGE was found to be strongly correlated with DIVISION, LEVEL. and TENURE. LEVEL was also strongly correlated with GENDER and TENURE.
Table 3 Descriptive Statistics for the Dependent and Control Variables
Variable SATISFACTION AUTONOMY AGE COUNTRY DIVISION GENDER LEVEL TENURE Std. Dev. 34.93 1.06 1.83 .48 .85 .48 1.45 6.30 Range 6.00 207.00 2.67 7.00 1.00 9.00 1.00 2.00 1.00 4.00 0 1.00 1.00 5.00 0 - 46.00

N
137 140 134 140 124 137 139 131

Mean
142.80 5.23 2.52 1.64 1.85 .36 2.42 5.51 Table 4

Pearson Correlation Co-efficients between the Dependent, Independent and Control Variables VARIABLE
1. Satisfaction 2. Evaluation 3. Career 4. Motivation 5. Training
.456** .657** .406** .396**

10

11

12

13

6. Ease 7. Financial Support 8. Autonomy 9. Age 10. Country 11. Division 12. Gender 13. Level 14. Tenure

.465** .279**

.296** -.061 .037 -.191 .069 -.096 -.214*

.102 -.245** -.172* -.299** .077 -.169* -.171

.313** -.116 -.054 -.199* -.064 .069 -.008

.375** .005 .024 -.072 -.084 .197* .021

.221** .010 -.039 -.219* -.074 .037 .053

.101 -.100 -.097 -.307** .050 -.164 .011

.191* .108 .107 .193* -.127 .259** .089 .123 -.033 .136 -.233** .411** .198* .097 .303** -.197* .552** .548** -.153 .004 -.079 -.230** -.024 .271** .139 -.368** -.234** .608**

Table 5 presents the results of the regression analysis. Regression of the study and control variables on SATISFACTION resulted in a highly significant model with an adjusted R2 of 0.537. The beta weights for the information factors were significant and in the predicted direction, thus supporting Hypotheses l through 6. Of the control variables, TENURE was significant while AGE and GENDER were marginally significant, and AUTONOMY was not significant. Because of the potential problems arising from multicollinearity among the variables in the multivariate regression analysis, variance inflation factors (VIF) were examined. None of the VIFs was larger than 10. VIFs in excess of 10 are considered indicative of a severe inflation problem related to the estimated regression coefficients (Myers 1986, 219).
Table 5 Effect on Job Satisfaction: Regression Results Variable Standardized Beta T-Score Probability VIF

Independent Variables
EVALUATION CAREER MOTIVATION TRAINING EASE FINANCIAL .178 .500 .218 .224 .242 .173 2.197 6.814 2.858 3.041 3.173 2.176 .031 .000 .005 .003 .002 .032 1.405 1.155 1.251 1.157 1.242 1.357

Control Variables
AUTONOMY AGE COUNTRY DIVISION GENDER LEVEL TENURE Model R = .598 Model F Value = 9.849 Adjusted R = .537 F Significance = .000 Model .047 .197 .072 -.106 .163 .128 -.476 .542 2.176 .859 -1.270 2.152 1.049 -4.623 .590 .032 .393 .207 .034 .297 .000 1.618 1.749 1.487 1.495 3.191 1.225 2.273

5. Discussion and Conclusions This study has investigated the relationship between job satisfaction of accountants and the provision of nutrient information and the degree of information consciousness present within the office/firm. Accountants, as professionals, are knowledge workers who require current, relevant technical information to do their jobs as well as broader know-how that is needed to develop and maintain expertise in their field. Since job satisfaction depends in part on an employer's success in satisfying employees needs, satisfaction of accountants is affected by the extent to which the office/firm aids them in obtaining the needed information. Constructs and measures were developed to capture the relevant information aspects. Concerning information content and whether the type of information provided makes a difference, the results show that nutrient information, specifically performance feedback and career-related information, were significantly related to job satisfaction. These results are consistent with suggestions in other studies. Professionals are worried about maintaining their elite status as experts. Feedback that informs them to what extent they are maintaining their expertise is critical. Similarly, discussion of career opportunities and recognition of achievements provides professionals with valued information about their status as experts. The regression results identified the career factor as the most important element of nutrient information provided. The four factors related to the degree of information consciousness were also significantly related to job satisfaction. The firms attitude towards the importance of information in the accounting profession is clearly related to job satisfaction of accountants. The tangible and intangible support that a firm provides to the accountants in meeting their information needs affects their attitudes toward their job. This is because a high degree of information consciousness actually facilitates the access to relevant information, and because it shows that the firm understands and appreciates the accountants needs and is willing to devote resources to satisfying these needs. The

results of this study imply that a high degree of information consciousness is created by encouraging the accountants to seek information from a variety of resources as well as making access to these resources easy by providing training, financial support, and simply by having relevant information around. In contrast to the results of other studies (see e.g., McKee and Stead 1988), the importance of autonomy is not supported by the regression results. This may indicate that the respondents do not perceive a lack of autonomy in the firm for which they are currently working. An alternative explanation for this result may be that relative to the other factors in the regression model, AUTONOMY is of less importance. The significant Pearson correlation between SATISFACTION and AUTONOMY provides some support for the latter explanation. The coefficient for TENURE was negative and highly significant (p<0.001). As the level of responsibility increased, job satisfaction decreased. This result was unexpected as previous studies have generally shown that TENURE is positively related to job satisfaction. Pearson correlations with TENURE are negative and significant for SATISFACTION, EVALUATION, and GENDER, and positive and significant for AUTONOMY, AGE, COUNTRY, and LEVEL. These results indicate that as tenure increases, accountants may receive less feedback on performance and information related to career development. However, as tenure increases, accountants appear to have more autonomy. Given that TENURE is very highly, positively, and significantly related to LEVEL, less feedback and more autonomy make sense. The correlation, however, between LEVEL and SATISFACTION was not significant. A mean comparison of SATISFACTION scores among the levels revealed differences, although they were not significant. Staff accountants displayed the highest job satisfaction scores (mean = 146.5) while senior managers exhibited the lowest job satisfaction scores (mean = 133.9). Why the drop in satisfaction? We conducted separate regression analyses for Accountants (Level = 1, 2, and 3) and for Managers (Level = 4 and 5) to provide some insight. Only three of the information factors were significant in the model for managers whereas for nonmanagers all six information factors were significant. For Managers, EVALUATION and CAREER as well as MOTIVATION were significant. These analyses imply that with more tenure accountants are likely to have managerial positions in the firm and are less likely to be satisfied because their nutrient information needs may not be met. Additional insights into the results related to TENURE and LEVEL may be gained from considering the changes that the profession has been experiencing. The path to partnership has been extended; slower growth in the CPA firms has resulted in an increase in the number of years required to make partner. Staffing shortages are widespread, particularly at the senior level. Such shortages place heavy demands on managers who must fill in the gap in order to get the work out. These factors combine to make the job more difficult and the reward more elusive, hence the job becomes potentially less satisfying. AGE and GENDER were both marginally significant. The positive coefficients for each indicated that older and female employees were more likely to be satisfied with their jobs. The results for AGE are somewhat intuitive - those unsatisfied would tend to leave

public accounting, it would also be interesting to determine whether or not older professionals are more adept at utilizing the information resources within the firm and available from networking. The results for GENDER are surprising in light of recent literature indicating continuing and high turnover for women in public accounting (Collins 1993; Hooks and Cheramy 1994). However, in this study there was also a significant, negative correlation between level and gender, indicating that women are concentrated at lower levels. Level was significantly, positively related to tenure which is negatively related to satisfaction. In essence, women may be more satisfied because they are just starting out and have not yet experienced the frustration of managers, the more tenured accountants, as described above. The results of this study have important theoretical and practical implications. Concerning theoretical implications, this study contributes to the research on knowledge workers and the management of professionals. The results of this study support the fact that these types of employees may have an extensive need for information, particularly the kind that helps them to maintain their expert status. Future research on these types of employees should include the information variables suggested in this study. The results of this study also contribute to the development of constructs that capture the information context in the work environment. Specifically, this study provides an initial step in the operationalization of nutrient information and the degree of information consciousness. The practical implications of this study's findings are clear. In order to meet the increased challenge of managing employee satisfaction (and probably employee turnover) effectively, accounting firms need to respond to the professional needs of their employees. Firms should have in place a supportive knowledge management process, including formal mentoring and career guidance systems to aid the individual in the planned development of his/her personal knowledge base. Management should encourage, support, and possibly reward staff for using resources to grow their nutrient information in a planned way, and to share such information with others as part of the firms knowledge spiral. The accounting firms top management must be truly committed to these processes. 6. Limitations Care must be taken in interpreting the results of this study. Results are subject to limitations arising from the use of different offices as well as the use of a questionnaire. Data were collected by a representative of the firm in each office location. It was not possible to control the settings in which the questionnaires were completed nor was it possible to identify potential factors that may have impacted the results. As a single public accounting firm was used, the results may not be generalizable to accountants in other organisations. The information collected was self-reported and it is possible that all respondents may not have replied in a candid and/or careful fashion. References Adler, S. and Aranya, N. 1984. A Comparison of Work Needs, Attitudes and Preferences of Professional Accountants at Different Career Stages. Journal of Vocational Behavior 25: 45-57.

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Prof Dennis Taylor, School of Accounting, Curtin University of Technology, GPO Box U1987, Perth, 6845, Australia Tel: (618) 9266 2878; Fax: (618) 9266 7196; Email: Taylord@cbs.curtin.edu.au