GEOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION SYSTEMS (R. SUDHARSANAN, M.E., A.M.I.E.

) DEFINITION: There have been so many attempts to define GIS that it is difficult to select one definitive definition. A set of tools for collecting, storing, retrieving at will, transforming, and displaying spatial data from the real world for a particular set of purposes (Burrough, 1986). A system for capturing, storing, checking, integrating, manipulating, analyzing and displaying data which are spatially referenced to the Earth (Department of Environment, 1987). COMPONENTS OF GIS The components of a GIS include: the computer systems, the software, spatial data, data management and analysis procedures and the people to operate the GIS. SPATIAL DATA CONCEPTS AND ISSUES Spatial Data (also called Geographical Data) are characterized by information about position, connections with other features and details of non-spatial characteristics (Burrough, 1986). All GIS software has been designed to handle spatial data. Spatial Referencing and Geo-coding: Geographic information contains either an explicit geographic reference, such as a latitude and longitude or national grid co-ordinate, or an implicit reference such as an address, postal code, census tract name, forest stand identifier, or road name. The spatial referencing can be grouped into three categories: Geographic coordinate system ; Rectangular co-ordinate system; and Non co-ordinate system. (1) Geographic co-ordinate system: The only true geographic co-ordinates are latitude and longitude. Using lines of latitude and longitude any point on the Earths surface can be located by a reference given in degrees and minutes.

(2)

Rectangular co-ordinate system: The lines of latitude and longitude become grid lines on a flat map. When small areas are being studied there will be only minor distortions in the layout of the grid. The rectangular co-ordinate systems are designed to allow mapping of specific geographical regions e.g. Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) plane grid system. Non co-ordinate system: Non co-ordinate systems provide spatial references using a descriptive code rather than a co-ordinate. Example: Postal Code. This may be fully numeric or alphanumeric. An automated process called geocoding is used to create explicit geographic references (multiple locations) from implicit references (descriptions such as addresses). These geographic references allow us to locate features and events on the earth's surface for analysis. GIS DATA BASE: (1) The Spatial Database: The geographical features are described with their location and shape, and their spatial relationship to other features. Generally, the spatial data is obtained from maps and drawings. The information contained in the spatial database is held in the form of digital co-ordinates, which describe the spatial features. Normally, the different sets of data will be held as separate layers, known as thematic layers, which can be combined in a number of different ways for analysis or map production. (2)The Attribute Database: The attribute database is of a more conventional type; it contains data describing characteristics or qualities of the spatial features i.e., descriptive information. The attribute data is obtained from either record maintained by various organizations or by direct measurement. The attribute data is stored in tabular or point form. The attribute information may be in the form of characters, numeric or alphanumeric. GIS links spatial data with geographic information about a particular feature on a map. The information is stored as attributes of the graphically represented feature. Spatial Entities: Traditionally, maps have used symbols to represent real-world features. The representation of real-world features is done using point, line and area entity. The method chosen to represent a spatial feature will depend on the scale used. (1) Point: Point is the discrete location represented as a co-ordinate pair. Points are used to represent features that are too small to be represented as areas (e.g. Post Box, Rain gauge, etc).

(3)

(2) Line (Arc): Line is a set of ordered co-ordinates represented by a string of co-ordinates. Lines are used to represent features that are linear in nature (e.g. streams, power and pipelines, and transportation routes, etc). They can also bee used to represent linear features that do not exist in reality (e.g. administrative boundaries, basin boundaries, etc). (3) Polygon (Area): Polygon is a closed feature whose boundary encloses a homogeneous area represented by a closed string of co-ordinates which encompass an area. Some of these polygons exist on the ground, while others are imaginary. (e.g., lakes, agricultural fields, catchment area, land use, census tracts, hospital, town boundaries, etc).

MAPS AND MAP SCALE: Map: The traditional method for storing, analyzing and presenting spatial data is the map. The map is of fundamental importance in GIS as a source of data, a structure for storing data and a device for analysis and display. Maps are classified into topographical maps and thematic maps. Thematic maps show data relating to a particular theme or topic such as soil, land use, transportation or population. Topographic maps contain a diverse set of data on different themes such as Survey of India Toposheets or tourist maps. Scale: Virtually all sources of spatial data, including maps, are smaller than the reality they represent. Scale can be defined as the ratio of distance on the map to the corresponding distance on the ground (Martin, 1996). Scale can be expressed in one of three ways: as a ratio scale, a verbal scale or a graphical scale. Ratio Verbal Graphical 1:5,000 1 cm represents 50 m 0 TOPOLOGY: In GIS, topology is the term used to describe the geometric characteristics of objects which do not change under transformations such as stretching or bending and are independent of any co-ordinate system. Topology, as it relates to spatial data, consists of three elements: adjacency, containment and connectivity (Burrough, 1986). 100m 200 m 1:1,00,000 1 cm represents 10 km 0 10 20 30 km

Adjacency and containment describe the geometric relationships which exist between area features. Areas can be described as being adjacent when they share a common boundary. Containment is a extension of the adjacency theme and describes area features which may be wholly contained within another area feature such as an island within a lake. Connectivity is a geometric property used to describe the linkages between line features. SPATIAL DATA STRUCTURES: Data structures provide the information that the computer requires to reconstruct the spatial data model in digital form. There are two major methods to input, store and visualise mapped data in GIS. The GIS data structure is classified into Raster Data and Vector Data. Raster Data Structure: Raster Geographic Information Systems, which store map features in raster or grid format, generalise the location of features to a regular matrix of cells. Raster GIS data structures are preferred for digital elevation modeling (DEM), statistical analysis, remotely sensed data, simulation modeling, and natural resource applications like sedimentation and water quality studies. Vector Data Structure: Vector Geographic Information Systems, which store map features in vector format, such as points, lines and polygons with high accuracy. They are preferred in urban applications where legal boundaries and the analysis of networks are important, in net work analysis, etc. Applications of urban GIS include location and allocation of critical resources such as hospitals, study of disease outbreak patterns and crime analysis.

In raster-based analysis, the areas of analysis are divided into squares of uniform size (cells). Each cell characterises the feature of interest within this area with a single value. Digital image data, including aerial photos and satellite imagery, are stored in raster format (as pixels). GRID cell-based modelling uses the raster format to determine routing patterns and terrain.

Vector data on the other hand, are coordinate-based data structures commonly used to represent linear features (polygons can be formed by closed strings of coordinates). Each feature in this format is represented as a list of ordered x,y co-ordinates. Computer algorithms exist that can convert data of one type to the other.

TYPES OF GIS: Four-dimensional GIS: The four-dimensional GIS are designed to handle the three dimensions of space and one of time. Integrating the dimensions of time into GIS presents challenges. In a raster or vector layer based GIS, one option for handling time is to store multiple layers for the theme in which you are interested. Multimedia/hypermedia GIS: Multimedia/hypermedia GIS allow the user to access a wide range of georeferenced multimedia data (e.g., simulations, sounds and videos) by selecting resources from a geo-referenced image map base. A map serving as the primary index to multimedia data in a multimedia geo-representation is termed a hypermap. Multimedia and virtual geo-representations can be stored either in extended relational databases, object databases or in application-specific data stores. Raper (2000) mentions several examples including a multimedia atlas that has been developed for the tourist information system in China.

Since video is a spatio-temporal projection of the world in imagery, it can be considered capable of fully multi-dimensional geo-representation. It can be used for mapping from moving platforms, for target positioning, for the measurement of geophenomena such as air pollution, and as a process monitoring system. Video imaging has also become a recognised and valuable new technique of remote sensing since the 1990s. Web GIS: Web GIS systems will help in distribution of spatial data along with linked nonspatial data over Internet. Two types of web GIS exist. They are server based systems and client based systems. In server-based systems, the data and the software required to process data reside in the server. The client need not have any GIS software in his system except a web browser such as Internet Explorer or Netscape Navigator. Most web-based GIS are client server systems. Server holds data and desktop clients use standard browser software to view those data. The Internet Map Server typically provides functions. The applications of Web GIS are growing rapidly. They include: Displaying static maps which users can pan or zoom whilst online; Creating user-defined maps online which are in turn used to generate reports and new maps from data on a server; Integrating users local data from the internet; Providing data that are kept secure at the server site; Providing maps and data across the Internet to a internal audience and global audience. Virtual Reality GIS: Virtual Reality GIS have been developed to allow the creation, manipulation and exploration of geo-referenced virtual environments, e.g., using VRML modelling (Virtual Reality Modelling Language). Virtual Reality GIS can be also Web-based. Applications include 3D simulation for planning (to experiment with different scenarios).

(This project was funded by the UK Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC) with the aim to assist users in environmental design tasks, using three key technologies: Geographical Information Systems, Virtual Reality and Computer-Supported Cooperative Work.) Real-time GIS: With the availability of real-time positioning systems and cost-effective mobile telecommunications, it has become possible to develop real-time GIS that monitor, transmit, record and analyse the movement of mobile agents such as vehicles, people or animals (tele-geo-monitoring). In transportation for example, many organisations need to monitor the position of their vehicles for scheduling or safety reasons. Real-time GIS can also include location-based services, where a moving agent receives information depending on its location (GMS - Geographic Messaging Services), e.g., in tourism, giving and updating relevant details of attractions to tourists as they approach different areas. DATA INPUT AND EDITING: Data in analogue or digital form need to be encoded to be compatible with the GIS being used. All data in analogue form need to be converted to digital form before they can be input into GIS. Four methods are widely used: key-board entry, manual digitizing, onscreen digitizing and scanning. (i) Key Board Entry: Keyboard entry, often referred to as key coding, is the entry of data into a file at a computer terminal. It may be appropriate for tabular data, or for small numbers of coordinate pairs read from a paper map source or pocket GPS. (ii) Manual digitizing: The most common method of encoding spatial features from paper maps is manual digitizing. It is an appropriate technique when a selection of features are required from a paper map. Manual digitizing requires a special hardware called Table Digitizer that is linked to a computer workstation. (iii) Onscreen digitizing and Scanning:

Scanning is an appropriate method of data encoding when raster data are required, which is the output format from most scanning software. A scanner is a piece of hardware for converting analogue source document into digital raster format. There are three types of scanner in use: flat-bed scanners, rotating drum scanners and large-feed scanners. On-screen digitizing is an interactive process in which a map is created using previously scanned information. This method of geocoding is commonly called "headsup" digitizing because the attention of the user is focused up on the screen, and not on a digitizing tablet. This technique may be used to trace features from a scanned map or image to create new layers or themes. On-screen digitizing may also be employed in an editing session where there is enough information on the screen to accurately add new

features without a reference image or map. The process of on-screen digitizing is similar to conventional digitizing. Rather than using a digitizer and a cursor, the user creates the map layer up on the screen with the mouse and typically with referenced information as a background. DATA EDITING: GIS data may include errors derived from the original source data, as well as errors introduced during the encoding process. There may be errors in co-ordinate data as well as inaccuracies and uncertainty in attribute data. Detection of errors in attribute records or spatial database features and the implementation of the needed correction are known as Data Editing. There are three topics are covered in data editing: detection and correction of errors; re-projection, transformation and generalization; and edge matching and rubber sheeting. Detecting and Correcting Errors: Errors in source data may be difficult to identify. During encoding a range of errors can be introduced. They are typing mistake, folding and strains get scanned, loss of data during data transfer. Errors in attribute data are relatively easy to spot and may be identified using manual comparison with the original data. Errors in spatial data are often more difficult to identify and correct than errors in attribute data. Missing entities, duplicate entities, mislocated entities, missing labels, duplicate labels, artifacts of digitizing and noise are the common errors in spatial data. Re-projection, Transformation and Generalization: Data derived from maps drawn on different projections are converted into a common projection system before they can be combined or analysed is known as Reprojection. Data derived from various sources with different spatial referencing are transformed to a common grid system is known as Transformation. If source maps of widely differing scales are converted into a scale, which is comparable with, the data derived from smaller scale maps is known as Generalization. This will save processing time and disc space by avoiding the storage of unnecessary details. Edge Matching and Rubber Sheeting: Edge matching is simply the procedure to adjust the position of features that extend across typical map sheet boundaries. Theoretically data from adjacent map sheets should meet precisely at map edges. However, in practice this rarely occurs. Misalignment of features can be caused by several factors including digitizing error, paper shrinkage of source maps, and errors in the original mapping. Edge matching

always requires some interactive editing. Accordingly, GIS software differs considerably in the degree of automation provided. Spatial database editing software that attempts to correct errors by stretching a map to fit known control points or monuments is called Rubber Sheeting. It uses Mathematical method to stretch or warp images to match existing vector data. SPATIAL ANALYSIS AND GIS FUNCTIONS: Spatial Analysis not just a map. With GIS, users can turn data into information, ask questions and interact with the system. GIS provides both simple point-and-click query capabilities and sophisticated analysis tools to provide timely information to managers and analysts alike. GIS technology really comes into its own when used to analyse geographic data to look for patterns and trends and to undertake "what if" scenarios. Modern GIS have many powerful analytical tools, but two are especially important: proximity analysis and overlay analysis. Proximity Analysis GIS will answer the question How many?. To answer such questions, GIS technology uses a process called buffering to determine the proximity relationship between features. Overlay Analysis The integration of different data layers involves a process called overlay. At its simplest, this could be a visual operation, but analytical operations require one or more data layers to be joined physically. This overlay, or spatial join, can for example link land-use and environmental data to population and disease data. Analysis requires data linkage, within the same dataset and/or in a second dataset. GIS uses geography, or space, as the common key element between datasets. Information is linked only if it relates to the same geographic area. GIS can communicate with conventional DBMS. Spatio-Temporal Analysis By adding a temporal (time) dimension to spatial data and analysis, changes that might occur regarding some variable/condition within the same location with time were tracked. Also the variable/condition we are studying might change locations with time, or extend beyond the original location to involve additional ones. Visualisation: For many types of geographic operation the end result is best visualised as a map or graph. Maps are very efficient at storing and communicating geographic information. Map displays are integrated with reports, three-dimensional views, photographic images, and other output such as multimedia.

Site location and client distance

Modelling future trends

Clusters and comparison of data

Environmental monitoring and modelling