THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN Running head: THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN

Instructional design: The history behind it and a look at the future Tony Hetrick Peer Reviewed by: Steven Albrecht EDTECH 504 (Fall 2010) Submitted to Dr. Dazhi Yang 2010-12-10

THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN Abstract This paper explores the roots of instructional design and its course of development as it has shaped the educational technology field starting with the origin of instructional design during WWII to the actual study of educational technology which began in the 1960s with Skinner, Glaser, Crowder, and Gagn. In 1965, Robert Gagn published The Conditions of Learning where he describes the five domains of learning outcomes and the nine events of instruction. The 1960s gave way to the start of instructional design models that have influenced and developed instructional design. Following that in the 1980s, learning theories were developed which include cognitive strategies and constructivism. Additionally, a look to the education of the future will be examined.

THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN Instructional design: The history behind it and a look at the future Introduction Anna recently started her new job as an English teacher at a prominent university in the former Soviet Union where she was anxious to start developing her composition course. When Anna received the class roster and saw she was teaching a group of internationals, all Afghan girls, she was ecstatic at this opportunity! However, she realized that she had to reevaluate the learners as these are not the typical Russian speaking students who were educated in the former Soviet Union that she was used to. For instance, does Anna abandon her ideas about incorporating Web 2.0 tools for the students to submit their writing assignments and where the

students can collaborate by commenting on each others writing assignments? As Anna thought about it, she took a step back to the beginning of the instructional design process. Smith & Ragan (2005) describe this as the process of methodically creating and presenting instructional materials based on philosophical and psychological research. This paper explores the roots of instructional design and its course of development as it has shaped the educational technology field. Various models will be explored that have influenced and developed instructional design. Additionally, a look to the education of the future will be examined. The Roots of Instructional Design Systems In A History of Instructional Design and Technology: Part II, Reiser (2001) traces the roots of instructional design to World War II. During the war, a large number of psychologists and educators used their training to research and develop training materials based on

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instructional principles on instruction, learning, and human behavior. Some of these individuals include Robert Gagn, Leslie Briggs, and John Flanagan (Reiser, 2001). During the late 1940s and throughout the 1950s, many of the psychologists who helped to develop military training programs continued their work on solving instructional problems in newly founded organizations such as the American Institutes for Research (Reiser, 2001). The actual study of educational technology began in the 1960s with Skinner, Glaser, Crowder, and Gagn. Skinner provided key contributions in 1958 to improve learning using machine and programmed instruction. In 1962, Glaser designed one of the first instructional systems development (ISD) models. In 1960, Crowder further explored Skinners work on programmed instruction based on the importance of incorrect responses. In 1965, Gagn elaborated on ISD with his behavior hierarchy of learning outcomes (Ross, Sullivan, & Tennyson, 1992). The development of using a systems approach was important in that it allowed for instructional materials to be developed in a methodical approach as the different parts of the model work together to achieve a specific goal. Designing instruction systematically has some tremendous benefits which include creating an environment for learner-centered instruction as the designers spend time early on researching the learners and their needs. This also allows for effective and efficient instruction as the analysis process allows for evaluation and revision. The systematic approach also encourages collaboration and communication among those working on it, which often results in written documentation that contain written plans including goals, objectives, audience, and analysis of the tasks (Smith & Ragan, 2005). B.F. Skinners programmed instruction movement was a significant contributor to the development of systems approach. 1954, Skinner created a minor revolution in the field of education after he published his article entitled The Science of Learning and the Art of Teaching.

THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN In this article, Skinner explained his ideas about the desired characteristics of effective instructional materials and the requirements for increasing human learning. Skinner stated that such materials, called programmed instructional materials, should present instruction in small steps, require overt responses to frequent questions, provide immediate feedback, and allow for

learner self-pacing (Reiser, 2001, p. 59). Since each step was small, Skinner hypothesized that learners would be able to answer all of the questions correctly, and the feedback would reinforce what they had learned (Reiser, 2001). The Introduction of Models In 1962, Glaser designed one of the first instructional systems development (ISD) models where he named, elaborated, and diagramed its components (Shrock, 1995). Glaser was also the first to use the term criterion-referenced measures and indicated that they could be used to assess student entry-level behavior and to determine the extent to which students had acquired the behaviors an instructional program was designed to teach (Reiser, 2001, p 60). These two uses of criterion-referenced tests are central features in instructional design procedures (Reiser, 2001). Robert Gagn published The Conditions of Leaning in 1965 in which he describes the five domains of learning outcomes: verbal information, intellectual skills, psychomotor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Each domain requires a different set of conditions to promote learning (Reiser, 2001). In the same volume, he also described the nine events of instructions that he considered vital for achieving any type of learning outcomes and the events of instruction remain cornerstones of instructional design practices (Reiser, 2001). The nine events are: 1) Gaining attention, 2) informing the learners of the objective, 3) stimulating recall of prerequisite learning, 4) presenting stimulus materials, 5) providing learning guidance, 6)

THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN eliciting performance, 7) providing feedback, 8) assessing performance, and 9) enhancing retention and transfer (Smith & Ragan, 2005). With the introduction of the use of ISD models, instructional designers now had a roadmap for designing instruction for the use in educational technology. A model answers the

questions Where are we going? How will we get there? and How will we know when weve arrived? (Smith & Regan, 2005, p. 10). An instructional design model provides the answers to these questions by offering direction on analysis, strategy development, and evaluation (Smith & Regan, 2005). This allowed the instructional design field to experience tremendous growth in the 1970s as researchers continued to build on the ideas proposed prior to the introduction of ISD models. As experience was being gained and as researchers continued their work, problems were identified in earlier models. One important modification to the earlier models was the addition of needs assessments (Shrock, 1995). By the end of the 1970s, Andrews and Goodson (1980) had identified over 40 instructional design models. This includes the 1978 Dick and Carey model, the 1974 Gagn and Briggs model, the 1971 Gerlach and Ely model, and the 1971 Kemp model (Reiser, 2001). ISD Models ISD models provide a procedural framework for the creation of instructional materials using a systematic approach. Andrews and Goodson (1980) describe three ways how ISD model benefit the instructional designer due to using a systematic approach. First, learning and instruction are improved by including feedback characteristics. Secondly, management of instructional design is improved by the means of the monitoring and control functions. Finally, evaluation processes are improved by including feedback and revisions into the process (Andrews & Goodson, 1980).

THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN One particular model, the ADDIE model, or process, provides the basis for most every ISD model used today. It has no known author and the underlining concepts of ADDIE can be traced to the mid-1970s (Molenda, 2003). ADDIE is an acronym for the five steps of a generic

instructional design process. It stands for: Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation, and Evaluation. These five steps have become synonymous with or simply referred to as the instructional systems development (ISD) model (Morlenda, 2003). ADDIE is a cyclical process that continues throughout the instructional planning and implementation process. The analysis phase is where the needs assessment occurs, technology requirements, examination of the standards, etc. The primary focus of the design phase is conducting research and planning, which includes objectives and instructional strategies. During the development phase, the design transitions from the research into drafting, production, and evaluation materials. During the implementation phase, the materials continue to be analyzed, redesigned, and enhanced. The evaluation phase is a critical element of the ADDIE process as the program is evaluated for instructional improvement (Peterson, 2003). Since ADDIE is generic in nature, it provides flexibility to be used in multiple circumstances. First, Peterson (2003) used ADDIE in the familiarity as a framework for the development of a course. Secondly, it was used as a process for the creation of multimedia projects. It was concluded that the ADDIE model is a useful, simple framework for instructional design. The process can be applicable in a variety of settings, because of its systematic and generic structure (Peterson, 2003, p. 240). Another model of significance that was developed in the 1970s was the Dick and Carey Model. Walter Dick and Lou Carey originally published their behaviorally oriented system model in 1978 (Anagnostopoulo, 2002). The model contains nine steps that the designer uses to

THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN establish learning objectives and then creates the instructional strategy to accomplish the

objectives. Since the objectives are determined up-front, the learner is required to follow the set of objectives established by the designer, so this allows little room for individualized instruction (Passerini & Granger, 2000). Since each step interacts with other steps, and each step has its own input and output, it is referred to as a systems approach. When all of the steps are working together, they produce predetermined products. The system has an evaluation step where the collected information is evaluated and modified until it reaches the desired level of quality (Anagnostopoulo, 2002). Concurrently, Kemp created his well-known instructional design model in which he designed it to be a continuous cycle with ongoing revisions. In 1994, Kemps original model was modified by Kemp, Morrison and Ross to include project management and support services as components of the process (Gustafson & Branch, 2002). Prestera (2004) describes the model that Morrison, Ross, and Kemp developed a classroom-oriented model that describes a holistic approach to instructional design that considers all factors in the environment. The model takes a systems approach toward a continuous development cycle with an emphasis on the management of the instructional design process. The model consists of nine elements which are independent of each other and do not need to be followed in any particular order. To use the Kemp, Morrison and Ross model, the instructional designer begins by asking six specific questions related to the required level of learner readiness. These six questions include information about instructional strategies and media that are the most appropriate for the content and the target population level of learner support required, measurement of achievement, and strategies for formative and summative evaluation. After that, the designer addresses the nine elements of the model (Prestera, 2004).

THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN The Development of Learning Theories As the instructional design was being developed with an increased number of models, learning theory was an unseen partner in the development of these models as "learning theories are the source of principles from which many of the prescriptions for design arise" (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 18). In addition, learning theories "allow designers to explain why they make the decisions they do" (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 18). As the field expanded in the 1970s, educational technology became more about media delivery instead of about learning and instructional theory foundations. However, the field began to mature in the 1980s as there was recognition for the need for both improved delivery

mechanisms and incorporating learning theories. This was mainly driven by cognitive scientists who understood both theories on self-knowledge of learning and computer-based technologies. Since the high-tech field could not solve learning problems, educational technology began to move forward as a single field incorporating both learning theories and technology (Ross, Sullivan, & Tennyson, 1992). One application that was developed as a result of research by cognitive scientists is cognitive strategies. Smith and Ragan (2005) state that students use cognitive strategies to manage their own learning. Sometimes these are referred to as learning strategies (Weinstein & Mayer, 1986) or learning how to learn (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 81). Within cognitive strategies, there are five categorizations: rehearsal, elaboration, organizational, comprehension, and affective. Rehearsal strategies are used for learning tasks that aid in the selection of information to be recalled and enhance retention of that information (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 81). Elaboration strategies are used for learning tasks that tie new information to prior knowledge (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 81). Organizational strategies are used for learning tasks

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that select information to be retained and define the relationships among this information so that it may be integrated into memory (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 81). Comprehension monitoring strategies are students knowledge about their own cognitive processes and their ability to control these processes by organizing, monitoring, and modifying them as a function of learning outcomes (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 82). Affective strategies are used by learners to focus attention, maintain concentration, manage performance anxiety, establish and maintain motivation, and manage time effectively (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 82). Another learning theory that has highly influenced the instructional design field is constructivism, which is attributed to Jean Piaget. It is based on the assumption that knowledge is not transmitted: it is constructed (Smith & Ragan, 2005, p. 19). Individual constructivism assumes that learning is a result of personal interpretation of knowledge, and that learners must recreate knowledge whereas in social constructivism, learning is collaborative, and learners work toward an agreement or an understanding. Many instructional designers see collaboration as a powerful instructional strategy and include contextualism as part of their philosophy. Contextualism uses realistic experiences and authentic assessments for authentic learning, which results in higher order knowledge and skills in a real world context (Smith & Ragan, 2005). A Look to the Future of Education While there are other facets to educational technology, instructional design is a core component of it, and looking at its history provides insight into how educational technology was shaped into what it is today. Seeing history allows us to get a glimpse of the magnitude of changes that will take place and how both educational technology and instructional design can meet these changes. Since the future is unwritten, we have the opportunity to shape it.

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According to Sawyer (2008), we are entering the age of innovation, and this age requires a very different type of person from the industrial age that dominated the globe for over a century. He also states that these are people who maximize their creative potential, people who not only master existing skills and knowledge, but who are capable of creating new skills and knowledge (Sawyer, 2008, p. 1). However, Sawyer (2008) explains that learning in many schools does not currently result in learning that supports creative behaviour, and thus is not appropriate for the innovation age (Sawyer, 2008, p. 1). As we enter the age of innovation in the coming decades, new challenges must be resolved as an evolution of societies, organizations, and educational institutes takes place. The manner in which these challenges are resolved will be a major factor in which future scenario of learning will emerge. Sawyer (2008) lists five factors impacting the future of learning. These are: technology, customization, diffusion of education, organizational learning, and educational professionals. Based on the responses to the five factors, Sawyer (2008) speculates what the future scenarios look like for the schools of the future. One of the scenarios called schools as core social centers, schools are trusted by the public, are viewed as successful, and play a central function in society as they become centers for community. They no longer only serve the purpose of educating individuals, but they also serve a collective function of community building. These schools are less bureaucratic and become more diverse. Schools as a core social center also play key roles in adult and continuing education, and there is a greater mixing of ages and increased youth-adult activities (Sawyer, 2008). One way that instructional design can help to meet the needs of this scenario is developing instruction through the use of information infrastructures, such as the World Wide

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Web as this allows for social activity and learning to occur outside of the institution to enhance the community social center. Smith & Ragan (2005) state that the potential of the World Wide Web to provide "educational resources and experiences on a worldwide basis seems unprecedented" (p. 364). This activity is enhanced through free and open source software. This software is just not free to download and use it, but gives the user the freedom to do with it what they want. Tools like Moodle, Sakai, Wordpress, Drupal, Ning, del.icio.us, pbworks, dimdim, Slideshare and many others have opened up the world of collaborative learning without expensive subscriptions or restrictive licenses (Bonk, 2009). In conclusion, this paper looked at the foundations of instructional design, starting with its roots and then exploring early instructional design models and their influence on instructional design. This paper also examined the development of learning theories in instructional design and how they continue to influence educational technology. Finally, a look was taken at what the educational future might look like with the purpose for readers to reflect on how they can help to shape it. References Anagnostopoulo, K. (2002). Designing to learn and learning to design: An overview of instructional design models. Centre for Learning Development. Middlesex University. Retrieved from http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/York/documents/resources/database/id198_Designin g_to_Learn_and_Learning_to_Design_an_overview.rtf Andrews, D. H., & Goodson, L. A. (1980). A comparative analysis of models of instructional design. Journal of instructional development, 3(4), 216. Retrieved from

THE HISTORY OF INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN http://www.gse.pku.edu.cn/jxsj/materials2/A%20Comparative%20Analysis%20of %20Models%20of%20Instruction%20Design.pdf Bonk, C. J. (2009). The world is open: How web technology is revolutionizing education (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Gustafson, K. L., & Branch, R. M. (2002). Survey of instructional development models. Syracuse: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information & Technology. Retrieved from http://www.eric.ed.gov/PDFS/ED477517.pdf

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Molenda, M. (2003). The ADDIE model. Retrieved from http://www.indiana.edu/~molpage/The %20ADDIE%20Model_Encyclo.pdf Passerini, K., & Granger, M. J. (2000). A developmental model for distance learning using the Internet. Computers & Education, 34(1), 115. Retrieved from http://www.tlu.ee/~kpata/haridustehnoloogiaTLU/elearningdesignmodels.pdf Peterson, C. (2003). Bringing ADDIE to life: Instructional design at its best. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 12(3), 227242. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org.libproxy.boisestate.edu/f/2074 Prestera, G. (2004). The Use of traditional instructional systems design models for eLearning. Retrieved from http://www.herridgegroup.com/pdfs/The%20use%20of%20Traditional %20ISD%20for%20eLearning.pdf Reiser, R. A. (2001). A history of instructional design and technology: Part II: A history of instructional media. Educational technology research and development, 49(1), 5364. Retrieved from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download? doi=10.1.1.153.302&rep=rep1&type=pdf

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Ross, S. M., Sullivan, H., & Tennyson, R. D. (1992). Educational technology: Four decades of research and theory. Educational Technology Research and Development, 40(2), 57. Retrieved from http://www.springerlink.com.libproxy.boisestate.edu/content/428n04474k5287p8/fulltext .pdf Sawyer, K. (2008). The future of learning in the age of innovation. Retrieved from http://www.beyondcurrenthorizons.org.uk/wpcontent/uploads/ch3_final_sawyer_learningageinnovation_20081218.pdf Shrock, S. A. (1995). A brief history of instructional development. Instructional technology: Past, present, and future, 2. Retrieved from http://bsuipt595.pbworks.com/f/schrock.pdf Smith, P.L., & Ragan, T.J. (2005). Instructional design (3rd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.