Int. J. Mech. Sei. PergamonPress Ltd. 1964. Vol. 6, pp. 13-25.

Printed in Great Britain

THE

DISTRIBUTION FLAT PLATES

OF

PRESSURE BOLTED

BETWEEN

TWO

TOGETHER

M. S. G. CULLIMORE* a n d K . A. U P T O ~ t
(Received 1 A u g u s t 1963)

S u m m a r y - - A method is described which was developed to measure the distribution of pressure between two plates bolted together. From the results of these measurements empirical formulae for the pressure distribution were established. Although the problem was found not to be amenable to rigorous analysis, an idealization of the geometry enabled a relaxation solution of the stress function equations to be obtained. The pressure distributions obtained in this way for four different cases and the predictions of the empirical formula show that the pressure is highest at the edge of the hole, but fails off rapidly to zero at a point whose distance from the edge of the hole depends upon the thickness of the plates. NOTATION t a r, 0, z Pr Pa Pm ~r, ~ , ~-~,~ , ~b v h 0 1, 2, 3, 4 (b0, etc. F~bo, F~b0
H

thickness of the plate radius of the hole in the plate cylindrical co-ordinates, with centre line of the hole as the z-axis normal pressure on the interface at radius r maximum normal pressure on the interface uniform pressure on the loading annulus stress components .stress functions Poisson's ratio relaxation net size typical node of relaxation net nodes of relaxation net adjacent to 0 value of ~ at node 0 residuals of ~ and ~b at node 0
h/2r o

INTRODUCTION THOS~ b r a n c h e s o f t h e e n g i n e e r i n g i n d u s t r y c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e b o l t i n g t o g e t h e r o f c o m p o n e n t s h a v e l o n g r e c o g n i z e d t h a t b y p r e - t e n s i o n i n g t h e bolt, r e l a t i v e m o v e m e n t o f t h e c o m p o n e n t s u n d e r w o r k i n g loads, p a r t i c u l a r l y r e p e a t e d loads, is r e d u c e d . T h e e x i s t e n c e o f f r i c t i o n a l a c t i o n in r i v e t e d joints, d u e t o t h e c l a m p i n g forces i n d u c e d b y t h e c o n t r a c t i o n o f t h e r i v e t s in cooling f r o m t h e i r h o t - d r i v e n s t a t e , h a s b e e n k n o w n f r o m t h e earliest d a y s o f i r o n s t r u c t u r e s . T h e use o f p r e - t e n s i o n e d b o l t s t o p r o d u c e s u c h frictional a c t i o n t o t r a n s m i t l o a d in s t r u c t u r a l j o i n t s is, h o w e v e r , o f m o r e r e c e n t origin. T h e a u t h o r s , i n v e s t i g a t i n g t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f s u c h joints, realized t h a t a k n o w l e d g e o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n o f p r e s s u r e d u e t o t h e b o l t p r e - t e n s i o n force a t t h e j o i n t i n t e r f a c e w a s essential t o t h e u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f t h e i r b e h a v i o u r in t h e t r a n s f e r e n c e o f b o t h s t a t i c a n d fluctuating loads and of their damping properties. * Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol. J~University of Western Ontario. 13

14

M.S.G.

CULLIMORE a n d K. A. UPTON

The investigation was confined to a study of the distribution of normal pressure at the interface of a pair of flat plates fastened together by a single bolt through the centre. Novel problems were presented both theoretically and experimentally. No theoretical solution was known for this case which was intractable b y classical elasticity methods because of the initially undefinable boundary conditions at the interface. Some idealization of the geometry, however, enabled known relaxation solutions for axially symmetrical solids of revolution to be adapted to the problem. A reliable method of measuring the pressure at the interface was developed using a pressure sensitive medium, by which a permanent record of the distribution was obtained.
THEORETICAL SOLUTION

T h e p r o b l e m w a s simplified b y asmm-dng t h e a s s e m b l y t o consist of t w o flat plates, e a c h w i t h a c e n t r a l c i r c u l a r hole, w i t h c l a m p i n g forces a p p l i e d n o r m a l l y t o t h e o u t s i d e surface o f e a c h p l a t e o v e r a n a n n u l u s a r o u n d t h e c e n t r a l hole. T h e p r e s s u r e w a s a s s u m e d t o b e u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r t h e a r e a of t h e a n n u l u s . T h e n u m b e r of p a r a m e t e r s was r e d u c e d b y t a k i n g t h e t w o p l a t e s as b e i n g of e q u a l t h i c k n e s s a n d m a k i n g t h e o u t e r r a d i u s o f t h e l o a d a n n u l u s t w i c e t h a t o f t h e hole.
r

7
h

+ a

FIG. 1. I d e a l i z e d g e o m e t r i c a l c o n f i g u r a t i o n of t h e t w o disks. U n d e r t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s , p r o v i d e d t h e p l a t e s are large e n o u g h t o e l i m i n a t e edge effects, t h e n o r m a l p r e s s u r e Pr a t t h e i n t e r f a c e of t h e p l a t e s c a n b e t a k e n as a x i a l l y s y m m e t r i c w i t h t h e hole a n d b e e x p r e s s e d as a f u n c t i o n of (p~, r, t, a) w h e r e Pm = u n i f o r m p r e s s u r e o n t h e l o a d i n g a n n u l u s t = plate thickness a = r a d i u s o f t h e hole A d i r e c t s o l u t i o n o f t h e p r o b l e m c a n n o t b e o b t a i n e d as it is n o t possible t o define t h e b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s c o m p l e t e l y . B o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n s m a y b e defined o n l y for t h e i n n e r c y l i n d r i c a l surface o f t h e hole a n d t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e s o f t h e p l a t e . N o tensile stress m a y b e t r a n s m i t t e d across t h e i n t e r f a c e b e t w e e n t h e p l a t e s , a n d so t h e r e is a n i n i t i a l l y u n d e f i n a b l e b o u n d a r y o n t h i s surface w h e r e t h e n o r m a l stress b e c o m e s zero.

The d i s t r i b u t i o n of pressure b e t w e e n t w o fiat plates b o l t e d t o g e t h e r

15

I t is, h o w e v e r , possible to o b t a i n a r e l a x a t i o n solution of t h e stress f u n c t i o n e q u a t i o n s for a similarly loaded solid r i g h t circular cylinder, of h e i g h t 2t, h a v i n g a central circular hole (Fig. 1). The n o r m a l stress along the plane (whose trace is F B ) m i d - w a y b e t w e e n t h e ends (corresponding to t h e interface) m a y be e v a l u a t e d and t h e p o i n t B ' a t which it becomes tensile found. The cylinder is t h e n a s s u m e d to h a v e a free surface along B B ' , representing the i n a b i l i t y of t h e t w o plates to t r a n s m i t tension across t h e interface. The b o u n d a r y conditions h a v i n g been s u i t a b l y modified, a new r e l a x a t i o n solution of t h e stress function e q u a t i o n s is o b t a i n e d a n d the n o r m a l stress at the " i n t e r f a c e " is e v a l u a t e d as before. The process is r e p e a t e d u n t i l a solution is o b t a i n e d w i t h compressive n o r m a l stresses only on t h e interface. W h e n t h e a s s e m b l y is represented b y a right circular cylinder, of height 2t, t h e p r o b l e m is r e d u c e d to one of finding t h e stresses set u p in an axially s y m m e t r i c solid of r e v o l u t i o n b y an axially s y m m e t r i c loading system. Cylindrical co-ordinates (r, 0 and z) are used w i t h t h e z-axis, the centre line of t h e bolt hole, as t h e axis of revolution. As all t h e quantities are i n d e p e n d e n t of 0, for t h e purposes of t h e calculation t h e p r o b l e m is two-dimensional and a n y axial z r plane m a y be t a k e n (Fig. 1). The four stress c o m p o n e n t s at a n y p o i n t in t h e s y s t e m can be expressed in t e r m s of two stress functions and (b1 as follows:
r \or

I or / - ~ ( ~ b +

l-v.~b)

(1) (2) (3) (4)

~ = ~.-~+1 .-.
zz . . . .

(~b+ 1 - v . )

10~ r ~r

zr = - - -

1 a~b ror

where v is Poisson's ratio for t h e material. T h e simultaneous g o v e r n i n g e q u a t i o n s for t h e stress functions are k n o w n to be:

~'4

or2

_13 4 o ' 4 = o
r or 3z2

(5)

orz

r Or

~z z =

Oz2

(6)

I f t h e a r e a B C E F is covered b y a square r e l a x a t i o n n e t (Fig. 2) of side h, equations (5) and (6) m a y be replaced b y finite difference a p p r o x i m a t i o n s which lead to a pair of

2 h
3 0
h

FIG. 2. R e l a x a t i o n net. residuals being defined a t each node of t h e n e t w o r k b y t h e expressions:

(7)
and

(8)

16

M. S. G. CULLIMORE a n d K . A. UPTON

The first s t e p in t h e r e l a x a t i o n s o l u t i o n 2 is t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f t h e b o u n d a r y values. I t will be seen t h a t t w o stress c o n d i t i o n s are k n o w n in t h i s case o n e a c h section o f t h e boundary : On BC a n d E F

~=0
rr = 0

On CD

~=0
~=0
On D E
= -Pro

T h e l o a d i n g on t h e a n n u l u s is a s s u m e d t o be b y a m e a n s w h i c h applies no lateral r e s t r a i n t , e.g. fluid pressure, in w h i c h case ~ = 0. T h e first o f e a c h o f t h e s e c o n d i t i o n s e n a b l e s a value o f ~b t o be f o u n d a t each p o i n t on t h e b o u n d a r y b y d i r e c t i n t e g r a t i o n as follows : F o r BC ~=lO~= r 6~r 0

= c o n s t a n t w h i c h m a y be t a k e n as zero, i.e. ~b = 0 F o r CD r 8r ~b = c o n s t a n t = 0 For DE "" ~b = 0 c

1a ~

= ,n~2r! + c o n s t a n t w h e n r = r 1, i . e . a t D , ~b = 0

.'.
For EF
zr

~,

P~

(r~--r~)

r'~r

But at E

~b = c o n s t a n t = ~bE
(a2-r~)

T h e s e c o n d o f e a c h of t h e stress c o n d i t i o n s c a n n o t be similarly u s e d t o o b t a i n t h e b o u n d a r y values o f t h e stress f u n c t i o n . T h e y m a y , h o w e v e r , be u s e d to e l i m i n a t e t h e fictitious v a l u e s o f q~ (i.e. values a t n o d e s o u t s i d e t h e b o u n d a r y ) in t h e e x p r e s s i o n s for c a l c u l a t i n g t h e residuals o f t h e ~ f u n c t i o n a t t h e b o u n d a r y n o d e s : On BC ~=0 or in t e r m s of t h e finite difference a p p r o x i m a t i o n for ~-~ w h e r e H = h / 2 r o. R e m e m b e r i n g t h a t ~b = 0 along BC a n d also t h a t , ~b h a v i n g b e e n d e t e r m i n e d for t h e s e n o d e s , t h e ~b residuals t h e r e m u s t also be zero, e q u a t i o n (8) m a y be w r i t t e n ~b2(1 - H ) + 9 ~ 4 ( 1 + H ) + 2o-9~ 1 - ~ a = 0

T h e distribution of pressure b e t w e e n t w o flat plates b o l t e d t o g e t h e r

17

These two e q u a t i o n s m a y n o w be used to e l i m i n a t e t h e fictitious values of ~b~ a n d 3 f r o m e q u a t i o n (7) w i t h the result t h a t

F0 = 2(, + ,) + ( 4 H ( 1 - H ) ( l - v ) On CE z'~ = 0 i.e. 1 ~b1 - a _ _ 0 r' 2h

2} 0

1=a

E l i m i n a t i n g t h e fictitious values 1 a n d 1 from equations (7) a n d (8) gives F0 -- (1 - H) (~ + 3) + ( 1 + H) (4 + ,) - 20 + 2a - 40 F o r t h e p a r t of the b o u n d a r y CD 3 = 0 = 4 = 0 so t h a t F0 = ( 1 - H) 3 + (1 + H) Ca - 40 + 2a - 20 On F E ~r = 0, so t h a t v. o) -- 0

3 - , + 2 - , - 4 H ( 0 + 1 -

R e m e m b e r i n g t h a t 1 = o = , = CE, the fictitious values , a n d , m a y be e l i m i n a t e d giving F0 = 2(2 +3 ) - E [ 2 + 4H(1 4-H)] - 0 [ 2 4 - 4 H ( 1 4 - H ) (1 - v ) ] on F B . As this b o u n d a r y is a n axis of s y m m e t r y the residual equations for a n d are the same as for all the interior n o d e s .

Ifunctlon.
"I:. i: a, I:

~
B~

OO H 0 L E

STRESS F,UNCTION C O N T O U R S .

.o

l~rn - SO0

"

FIG. 3. Stress f u n c t i o n contours o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e r e l a x a t i o n solution for t h e case t / a = 1. T h e residual e q u a t i o n s (7) a n d (8) for t h e interior nodes t o g e t h e r w i t h those for t h e b o u n d a r y nodes are sufficient for t h e e v a l u a t i o n of t h e functions a n d ~bw i t h i n t h e region BCDEF. A 10 in. dia. " c y l i n d e r " 2 in. high was chosen for t h e calculation, representing two 1 in. t h i c k plates. The d i a m e t e r of 10 in. was t h o u g h t to be large e n o u g h to eliminate edge effects. F o u r cases were considered of central holes of d i a m e t e r s in., in., } in. a n d 1 in. 2

18

M. S. G. CULLIMORE a n d K. A. UPTO~

A ~ in. s q u a r e r e l a x a t i o n n e t was selected w h i c h g a v e four n o d e s in t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e p l a t e . P o i s s o n ' s r a t i o was a s s u m e d t o b e 0.3. T h e r e l a x a t i o n process is l e n g t h y a n d tedious, b e c a u s e o n l y one f u n c t i o n is defined a t t h e b o u n d a r y a n d one case w a s e v a l u a t e d i n t h i s way. F o r t h e r e m a i n d e r , t h e finite difference e q u a t i o n s were w r i t t e n in m a t r i x f o r m a n d i n v e r t e d o n t h e F e r r a n t i P e g a s u s C o m p u t e r , u s i n g a p r o g r a m m e w r i t t e n b y F. H . D a r n l e y a. T h e n u m b e r of e q u a t i o n s to be s o l v e d was n e a r l y 200 in e a c h case. H a d t h e size o f t h e n e t b e e n r e d u c e d to ~ in., t h e n u m b e r of e q u a t i o n s w o u l d h a v e b e e n i n c r e a s e d t o a b o u t 800, w h i c h w o u l d h a v e exceeded t h e n u m b e r w i t h w h i c h t h e c o m p u t e r c o u l d deal. A t y p i c a l s o l u t i o n is s h o w n in Fig. 3 w h e r e t h e a n d stress f u n c t i o n c o n t o u r s h a v e b e e n p l o t t e d . T h e n o r m a l stresses o n F B , t h e interface, were c a l c u l a t e d f r o m t h e finite difference a p p r o x i m a t i o n to t h e e q u a t i o n
ZZ -~. . . .

r ~r

a n d t h e n o d e B ' a t w h i c h ~ first b e c a m e tensile was t h u s located. A s s u m i n g B B ' to b e a free surface, r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e a c t u a l c o n d i t i o n of n o t e n s i o n b e i n g t r a n s m i t t e d across t h e interface, gives l~b 0 r ~r o n B B ' , i.e. ~b = c o n s t a n t . N o w i t h a s b e e n s h o w n a l r e a d y t h a t ~b = 0 o n CB so = 0 a l o n g B B ' also. T h e whole r e l a x a t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n w a s t h e n r e w o r k e d w i t h t h i s a d d i t i o n a l b o u n d a r y c o n d i t i o n a n d a n e w set of ~b a n d v a l u e s o b t a i n e d . T h e process was r e p e a t e d , m o v i n g B ' t o w a r d s F, u n t i l a s o l u t i o n was o b t a i n e d w h i c h g a v e n o t e n s i o n v a l u e s of a l o n g F B . T h r e e a d j u s t m e n t s of t h e p o s i t i o n of B ' were n o r m a l l y r e q u i r e d to locate t h e p o i n t of s e p a r a t i o n of t h e disks. T h e v a r i a t i o n s of ~ for t h e four cases considered, a f t e r t h e a d j u s t m e n t for " n o t e n s i o n " h a d b e e n m a d e , arc s h o w n in Fig. 9. EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE FOR MEASURING PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION THE

I t was d e c i d e d to m e a s u r e t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n b e t w e e n t h e c o n t a c t surfaces b y p l a c i n g b e t w e e n t h e m a l a y e r of a m e d i u m w h o s e p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s w o u l d be p e r m a n e n t l y a f f e c t e d b y p r e s s u r e in a p r e d i c t a b l e way. B y t h i s m e a n s a p e r m a n e n t i m p r e s s i o n of t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n w o u l d b e o b t a i n e d . T h e s o r t s of p h y s i c a l p r o p e r t i e s c o n s i d e r e d were t h i c k n e s s , electrical r e s i s t a n c e a n d l i g h t s e n s i t i v i t y of film. T h e s i m p l e s t a n d m o s t p r a c t i c a l s o l u t i o n was, h o w e v e r , o b t a i n e d w i t h o r d i n a r y t y p e w r i t e r c a r b o n p a p e r w h i c h was f o m l d t o p r o d u c e o n w h i t e p a p e r , p l a c e d i n c o n t a c t w i t h it, a n i m p r e s s i o n whose d e n s i t y w a s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e a p p l i e d pressure. A c o m p r e h e n s i v e i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f t h e a v a i l a b l e t y p e s a n d g r a d e s of c a r b o n p a p e r was m a d e a n d it was d e c i d e d t h a t one p r o d u c e d b y " I m p e r i t y p e " g a v e t h e b e s t results, p r o v i d e d t h a t t h e m a t i n g surfaces were c a r e f u l l y g r o u n d flat. T h e e s s e n t i a l q u a l i t y o f t h e c a r b o n p a p e r w a s t h a t it s h o u l d r e s p o n d t o a p p l i e d p r e s s u r e in a l i n e a r m a n n e r , t h e r e s p o n s e b e i n g t h e a m o u n t of c a r b o n d e p o s i t e d o n w h i t e p a p e r . T h e q u a l i t y of t h e w h i t e p a p e r o n w h i c h t h e i m p r e s s i o n was m a d e was also i m p o r t a n t - - a soft p a p e r was f o u n d to give a b e t t e r i m p r e s s i o n t h a n a h a r d one. T h e t e c h n i q u e w a s to place b e t w e e n t h e t e s t p l a t e s a piece of c a r b o n p a p e r w i t h a s h e e t of w h i t e p a p e r a g a i n s t its s e n s i t i v e side. W h e n t h e l o a d h a d b e e n a p p l i e d to t h e a n n u l u s , a c a r b o n i m p r e s s i o n - - o f w h i c h Fig. 4 is a t y p i c a l e x a m p l e - - w a s o b t a i n e d o n t h e w h i t e p a p e r . A n o p t i c a l d e v i c e was u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e d e n s i t y of t h e c a r b o n i m p r e s s i o n r e l a t i v e t o t h e p a p e r w h e r e n o c a r b o n was deposited, w h i c h was a s s u m e d zero d e n s i t y . T h e i n s t r u m e n t u s e d t o m e a s u r e t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e c a r b o n i m p r e s s i o n was d e s i g n e d to m e a s u r e t h e l i g h t flux reflected f r o m t h e surface t o b e a n a l y s e d , mad will b e r e f e r r e d t o as the reflectometer. T h e r e f l e c t o m e t e r c o n s i s t e d e s s e n t i a l l y of t w o lens s y s t e m s , a l i g h t source a n d a p h o t o electric cell. A s t r i p of p a p e r c a r r y i n g t h e c a r b o n i m p r e s s i o n w a s m o u n t e d in a g r a d u a t e d slide, w h i c h c o u l d b e m o v e d across a ~ in. dia. a p e r t u r e i n t h e casing of t h e i n s t r u m e n t . T h e l i g h t source w a s a t u n g s t e n f i l a m e n t l a m p e n e r g i z e d b y a c o n s t a n t v o l t a g e supply.

The distribution of pressure between two fiat plates bolted together

19

One coil of the filament was focused on to the aperture by the first lens system, giving a constant high and very nearly uniform illumination there. The light reflected from the impression was focused by the second lens system on to the photo-electric cell. The photoelectric cell was so arranged t h a t the current generated was linearly proportional to the light flux it received. The current was measured with a moving coil galvanometer. The relationship between the density of carbon impression, as measured by the galvanometer reading, and pressure was examined by studying the impressions obtained at the interface of two 1 in. dia. fiat circular blocks. The blocks were loaded in a parallel platen device by loads corresponding to average pressures at the interface of up to 7 ton/in 2. The variations of galvanometer readings with average pressures are shown in Fig. 5, where

!$ READING

10

12

GALVANOMETER

FIo. 5. Calibration of the carbon paper. it will be noticed that the response is linear up to pressures of 5 ton/in ~, corresponding to a galvanometer reading of 11 units. I n subsequent tests applied loads were restricted to keep the m a x i m u m galvanometer reading below this value. Detailed examination showed t h a t the density of the carbon impression fell off towards the edges, indicating t h a t the pressure was not uniform over the contact area. The pressure/galvanometer reading constant thus obtained was therefore not satisfactory as a conversion factor. The linearity of the relationship having been established, however, it was possible to obtain the constant from the distributions subsequently obtained by equating the area under the galvanometer reading/radius curves to the applied load. The average value of the constant obtained in this manner from a number of distributions was: galvanometer reading of 10 units = 7 ton/in 2. I t is interesting to note t h a t the diameter of the ends of the plungers of the parallel platen device is 0.8 in., and the reading obtained near the centre corresponds to t h a t obtained if the load were uniformly distributed over an area 0.81 in. dia.

20

M. ~. (~. CULL1MORE a n d K. A. UPTON

10

LOAD =20TONS r = 0.375~'

t.1"a,OG75"

6
Z

W P
Ld

:E 0 Z {

- - - - - - _ ~ r , 1-o"

j>

(~

r ,Z.0"

,~ T I
1

---

~ 2

~ -

PAPER

THICKNESS

(SHEETS)

FIG. 6. Paper thickness correction.

10 LOAD

1.') (TONS)

~v

F~G. 7. Variation of pressure Pr (galvanometer reading) with applied load.

T h e distribution of pressure b e t w e e n two flat plates b o l t e d t o g e t h e r

21

I t was realized t h a t before t h e carbon impressions could be used to o b t a i n t r u e pressure d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e interface (i.e. w i t h no p a p e r between) a correction w o u l d h a v e to be m a d e for t h e compressibility of t h e paper. Theoretical indications were t h a t c o n t a c t occurred o v e r p a r t o n l y of t h e whole area of t h e plate, a n d t h a t t h e n o r m a l pressure was n o t u n i f o r m l y d i s t r i b u t e d o v e r this area. S y m m e t r y r e q u i r e d t h a t t h e surface of a c t u a l c o n t a c t was plane, a l t h o u g h outside this a r e a t h e inner faces of t h e plates were free to deflect r e l a t i v e to each other. The insertion of a compressible m e d i u m (viz. t h e carbon a n d w h i t e papers) b e t w e e n the " c o n t a c t " faces of t h e plates p e r m i t s r e l a t i v e deflection b e t w e e n t h e m o v e r the whole area, a n d m u s t therefore alter the pressure distribution in a m a n n e r g o v e r n e d b y the compressibility of t h e paper and t h e stiffness of t h e plates. The effect of the compressibility of t h e p a p e r was d e t e r m i n e d for each case b y t a k i n g four impressions w i t h one, two, three a n d four sheets of white p a p e r b e t w e e n t h e plates. A t y p i c a l set of results is shown in Fig. 6, where it will be seen t h a t t h e density of impression (and t h u s the n o r m a l pressure) at a n y radius is a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e t o t a l thickness of paper. The c o r r e c t e d d e n s i t y of impression, and t h u s the pressure w i t h no p a p e r at t h e interface, was o b t a i n e d b y e x t r a p o l a t i n g b a c k to zero p a p e r thickness for each r e q u i r e d v a l u e of t h e radius, assuming c o n t i n u e d linearity. I t will be noticed in Fig. 6 t h a t a reversal of slope of the lines occurs as the radius increases. This is because t h e load is the s a m e each t i m e so t h a t a r e d u c t i o n of t h e pressures at t h e smaller radii m u s t be accomp a n i e d b y an increase at t h e larger radii. To establish the applicability of t h e results it was necessary to confirm t h a t t h e pressure at a g i v e n radius was p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e applied load. This was done b y t a k i n g impressions at loads of 5, 10, 15 and 20 t o n w i t h 1 in. t h i c k plates w i t h a in. dia. hole. As plates of c o n s t a n t stiffness were used, t h e p a p e r thickness correction per u n i t load was t h e same for each test, and t h e " t r u e " pressure was n o t r e q u i r e d to establish t h e p o i n t in question. T h e results of these tests, shown in Fig. 7, indicate t h a t t h e pressure at a g i v e n radius is p r o p o r t i o n a l to t h e applied load or pressure on the annulus. TESTS ON PLATES OF VARIOUS THICKNESSES

F o u r pairs of 12-in. square plates were m a d e for t h e tests, of plate thickness (t) in., 1 in., 1 in. and 2 in., each w i t h a central " b o l t " hole of in. dia. The plates a n d associated fittings were m a d e to ensure as far as possible t h a t t h e load was applied n o r m a l l y to t h e interface a n d w i t h o u t eccentricity. All m a t i n g surfaces were ground fiat and t h e n l a p p e d t o g e t h e r using t h e t h r e e - p l a t e t e c h n i q u e to ensure u n i f o r m contact. A circular l a n d was m a c h i n e d on the o u t e r surface of t h e plate, a n d g r o u n d parallel to t h e inner surface, to receive t h e loading block. The loading blocks, which were 2a radius, were m a d e of alloy steel a n d fitted at one end w i t h a locating spigot to fit t h e hole in t h e plate. The end surfaces of t h e loading blocks were g r o u n d flat a n d parallel. I n a t e s t t h e lower plate, w i t h its loading block a n d spigot on t h e u n d e r side, was placed on t h e b o t t o m p l a t e n of t h e testing machine. The carbon p a p e r was laid a n d t h e u p p e r plate was positioned b y m e a n s of four dowels at the corners. T h e load was applied b y t h e testing m a c h i n e to t h e loading block on t h e u p p e r plate t h r o u g h a half-ball fitting. T h e o p t i m u m load for each (t/a) v a l u e was d e t e r m i n e d b y trial as t h a t which w o u l d produce a m a x i m u m density for t h e four impressions, j u s t w i t h i n t h e linear range of t h e c a r b o n p a p e r (a reading of a b o u t 10 g a l v a n o m e t e r units). A pressure distribution was n o t o b t a i n e d for (t/a) --- 8, as at t h e o p t i m u m load t h e pressure o v e r t h e annulus w o u l d h a v e exceeded t h e yield stress of t h e m a t e r i a l of t h e plates. S i x t e e n values of (t/a) were o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e four plate thicknesses b y enlarging t h e original in. dia. hole b y in. after t h e c o m p l e t i o n of each set of observations. Details of t h e p l a t e a n d hole sizes and t h e a p p r o p r i a t e loads are g i v e n in Table 1. The carbon impression densities were m e a s u r e d w i t h t h e refleetometer, m a k i n g t h e correction for t h e compressibility of t h e p a p e r as described above. To facilitate comparison, t h e d e n s i t y values were a d j u s t e d in all cases to m a k e t h e m a p p r o p r i a t e to a n applied annulus pressure of 15 t o n / i n 2. The results of these observations are s u m m a r i z e d in Fig. 8, w h i c h shows t h e v a r i a t i o n of d e n s i t y ( g a l v a n o m e t e r reading) w i t h (r/a) for t h e different (t/a) ratios e x a m i n e d .

22

M. S. G. CULLII~IORE a n d K . A. UPTON TABLE 1

D i a m e t e r of hole, in.

0.50

0.75

1.00

1.25

t/a
Plate thickness, in. 0.50 1-00 1.50 2-00 2 4 6 8

Load, ton 10 15 20 *

t/a
1"33 2.66 4 5.33

Load, ton 10 20 30 40

t/a
1 2 3 4

Load, ton 12 20 30 50

t/a
0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2

Load, ton 15 25 40 50

Not tested.
30

20

LOG GALVA
READING./
10 t /a. value

(9 z <[
Ld

r nbJ bbJ

o
z

>,

~.15 109 8 7 6 .5 4 3 2 1

FIG. 8. S u m m a r y of e x p e r i m e n t a l m e a s u r e m e n t s of p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n for p l a t e s of v a r i o u s t h i c k n e s s e s . EMPIRICAL FORMULAE FOR THE PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION

I f t h e p r e s s u r e a t a n y r a d i u s is Pr -- f ( P m , r, t, a), a n d b e c a u s e it h a s b e e n d e m o n s t r a t e d t h a t a l i n e a r r e l a t i o n s h i p exists b e t w e e n Pr a n d Pro, it follows t h a t

Pr _ f ( r , t, a)
w h e r e f (r, t, a) is n o n - d h n e n s i o n a l .

T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n of p r e s s u r e b e t w e e n t w o fiat p l a t e s b o l t e d t o g e t h e r It was found that the experimental results could best be represented by the function Pr = P=. e x p [ - 0.665k-l"=(x l ' s - 1)]

23

(9)

w h e r e k = t/a, x = r / a a n d p~ is t h e m a x i m u m p r e s s u r e , w h i c h occurs a t t h e edge o f t h e hole a n d is g i v e n b y t h e r e l a t i o n Pa

=

1"87( kl'a + 0"5) -1 . P ~

(10)

T h e r a n g e of a p p l i c a b i l i t y of e q u a t i o n s (9) a n d (10) is f r o m k - 1 t o / c = 6. T h e f u n c t i o n for t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n , e q u a t i o n (9), was e v a l u a t e d for four v a l u e s o f t/a a n d t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a r e s h o w n i n Fig. 9 w h e r e t h e y m a y be c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e

1.25

1.0

O7~

05

0"25

!
--

EM'.,CAL FORMULA

;j

RELAXATION SOt.UTI ON

l: f

C/a." 1"33

~:~t'l'33

%-4

,
3 4 5 6
7
I

"<-.
2 3

Fro. 9. D i s t r i b u t i o n of i n t e r f a c e p r e s s u r e i n four different cases: c o m p a r i s o n of r e s u l t s of e x p e r i m e n t w i t h t h e r e l a x a t i o n solution. r e l a x a t i o n solutions. T h e v a r i a t i o n of t h e m a x i m t u n p r e s s u r e Pa w i t h t/a is s h o w n i n Fig. 10, w h e r e t h e o b s e r v e d v a l u e s f r o m w h i c h t h e e m p i r i c a l r e l a t i o n w a s d e r i v e d a r e also s h o w n . B o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n d a n a l y t i c a l r e s u l t s s h o w t h a t t h e p r e s s u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n does n o t d e v i a t e s u b s t a n t i a l l y f r o m a s t r a i g h t line o v e r a t l e a s t t h e lower r a n g e o f f l a . I f a l i n e a r d i s t r i b u t i o n is a s s u m e d w i t h t h e m a x i m u m pressure, p=, as g i v e n b y e q u a t i o n (10), t h e n t h e r a d i u s R a t w h i c h t h e p r e s s u r e b e c o m e s zero m a y b e c a l c u l a t e d b y e q u a t i n g t h e n o r m a l p r e s s u r e force a t t h e i n t e r f a c e t o t h e a p p l i e d p r e s s u r e force o n t h e a n n u l u s . T h e v a l u e s of R so o b t a i n e d are g i v e n a p p r o x i m a t e l y i n t h e r a n g e k = 1 t o k = 4 b y t h e f o r m u l a R = 1.7a+0.9t (11)

A s i m p l e c h e c k o n t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e s e r e s u l t s w a s m a d e b y c l a m p i n g t w o flat disks t o g e t h e r w i t h a t e n s i o n e d b o l t p a s s i n g t h r o u g h a hole i n t h e i r c e n t r e s a n d m e a s u r i n g t h e t o r q u e t h a t h a d t o b e a p p l i e d a b o u t t h e axis o f t h e b o l t t o o v e r c o m e t h e f r i c t i o n a l r e s i s t a n c e d u e t o t h e n o r m a l p r e s s u r e b e t w e e n t h e disks. T h e a p p a r a t u s u s e d is s h o w n i n Fig. 11. T h e disks were e a c h 6 in. dia. a n d 0.5 in. t h i c k , a n d w e r e h e l d t o g e t h e r b y a in. dia. b o l t . W h e n t h e t e n s i o n i n t h e b o l t w a s 5 t o n i t w a s f o u n d t h a t a t o r q u e of 1050 i n . - l b w a s r e q u i r e d t o c a u s e slip. T h e faces of t h e disks i n c o n t a c t were g r o u n d , a n d t h e coefficient of f r i c t i o n b e t w e e n s u c h s u r f a c e s w a s t a k e n as 0.21. T h i s w a s t h e a v e r a g e o f slip coefficients o b t a i n e d f r o m t e s t s o n single b o l t j o i n t s of a t y p e s i m i l a r t o t h o s e d e s c r i b e d b y t h e first a u t h o r , 4 e x c e p t t h a t t h e b o l t loads w e r e m e a s u r e d directly. U s i n g t h i s v a l u e ,

24

M. S. G. CUJ,LI~ORE and K. A. UrTos"

and taking the distribution of normal pressure between the disks as that given by th~ empirical formula (equation (9)), the torque required to cause slip was found to b(, 985.0 in.-lb, indicating that the predicted pressure distribution is of tile right order. I t is interesting to note that if a tmiform distribution of pressure between the disks is assumed, the torque required to cause slip is 2240 in.-lb.

OBSERVED
VALUES

0.5

3t/a4

Fro. lO. Variation of maximum interface pressure with plate thickness from empirical formula (equation (10)). COMMENTS T h e pressure distributions p r e d i c t e d t h e o r e t i c a l l y are similar in f o r m to those o b t a i n e d f r o m t h e m e a s u r e m e n t s . T h e m a x i m u m stress is, however, higher a n d t h e a r e a o v e r which t h e pressure is d i s t r i b u t e d is m o r e restricted. E x a m i n a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l t e c h n i q u e suggests t h a t t h e m a i n source of e r r o r is p r o b a b l y the " p a p e r t h i c k n e s s " effect which results in a s p r e a d i n g of t h e pressure area. U n d e r - c o r r e c t i o n would therefore lead to lower m a x i m u m pressures a n d a m o r e e x t e n s i v e pressure area. T h e p l a t e s used in t h e e x p e r i m e n t being 12in. square w i t h a 10in. dia. l a n d a t t h e interface would be stiffer t h a n those a s s u m e d in t h e analysis. This m i g h t be e x p e c t e d to give a s o m e w h a t larger pressure a r e a t h a n the theoretical, a l t h o u g h this effect is p r o b a b l y slight. T h e principal source o f error in t h e theoretical results p r o b a b l y lies in t h e d e t e r m i n a t i o n of the ~ stress f r o m t h e stress f u n c t i o n values a t the nodes of t h e r e l a x a t i o n net. T h e a r e a o v e r which pressure was t r a n s m i t t e d was f o u n d to be r e s t r i c t e d to a radius of a b o u t 5h to 7h f r o m t h e edge of the hole. This g a v e too few values for an entirely s a t i s f a c t o r y d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f the stress v a r i a t i o n , p a r t i c u l a r l y in the region o f r a p i d change n e a r t h e hole. T h e a m o u n t of w o r k i n v o l v e d in o b t a i n i n g a b e t t e r solution b y proceeding to a finer n e t was n o t considered to be justifiable.

FIG. 11.

Apparatus used to verify predictions pressure distribution formula.

of

f. y. 24

The distribution of pressure between two flat plates bolted together

25

T h e m a i n difference b e t w e e n the analysis a n d the e x p e r i m e n t s is t h o u g h t to arise in the loading conditions. The analysis assumed the load to be applied as a u n i f o r m pressure o v e r a n annulus a r o u n d the central hole. I n the experim e n t s the load was applied over this area t h r o u g h a stiff spigot, which was not able to a c c o m m o d a t e itself to variations in the thickness of the plate which t a k e place due to the v a r i a t i o n w i t h r of the ~ stress on interface of the plates. As these decreases in thickness would be greatest when r is least, the t e n d e n c y m u s t be to relieve the pressure on the annulus n e a r the hole and to increase the pressure due to the load towards the o u t e r parts. This in its t u r n results in a spread of the pressure area a n d hence a r e d u c t i o n in the m a x i m u m pressure a t the interface. I t was also assumed in the analysis t h a t ~ was zero u n d e r the spigot. F r i c t i o n between the spigot a n d plate will, however, restrict displacem e n t in the r direction and hence increase the pressure area at the interface. CONCLUSIONS B o t h analytical a n d e x p e r i m e n t a l results show t h a t the pressure a t the interface is confined to a limited area having a m a x i m u m value at the edge of the bolt hole a n d varies in a m a n n e r which is g o v e r n e d b y the thickness of the plate in relation to the size of the bolt hole (t/a). As (t/a) is increased, i.e. for thicker plates, the e x t e n t of the pressure area increases a n d the m a x i m u m pressure is reduced. F o r t h i n n e r plates the m a x i m u m stress, Pa, was seen to exceed the u n i f o r m pressure on the loading annulus, Pro, a l t h o u g h in the limit as (t/a)->O (P,/Pm) m u s t a p p r o a c h u n i t y a n d the pressure distribution becomes uniform. T h e change in the f o r m of the pressure distribution shown b y the r e l a x a t i o n results for t/a = 1 indicates the t e n d e n c y for this to occur. T a k i n g (t/a) = 1 as a typical value in practice, the results indicate t h a t the m a x i m u m pressure a t the interface would be of the order of 20 per cent higher t h a n the average pressure on the loading annulus, a n d t h a t it will be distributed over an area o f the interface of radius a b o u t 30-50 per cent larger t h a n t h a t of the loading annulus.

Acknowledgements---The work described in this paper was carried out in the Civil
Engineering Laboratories of the University of Bristol. The authors wish to record their appreciation of the encouragement and counsel of Professor Sir Alfred Pugsley, and their thanks to their colleague, Dr. R. T. Severn, for his assistance with relaxation calculations.
REFERENCES I. R. SO~r~HWELL, Proc. Roy. Soc. A 18@, 367 (1942). 2. D. N. DE G. ALLEN, Relaxation Methods, p. 134. McGraw-Hill, 3. F. H. DARNLEY, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Sheffield (1960). New York (1954).

4. M. S. G. C ~ O R ~ , pp. 66-67 (1959).

Inst. Struct. Engrs. Jubilee Symp. on High Strength Bolts,