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Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018 www.elsevier.com/locate/gca

Controls on the isotopic composition of surface water and precipitation in the Northern Andes, Colombian Eastern Cordillera
Joel E. Saylor a,*, Andres Mora b, Brian K. Horton c, Junsheng Nie a
Department of Geological Sciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA b Ecopetrol, Instituto Colombiano del Petroleo, Bucaramanga, Colombia c Department of Geological Sciences and Institute for Geophysics, Jackson School of Geosciences, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA Received 30 March 2009; accepted in revised form 27 August 2009; available online 31 August 2009
a

Abstract Empirical datasets provide the constraints on the variability and causes of variability in stable isotope compositions (dD or d18O) of surface water and precipitation that are essential not only for models of modern and past climate but also for investigations of paleoelevation. This study presents stable isotope data for 76 samples from four elevation transects and three IAEA GNIP stations in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia and the northern Andean foreland. These data are largely consistent with theories of stable isotope variability developed based on a global dataset. On a monthly basis, the precipitation amount eect exerts the dominant control on dDp and d18Op values at the IAEA GNIP stations. At the Bogota station (2547 m), the dDp and d18Op values vary seasonally, with isotopic minima correlating with maxima in precipitation-amount. Although surface water samples from Eastern Cordilleran streams and rivers fall on the Global Meteoric Water Line, samples from three of four lakes (28423459 m) have evaporatively elevated dDsw and d18Osw values. The IAEA GNIP station data averaged over multiple years, combined with stream and river water data, dene vertical lapse rates of 1.8& km1 for Dd18O and 14.6& km1 for DdD, and are a close t to a common thermodynamically based Rayleigh distillation model. Elevation uncertainties for these relationships are also evaluated. Comparison of this Colombian dataset with the elevation uncertainties generated by the thermodynamically based model shows that the model underestimates uncertainty at high Dd18O and DdD values while overestimating it for low Dd18O and DdD values. This study presents an independent, empirical assessment of stable isotope-based elevation uncertainties for the northern Andes based on a dataset of sucient size to ensure statistical integrity. These vertical lapse rates and associated uncertainties form the basis for stable isotope paleoelevation studies in the northern Andes. 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. INTRODUCTION The stable isotope ratio in precipitation is an integrated function of air mass source, evaporation conditions, transport history and precipitation conditions (Craig, 1961; Dansgaard, 1964; Rozanski et al., 1993). The stable isotope composition (dD or d18O, in units & and referenced to

Corresponding author. Tel.: +1 512 232 5869. E-mail address: jsaylor@mail.utexas.edu (J.E. Saylor).

Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW)) of biogenic, authigenic or metamorphic minerals have been used extensively in paleoelevation studies (e.g., Garzione et al., 2000a; Rowley et al., 2001; Currie et al., 2005; Cyr et al., 2005; Garzione et al., 2006; Rowley and Currie, 2006; DeCelles et al., 2007; Mulch et al., 2007; Rowley and Garzione, 2007; Rowley, 2007). Stable isotopes are also widely recognized as paleoclimate proxies (e.g., Wang et al., 1993; Dorale et al., 1998; Wang et al., 1999; Thompson et al., 2000; Dettman et al., 2001; Wang et al., 2001; Wang and Deng, 2005; Wang et al., 2008). All of these approaches

0016-7037/$ - see front matter 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.gca.2009.08.030

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J.E. Saylor et al. / Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018

rely on a rm theoretical and empirical foundation of stable isotope systematics. Globally, the stable isotopic composition of water is well described and understood through study of data from the International Atomic Energy Agencys Global Isotopes in Precipitation (IAEA GNIP) network (e.g.,Rozanski et al., 1993) and campaign style surface water sampling (e.g., Poage and Chamberlain, 2001 and references therein). Studies describing the regional or local stable isotope variability are available for much of South America (e.g., Moser et al., 1972; Vogel et al., 1975; Magaritz et al., 1989; Grootes, 1993; Stowhas and Moyano, 1993; Rozanski and Araguas-Araguas, 1995; Martinelli et al., 1996; Gonantini et al., 2001; Vimeux et al., 2005; Vuille and Werner, 2005; Lachniet and Patterson, 2006). However, coverage of the IAEA GNIP network is not uniform and data from surface water are limited to campaign locations. Some areas, such as the Andean and foreland regions of northern South America, have relatively few IAEA GNIP stations and few campaign-style studies (e.g., Garcia et al., 1998; Gonantini et al., 2001; Rodriguez, 2004). Glaciers also provide a valuable source of long-term climate data. However, the northernmost South American glacier for which data are available (Huascaran) is situated at approximately 9S latitude, $1500 km south of Bogota (Thompson et al., 2003). The decrease in DdD or Dd18O in precipitation (d18Op) and surface or ground water (d18Osw) with increasing elevation forms the cornerstone of stable isotope paleoaltimetry (Chamberlain and Poage, 2000; Garzione et al., 2000a,b; Rowley et al., 2001; Blisniuk and Stern, 2005; Rowley and Garzione, 2007; Rowley, 2007). An empirically derived relationship between DdD or Dd18O (dened as the d value at elevation d value at a low-elevation reference station (Ambach et al., 1968)) and elevation for particular regions provides a baseline from which to constrain the vertical lapse rate, and hence paleoelevation, through time. The ideal case, where the average of the modern dataset coincides with thermodynamic models calibrated to local climatic conditions, gives condence that those models can be applied through time. However, detailed local investigation is needed to establish local isotopic lapse rates. We emphasize that the empirically derived lapse rate and uncertainty is only the starting point for paleoelevation studies and that care must be taken when extrapolating modern lapse rates into the distant past (Ehlers and Poulsen, 2009). This is particularly true when the calculated lapse rate and uncertainty is based on a temporally limited dataset, as all paleoelevation reconstructions to date have been. The Eastern Cordillera of Colombia is an eective barrier to westward transport of moisture and its uplift is linked to orographically driven climate change which has had an eect on the tectonic, biologic and uvial systems in the northern Andes (Hoorn et al., 1995; Hooghiemstra and van der Hammen, 1998; Jaramillo et al., 2006; Mora et al., 2008). However, causal relationships remain tenuous because the timing of uplift of the Eastern Cordillera remains uncertain. The proposed age of uplift ranges from Paleocene to Pleistocene based on paleobotanical and structural or sedimentological studies (e.g., Wijninga, 1996b,a; Gregory-Wodzicki, 2000; Corredor, 2003; Martinez, 2006;

Bayona et al., 2008). Additional, independent constraints such as stable isotope paleoaltimetry could provide insight into uplift history of the Eastern Cordillera. This study integrates data from northern South American IAEA GNIP stations with analyses of surface water samples from four vertical transects across the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia (Fig. 1A). This combination of datasets addresses the temporal and spatial variability, and the causes of such variability, within the modern stable isotope system in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia. The data show that for monthly dD and d18O values of precipitation, the amount eect (following Dansgaard, 1964; Rozanski et al., 1993) plays a larger role than the altitude eect but that the altitude eect is the primary control of multi-year averaged precipitation or surface water values. The empirical vertical lapse rate is consistent with thermodynamic models but empirical uncertainty estimates dier signicantly from thermodynamically based uncertainty estimates. These analyses provide a strongly positive outlook for stable isotope paleoelevation studies in the northern Andes calibrated by both empirical data and thermodynamic models. 1.1. Regional setting 1.1.1. Physiography The physiography of Colombia is dominated by three mountain ranges, the Western, Central and Eastern Cordilleras (Fig. 1B). These three ranges bifurcate northward, with the Western and Central Cordilleras separated by the Cauca Valley and the Central and Eastern Cordilleras separated by the Magdalena Valley. The Western Cordillera is the lowest mountain range, with elevations generally below 2.4 km. Average elevations increase in the Central Cordillera to 3 km. Average elevations in the Eastern Cordillera are $2.6 km. The Llanos region east of the Eastern Cordillera is marked by uniformly low elevations to the Atlantic coast with the exception of the Guiana Highlands in southeastern Venezuela and bordering regions. 1.1.2. Wind vectors and moisture source Meteorological complexity increases downward and westward. Wind velocities averaged over 50 years (1948 2008) (Kalnay et al., 1996) show that northern South America is dominated by the tropical trade winds at 600 mb air pressure ($4 km elevation) throughout the year (Fig. 2A). At elevations below $4 km (600 mb) the inuence of topography begins to be evident. At 850 mb ($ 1.5 km) the Eastern Cordillera is still dominated by the trade winds but the Magdalena Valley and Central and Western Cordilleras are increasingly inuenced by the southern hemisphere westerlies which have been deected to a north or northeasterly orientation by the mass of the Andes (Jimenez and Oliver, 2005) (Fig. 2A). At 1000 mb ($sea level), the inuence of the tropical trade winds on the Eastern Cordillera is significantly reduced by deection around the Guiana Highlands (Fig. 2C). Although wind velocities at 1000 mb in the Llanos area are still west-directed, the speed is signicantly decreased in comparison to a similar location at 600 mb (compare Fig. 2A and C).

Isotopic composition of water, Colombia

7001

Fig. 1. (A) Sample locations and elevation of the Eastern Cordillera. (B) Regional location map. Black crosses show the locations of the IAEA GNIP stations used in this study (the Uaupes and Sao Gabriel stations are collocated). The location of (A) is outlined by the black box. Abbreviations: E.C., Eastern Cordillera; C.C., Central Cordillera; W.C., Western Cordillera.

The same pattern emerges on consideration of seasonal wind velocities averaged over 50 years (19482008,

Fig. 3AL). At 600 mb, northern South America is dominated through all seasons by the tropical trade winds

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J.E. Saylor et al. / Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018

are highly variable (Fig. 3B, E, H and K) and wind speeds are below 3 m/s. For the Llanos region, the very low wind speed at 1000 mb precludes making denitive statements about wind velocities (Fig. 3C, F, I and L). However, low level winds on the western ank of the Western Cordillera, such as the CHOCO jet (Poveda and Mesa, 2000), show similar variability to those at 850 mb but have higher speeds because they are more eectively sheltered from the inuence of the trade winds by the mass of the Colombian Andes (Fig. 3C, F, I and L). The Eastern Cordillera is an eective barrier to the trade winds. As water vapor is transported westward it is orographically lifted, resulting in focused precipitation on the eastern ank of the Eastern Cordillera (Mora et al., 2008). The relatively simple meteorological setting of the Eastern Cordillera means that the source for water vapor on the eastern ank throughout the year is the Atlantic Ocean and that the pathway throughout the year is consistently westward over the Orinoco drainage. This makes interpretation of the stable isotope data more straightforward because it rules out the likelihood of multiple sources, dierent source region temperatures, mixing of sources or multiple pathways (Jouzel et al., 1997; Tian et al., 2001; Blisniuk and Stern, 2005). 1.1.3. Precipitation The annual distribution of precipitation in the Andean sector of Colombia is primarily controlled by the location of the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)(Snow, 1976; Poveda and Mesa, 1997, 2000). The ITCZ makes a yearly circuit from $0 (or S15 over the Llanos, Rozanski and Araguas-Araguas, 1995) in January to between N6 and N9 in July (Snow, 1976; Yan, 2005). The passage of the ITCZ is associated with increased precipitation resulting in two rainy and two dry seasons annually (Jimenez and Oliver, 2005). The rainy seasons are clearly identied by monthly precipitation-amount data and are centered on April and October (Snow, 1976; Garcia et al., 1998; Poveda, 2004). 2. METHODS Surface water samples from Colombia were collected in August 2008 and January 2009 (Table 1). Samples were collected during the height of the annual dry seasons, meaning that the samples represent temporally averaged ground water rather than individual precipitation events or runo. Samples were collected from four vertical transects (Fig. 1A). Transects one, two and three were on the eastern ank of the Eastern Cordillera. The fourth transect was from the crest of the Eastern Cordillera to the Magdalena Valley to the west. The rst transect extends from Bogota (N4.65, W74.10) to Villavicencio (N4.15, W73.64). Transect two is from Ubala (N4.75, W73.55) to Villanueva (N4.61, W72.92). The third transect follows the main road from Sogamoso (N5.72, W72.93) to Yopal (N5.35, W72.40). The nal transect is along the road from Sogamoso to Barrancabermeja (N7.07, W73.86) via Bucaramanga. There is overlap in the stable isotopic values from all transects. However, a slightly steeper lapse rate was found

Fig. 2. Year-round average wind vectors and speeds from 1948 to 2008. Each panel shows the wind vectors and speeds for the indicated pressure level averaged over the time interval indicated. Wind vectors are depicted over topography, showing in black the area above the indicated pressure level. Arrow length is proportional to wind speed. Scalar wind speed (in ms1) is also contoured. For 1000 mb the black-shaded area is that above 500 m. Data from Kalnay et al., 1996.

(Fig. 3A, D, G and J). At 850 mb, winds impinging on the Eastern Cordillera are westward directed at speeds of $5 m/s through all seasons except for JanuaryMarch (compare Fig. 3BE, H and K). In contrast, wind vectors on the western ank of the Western Cordillera at 850 mb

Isotopic composition of water, Colombia

7003

Fig. 3. Wind vectors and speeds from 1948 to 2008 for: (AC) JanuaryMarch averages, (DF) AprilJune averages, (GI) JulySeptember averages and (JL) OctoberDecember averages. Each panel shows the wind vectors and speeds for the indicated pressure level averaged over the time interval indicated. Arrow length is proportional to wind speed. Scalar wind speed (in ms1) is also contoured. Wind vectors are depicted over topography, showing in black the area above the indicated pressure level. For 1000 mb the black-shaded area is that above 500 m. Data from Kalnay et al., 1996.

in the Magdalena Valley at elevations below 1500 m. Therefore, those samples are treated separately. The majority of the water samples were taken from small streams and groundwater seeps from catchments with restricted elevation ranges (Table 1). Samples were secondarily taken from several large rivers in order to evaluate the eect of integration over large areas. A third suite of samples were taken from several large lakes in order to evaluate the eect of evaporation in the Eastern Cordillera. Samples were taken and sealed in 300 ml plastic bottles or 15 ml polypropylene centrifuge tubes. Those taken in plastic bottles were transferred to centrifuge tubes prior to storage and transport. Samples were transported and stored at room temperature prior to analysis. Waters were analyzed for dDsw values using a dual inlet mass spectrometer (Delta-S, Thermo Finnegan, Bremen, Germany) equipped with an automated chromium reduction device (H-Device, Thermo Finnegan) for the generation of hydrogen gas using metallic chromium at 750 C. Water d18Osw values were measured on the same mass spectrometer using an automated CO2H2O equilibration unit. Standardization is based on internal standards referenced to VSMOW and VSLAP. Precision is better than 0.08& for d18O and 1& for dD. All water analyses were conducted at the Department of Geosciences at the University of Arizona. Sampling elevations were determined using a handheld GPS unit with a nominal accuracy of 10 m. These elevations were conrmed by plotting sampling locations on 90 m resolution digital elevation model (DEM). Where discrepancies existed, preference was given to the DEM eleva-

tions. Catchments for each sample were extracted from the DEM using the ArcGIS ArcHydro toolbox. This allowed calculation of the hypsometric mean and maximum elevation for each catchment and sample. The hypsometric mean elevation is a close approximation of the precipitationamount weighted hypsometric mean elevation for small catchments such as those sampled in this study. The data were regressed using a bootstrap method with replacement. The average lapse rate and 2r uncertainties were determined by averaging the lapse rate from 100 individual bootstraps. Each bootstrap included 1024 iterations. This study also examines the IAEA GNIP data from the Bogota, Uaupes and Sao Gabriel stations (IAEA/WMO, 2008). These represent the IAEA GNIP stations in Colombia and the immediate foreland for which long-term (>4 years) records are available. Monthly precipitation and iso topic data for the Bogota station are available from January 1971 to December 2005, with the exceptions of January 1991December 1997. The same data are available for the Uaupes station for 19721979, with gaps of several months in places. Precipitation and isotope data are available for the Sao Gabriel station from 19611983 with gaps of several years in places. 3. RESULTS Surface water d18Osw values range from 5.2 to 11.5& and dDsw values from 32& to 80& (VSMOW, Fig. 4, Table 1).

Table 1 Surface water and IAEA GNIP data used in this study. Sample name dTransect Lat. (N) Long. (W) Sample Hypsometric Maximum d18O (&, dD (&, VSMOW) VSMOW) excess elevation mean catchment catchment (m) elevation (m) elevation (m) 4 4 7.21423 7.11129 73.31213 73.21330 568 1030 607 1125 657 1377 7.3 7.4 47.6 49.7 10.7 9.3 Location Notes

7004

020808-1 050808-1

Magdalena Valley Magdalena Valley

050808-2

7.14144

73.26907

1136

1191

1236

7.3

46.9

11.5

Magdalena Valley

050808-3

7.13991

73.31956

682

694

727

7.0

44.6

11.1

Magdalena Valley

050808-4 080808-1 090808-1 090808-8 090808-12 100808-1 110808-7 110808-10 120808-1 120808-3

4 3 3 2 2 2 3 3 3 3

7.10215 6.02113 5.75381 5.24950 5.08960 5.23108 5.85795 5.87539 5.97699 5.97645

73.40635 72.76504 73.17062 73.59219 73.72066 73.59307 72.80900 72.83201 72.78696 72.76980

350 2428 2549 2794 2713 2757 2513 2389 2833 2455

490 3151 2565 2866 2842 3006 3227 2748 2983 2455

534 4247 2581 2980 3401 3463 3983 3118 3138 2455

7.2 9.7 9.3 10.0 8.7 10.4 10.8 9.3 9.2 8.6

48.9 68.7 67.4 72.9 65.3 72.5 77.6 68.4 64.0 60.6

9.0 9.3 6.9 6.9 4.0 10.9 8.5 5.6 9.3 8.1

Magdalena Valley Floresta Floresta-Bogota Rd. Floresta-Bogota Rd. Floresta-Bogota Rd. Floresta-Bogota Rd. Floresta Floresta Floresta Floresta

120808-5

5.96306

72.75896

2501

2647

2876

9.4

69.0

6.4

Floresta

120808-7 130808-5 130808-13

3 3 3

5.86833 5.96454 5.96630

72.79797 72.80915 72.80817

3060 2985 3023

3661 3101 3155

4059 3378 3279

10.9 9.3 10.2

75.9 64.8 67.9

11.4 9.2 13.4

Floresta Floresta Floresta

130808-14

5.99265

72.90006

2653

3448

4247

10.3

70.7

11.4

Floresta

From small roadside trickle draining the hill to the east From a small ($1 m wide, 20 cm deep) stream draining the S or SW From a trickle draining the S or SW. v. small: <5 cm deep. Likely v. local groundwater From a small roadside trickle (a stream that owed into an articial culvert) From rock seep. Source cant be higher that local La Paz ridge From stream ($5 m wide) draining the west From a small trickle draining the N From a small creek (<1 m wide, <10 cm deep) draining the NW FROM LAKE SISGA From large stream ($4 m wide, 0.5 m deep) draining the N From small creek (<2m wide) draining the E From small creek (<1 m wide, <10 cm deep) draining the W From small stream ($20 cm wide) draining the NW From small stream (<0.5 m wide) draining the W. Rained $0.5 h before collection From creek $1 m wide draining the E, Rained before collection From aqueduct draining the E From small creak ($1 m wide, <20 cm deep) draining the W From small groundwater seep draining the W. Rained prior to collection of 130808-13 From stream (<1 m wide) draining the W. Rained prior to collection

J.E. Saylor et al. / Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018

140808-3 140808-5

3 3

5.97863 5.96118

72.70106 72.68216

2397 2914

3519 3492

4080 3941

11.2 11.0

79.2 78.9

10.1 9.0

Floresta Floresta

140808-7 150808-2 150808-4 150808-6 150808-8 MAG081508-1 MAG081508-2 MAG081508-3 MAG081508-4 MAG081508-5 MAG081508-6 080109-1 080109-10 080109-13 080109-14

3 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1

5.90770 5.72807 5.82352 5.91297 6.21103 7.17069 7.16375 7.15236 7.11247 7.08751 7.10877 4.58826 4.57327 4.56438 4.54907

72.68168 73.38809 73.50822 73.59151 73.31542 73.28053 73.28765 73.30812 73.33459 73.38641 73.41393 74.06277 73.98830 73.96250 73.93274

3435 2895 2400 1671 1385 1139 1005 748 583 363 208 2839 3243 3737 2451

3740 3108 2955 2549 1916 1158 1120.5 832 594 441 521 3048 3260 3190 2505

4078 3716 3813 3812 3419 1173 1236 962 605 488 1064 3319 3270 3455 2573

11.5 10.0 10.2 9.3 9.3 7.6 7.7 7.2 7.2 7.0 7.4 10.3 10.8 10.3 9.5

80.5 68.2 68.4 63.6 63.5 47.8 46.8 44.9 45.8 45.7 47.9 66.6 73.2 68.7 64.0

11.6 11.9 13.2 10.9 11.3 13.2 14.9 12.6 11.4 10.0 11.7 15.5 13.3 13.5 11.6

Floresta Floresta-Bucaramanga Rd. Floresta-Bucaramanga Rd. Floresta-Bucaramanga Rd. Floresta-Bucaramanga Rd. Magdalena Magdalena Magdalena Magdalena Magdalena Magdalena Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley Valley

Bogota-Villavicencio Rd. Bogota-Villavicencio Rd. Bogota-Villavicencio Rd. Bogota-Villavicencio Rd.

080109-17 080109-18 080109-21

1 1 1

4.53097 4.52679 4.48857

73.93089 73.93092 73.92710

2190 2130 1760

2766 2436 1835

3521 2677 1925

9.6 9.8 8.4

65.9 65.9 59.0

11.2 12.8 8.1

Bogota-Villavicencio Rd. Bogota-Villavicencio Rd. Bogota-Villavicencio Rd.

080109-4 080109-7 090109-1 090109-12

1 1 1 2

4.58335 4.57327 4.19560 4.51312

74.04312 74.01799 73.59495 73.34875

3142 3298 395 569

3359 3444 513 600

3617 3599 753 618

11.1 10.5 5.2 7.3

70.7 67.7 32.1 45.7

17.8 16.2 9.8 12.5

Bogota-Villavicencio Rd. Bogota-Villavicencio Rd. Villavicencio-Villanueva Rd. Rd. to Medina

From river draining the E From creek <1 m wide, <20 ce:hsp sp="0.25"/>cm deep draining the E From river draining the E, same river as 140808-3 From river draining the N From waterfall draining the W From creek $2 m wide draining the E From large river ($20 m wide) draining the E No notes No notes No notes No notes No notes From about 510 m above Sogamoso River From creek $1 m wide, < 20 cm deep, draining the NE From trickle draining the N <0.5 m wide, 10 cm deep From creek draining the W, $2 m wide, 0.5 m deep From trickle draining the SW, $0.5 m wide, $10 cm deep From creek draining the S, $1 m wide From stream draining the S, $ 1 m wide, <10 cm deep From trickle draining the SW, passes through an orchard and is in a built-up area so it may be contaminated From creek $2 m wide, 25 cm deep, draining the E From creek $ 3 m wide, 0.25 m deep draining the S From small man-made culvert From small stream, $0.5 m wide, <10 cm deep, draining the NW From creek draining the SW, $2 m wide, 0.5 m deep (continued on next page)

Isotopic composition of water, Colombia

100109-1

4.74690

72.99667

321

473

760

7.3

43.6

15.0

Villanueva-El Secreto Rd.

7005

7006

Table 1 (continued) Sample name dTransect Lat. (N) Long. (W) Sample Hypsometric Maximum d18O (&, dD (&, VSMOW) VSMOW) excess elevation mean catchment catchment (m) elevation (m) elevation (m) 2 2 2 2 4.82816 4.84699 4.87479 4.86340 73.11151 73.22750 73.24667 73.25820 393 540 761 930 422 691 1043 995 452 860 1730 1043 5.6 7.3 7.6 7.3 32.9 44.6 46.2 42.5 11.9 13.8 14.6 15.8 Location Notes

100109-11 100109-18 100109-19 100109-20

El Secreto-San Luis Rd. San Luis Chivor Rd. San Luis Chivor Rd. San Luis Chivor Rd.

100109-21 100109-23

2 2

4.90188 4.90188

73.29772 73.29772

1570 1658

2439 1954

3585 2242

8.7 7.8

55.5 47.6

14.1 14.8

San Luis Chivor Rd. San Luis Chivor Rd.

100109-4 100109-9 110109-1 110109-10 110109-11 110109-13 110109-14 110109-15

2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3

4.75518 4.82748 5.22697 5.44915 5.47390 5.50657 5.58648 5.59868

73.02244 73.09269 72.50268 72.71001 72.71390 72.75546 72.81543 72.85104

550 347 305 2372 2588 2858 3045 3414

550 583 579 2396 2852 3201 3505 3473

550 796 1008 2419 3087 3423 3926 3547

7.0 5.5 6.7 7.8 9.1 9.9 10.9 11.1

43.3 33.4 41.5 47.1 59.1 67.4 74.7 77.0

12.6 10.7 12.3 15.0 13.8 11.6 12.5 11.7

Villanueva-El Secreto Rd. El Secrecto-San Luis Rd. Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Yopal-Sogomoso Rd.

From trickle $10 cm wide, <5 cm deep From trickle draining the S, 0.5 m wide, <5 cm deep From creek draining the SW, $4 m wide, 0.25 m deep From trickle emerging From rock face, downhill it forms a stream <1 m wide, <0.25 m deep From Chivor Dam From roadside waterfall, about 300 m eastward along the road From 100109-21 From trickle draining the N From river draining W, $4 m wide, 0.5 m deep From small creek draining the W, 3 m wide, <0.1 m deep From trickle draining the NW From creek draining the SW, $1 m wide, <0.1 m deep From creek <0.5 m wide, $10 cm deep, draining the SW From river draining the W, $10 m wide, 0.5 m deep From small groundwater seep draining the S, $1 m wide, 10 cm deep From Lake Tota From Lake Sochagota From small creak draining the W, 1 m wide, <0.1 m deep From stream draining the NE, $2 m wide, 0.25 m deep From trickle draining the W, 0.5 m wide, 0.1 m deep

J.E. Saylor et al. / Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018

110109-18 110109-19 110109-2 110109-4 110109-5

3 4 3 3 3

5.59271 5.76644 5.23611 5.25042 5.34337

72.90749 73.11231 72.64753 72.69396 72.69173

3030 3489 704 910 1089

3459 2890 920 1087 1475

3889 3821 1165 1419 1697

3.0 5.5 7.1 7.0 7.5

33.2 48.4 44.5 43.7 46.8

8.9 4.2 12.3 12.6 13.0

Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Sogomoso Tunja Rd Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Yopal-Sogomoso Rd.

110109-6 110109-8 120109-1

3 3 4

5.42042 5.43885 5.72872

72.72337 72.72563 73.39266

1617 1910 2856

2437 2020 3025

3724 2261 3144

8.7 7.2 9.6

53.1 42.7 63.1

16.4 15.1 14.1

Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Yopal-Sogomoso Rd. Tunja-Bucaramanga Rd

120109-2 120109-3

4 4

5.72872 5.82360

73.39266 73.50822

2856 2378

3110 2587

3716 2681

9.8 9.6

65.8 56.1

12.4 20.7

Tunja-Bucaramanga Rd Tunja-Bucaramanga Rd

120109-5

5.84695

73.53874

2057

2088

2117

8.1

54.2

10.5

Tunja-Bucaramanga Rd

120109-7 120109-8 120109-9

4 4 4

6.01558 6.06659 6.49986

73.53878 73.42184 73.23994

1446 1437 1037

1814 1847 1260

2139 2775 1454

8.9 8.6 9.0

61.3 57.2 64.0

9.9 11.6 8.4

Tunja-Bucaramanga Rd Tunja-Bucaramanga Rd Tunja-Bucaramanga Rd

180109-1 GUAVIO1 GUAVIO2

4 2 2

5.97681 4.72592 4.73881

72.60178 73.47844 73.49903

3354 1458 1820

2570 2646 2010

3804 3834 2165

10.7 8.3 8.6

73.0 53.7 57.0

12.7 12.6 11.9

Near Socha From below Guavio Dam Between Guavio Dam and Ubala Near Ubala IAEA GNIP station

GUAVIO3 Bogota (IAEA GNIP amount weighted average 19712005) Uaupes (IAEA GNIP amount weighted average 19721979) Sao Gabriel (IAEA GNIP amount weighted average 19611983)

2 N/A

4.74647 4.70000

73.54964 74.13000

2127 2547

2224 2547

2365 2547

9.2 9.5

60.2 66.0

13.2 10.0

From stream draining the W, $4 m wide, 0.5 m deep From stream draining the W, 0.5 m wide, <0.1 m deep From roadside trickle draining the S, 10 cm wide, <5 cm deep. Drains into the river From which we got 120109-2 From river draining the E, 3 m wide, 0.5 m deep From roadside waterfall, location was sampled in Aug 08 From roadside trickle draining the N very small ow volume, must be very local From stream draining the S, $3 m wide, 0.5 m deep From large river draining the SE, $12 m wide, 1 m deep From small creek draining the SW, <1 m wide, <10 cm deep From small stream draining the S, $1 m wide, <0.2 m deep below the Guavio Dam, next to the main tunnel Rd. between Guavio Dam and Ubala, Very small creek After Junn, Small creek

Isotopic composition of water, Colombia

N/A

0.1200 67.08000

74

74

74

4.4

24.0

10.9

IAEA GNIP station

N/A

0.1300 67.15000

87

87

87

4.1

22.5

10.0

IAEA GNIP station

7007

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J.E. Saylor et al. / Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018

18O ( VSMOW)
-12 -35 -10 -8
y = 8.02x + 12.12 R2 = 0.95 y = 5.69x - 16.30 R2 = 1.00

-6

-4

-2

D ( VSMOW)

-45

-55

-65

GMWL (Craig,1961) Colombia Stream Water Colombia Lakes Colombia Stream Water Evaporavely Enriched Lakes

-75

-85

Fig. 4. Measured d18Osw and dDsw values for samples of Eastern Cordilleran streams, rivers and lakes plotted against the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) of Craig (1961). Stream and river samples fall on the GMWL trend indicating that they are unaected by signicant evaporation. Three of four lakes sampled in the Eastern Cordillera fall o of the GMWL, indicating signicant degrees of evaporation.

Precipitation d18Op values for the Bogota IAEA/GNIP station range from 0.1 to 21.1& (VSMOW, Fig. 5A). The precipitation-amount weighted mean d18Op value for the years available is 9.5& (VSMOW) which is close to a previously calculated value of 9.6& (VSMOW, Rozanski et al., 1993). The precipitation-amount weighted mean dDp value is 65.9& (VSMOW). d18Op values for Uaupes range from 1.7 to 11.9& (VSMOW, Fig. 5B). The precipitation-amount weighted mean d18Op and dDp values are 4.4& and 23.9&, respectively (VSMOW). The range of d18Op values for Sao Gabriel is 0.3 to 11.2& (VSMOW, Fig. 5C) with a precipitation-amount weighted mean value for d18Op of 4.1& and for dDp of 21.8& (VSMOW). The IAEA/GNIP data from the Bogota station vary on a seasonal basis (Rodriguez, 2004). Maxima in d18Op and dDp values occur between January and March (Fig. 6, 7a). The d18Op and dDp values decrease thereafter to minima between May and June. There is a slight increase in d18Op and dDp values in July and August before a second minimum centered on October. d18Op and dDp values then increase towards the end of the year. 4. DISCUSSION 4.1. Global and local meteoric water lines The linear regression of d18Osw and dDsw (excluding samples from lakes) is dDsw 8:02d18 Osw 12:12 1

dDsw 8:0d18 Osw 9:6

though with a slightly higher d-excess value (d-excess = dD8 d18O (Dansgaard, 1964)). The similarity between the slope of the local Colombian water line and the GMWL implies that sampled stream water from Colombia is largely unaected by evaporation since precipitation. 4.2. d-excess Stream water from the Eastern Cordillera typically has d-excess values indicative of little continental recycling. The average d-excess value is 12.16& (1.8&, 1-sigma uncertainty based on bootstrap method, Table 1, Fig. 4). The global average d-excess value is 11.27 (0.65) & (Rozanski et al., 1993). Elevated d-excess values are typically attributed to non-equilibrium fractionation during evaporation which is a function of source region relative humidity and temperature, wind speed and boundary layer properties in the oceans, or increased continentality (Rozanski et al., 1993; Clark and Fritz, 1997; Tian et al., 2001). The d-excess values from streams in the Eastern Cordillera are close to the global average as well as those from the IAEA GNIP stations in the foreland. This relationship indicates that stream water in the Eastern Cordillera is virtually unmodied since being evaporated from the Atlantic Ocean. If any continental residence or recycling has occurred, there is no stable isotope record of it. Further, the relationship implies that the climatic condition under which the water was initially evaporated was close to average (relative humidity = 85%). These observations are consistent with the relatively simple meteorological setting of the Eastern Cordillera. 4.3. Local evaporation line Water from three of the four lakes sampled in the Eastern Cordillera fall o of the Gobal Meteoric Water Line, implying some degree of evaporative enrichment (Fig. 4). They dene a local evaporation line:

(R2 = 0.95, Fig. 4) meaning that this sample population falls close to the global meteoric water line (GMWL) of dDp 8d18 Op 10 2

established by Craig (1961) and on the modied GMWL proposed by Rozanski et al. (1993) dDp 8:20:07d18 Op 11:270:65: 3

Eq. (1) is also similar to the local meteoric water line for Colombia calculated by Rodriguez (2004) of

Isotopic composition of water, Colombia

20 0 -20

7009

A
Bogota GMWL (Craig, 1961) Linear (Bogota)

y = 7.93x + 8.99 2 R = 0.93

D (,VSMOW)

-40 -60 -80 -100 -120 -140 -160 -25

-20

-15
18

-10

-5

O (, VSMOW)
10 0 -10

B
Uaupes GMWL (Craig, 1961) Linear (Uaupes)

D (,VSMOW)

-20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90 -15

y = 7.57x + 8.95 2 R = 0.92

-10

-5 18 O (, VSMOW)

10 0 -10

C
Sao Gabriel GMWL (Craig,1961) Linear (SaoGabriel)

D (,VSMOW)

-20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80 -90 -15

y = 7.99x + 9.72 2 R = 0.95

-10
18

-5

O (, VSMOW)

Fig. 5. Monthly d18Op and dDp values for the IAEA GNIP stations used in this study.

dDsw 5:69d18 Osw 16:30

4.4. Seasonal variations There is a close correlation between d18Op and dDp val ues observed at the Bogota station and precipitationamount (Figs. 6, 7B and C). Consistent with more than half a century of research, d18Op values in precipitation are lowest when precipitation amounts are highest (Fig. 8A) (Craig, 1961; Dansgaard, 1964; Rozanski et al., 1993; Dettman et al., 2001). In contrast, there was no correlation observed between temperature and stable isotope values. The

which is consistent with the local evaporation line measured byRodriguez (2004) for Lake Tota of dDsw 5:54d18 Osw 17 6

The two lakes which lie close to the GMWL are manmade dams. The stable isotope data shows that residence time in these man-made dams is shorter than in the natural high-elevation lakes.

7010

J.E. Saylor et al. / Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018

Months
Jan 0
Error bars are 1 Phase offset?

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Sep Oct

Nov

Dec 0 20 40 60
Precipitaon (mm)

-2 -4
O ( , VSMOW)

-6 80 -8 100 -10 120 -12

18O

18

140 160 1

-14 -16

Precipitaon

Months
Jan 0 Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec 0

Phase offset?

20 40

-20

D ( , VSMOW)

80 -60 100 -80

D

120 140 160 180

-100

Precipitaon -120
18

Fig. 6. Monthly d Op and dDp values and precipitation amounts for the Bogota IAEA GNIP station for the years 19712005. The stable isotope composition of precipitation closely tracks the precipitation-amount though minima or maxima in the stable isotope composition appear to lag the precipitation-amount by about a month.

empirical and theoretical relationship observed between d18Op values and temperature in the 020 C range is approximately 0.58&C1 (Siegenthaler and Oeschger, 1980; Van der Straaten and Mook, 1983; Rozanski et al., 1993). This trend would imply greater d18Op values at higher local temperatures, which is the opposite of what is ob served at Bogota (Fig. 7D). Regression of the d18Op values and temperature shows that they are not correlated (d18Op = 0.0106 T + 13.10, R2 = 0.0056). Likewise, there is no clear relationship between monthly stable isotope composition and elevation. Interpreted in terms of altitude variation, the monthly shifts from 0.1 to 21.1& (VSMOW) would imply vertical movements in excess of 5 km. The relationships above indicate that the seasonally-driven amount eect is a major controller of d18Op values at Bogota. On a monthly basis, the amount eect dominates over the altitude eect. However, the weighted average over multiple years is consistent with the altitude versus d18O

gradient dened by the stream water data (Fig. 9A and B). The amount eect is also a signicant factor at the Uaupes and Sao Gabriel IAEA GNIP stations (Fig. 8B and C). There may, however, be some bias in the record. Fig. 8B captures the entire range of both precipitation-amount and stable isotope composition reported for the Uaupes station. However, the record is limited and the possibility remains that it is not representative of the entire range of natural variability. Though there are months with as little as 35 mm of precipitation for Sao Gabriel, there are no months with precipitation amounts <100 mm and stable isotope data. At the low-elevation stations the link to seasonality is not as clear as at the Bogota station. Unlike Vimeux et al. (2005), we nd no correlation between synchronous d18Op values at low-elevation stations and those at Bogota (Fig. 10). The dissimilarity between this result and the results of Vimeux et al. (2005) highlight the need for empirical, local calibrations of the stable isotope system.

Precipitaon (mm)

-40

60

Isotopic composition of water, Colombia

Years

7011

1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 0 -2 -4

18O (, VSMOW)

-6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16 -18 -20

-20

0 -2

0 -2

20

18O ( , VSMOW)

-4 -6 -8

-4 -6 -8

60

100

-10 -12 -14 -16 -18

-10 -12 -14 -16 -18

140

180

220

-20

-20

D
O (, VSMOW)

1998 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16 -18 -20

1999

2000

2001

Years 2002

2003

2004

2005

2006 15 14 13 12 11

Fig. 7. (A) d Op values for the Bogota IAEA GNIP station. Note that 19911997 data are missing. The solid grey horizontal line represents the amount weighted average d18Op value. There are clear yearly minima centered on May and October. (B and C) d18Op values (black) and precipitation (grey) plotted against time. Minima in d18Op values correlate with maxima in precipitation, as expected. (D) d18Op values (black) and air temperature (grey) plotted against time. d18Op values are uncorrelated to air temperature.

18

4.5. Altitudinal variations There is a strong correlation between both d18Osw and dDsw values and elevation (Fig. 9). The relationship between d18Osw and elevation is dened by z 565:1d18 O 2731 and between dDsw and elevation is z 68:63dD 1767
18 18

where z is elevation in meters and d O or dD is the d O or dD value of precipitation or surface water. Though second or fourth order polynomials have been found to provide a better t to other empirical datasets or thermodynamic

models (e.g., Garzione et al., 2000b; Garzione et al., 2006; Rowley and Garzione, 2007), they do not provide a significant improvement over a linear t for the Colombian dataset. The linearity of this relationship is consistent with other studies conducted in northern South America (Garcia et al., 1998; Gonantini et al., 2001; Rodriguez, 2004) and highlights the need for detailed, local, empirical calibrations. The lapse rate based on the regressions above is 1.8& km1 for d18O and 14.6& km1 for dD. These are at the low end of the range of lapse rates presented by Poage and Chamberlain (2001) for South America. It is also slightly lower than the lapse rate determined by Rodriguez (2004) of 2.4& km1 for d18O and 19& km1 for dD. However, almost half of Rodriguezs (2004) samples are not

Air Temperature (C)

18

220

180

140

100

60

20

-20

Years
1985 1986 1987 1988

Years
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002

7012

J.E. Saylor et al. / Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018

0 -2 -4

A: Bogota

O (, VSMOW)

-6 -8 -10 -12 -14 -16 -18 -20 -22 0 50 100 150 Precipitation (mm) 200 250

18

B: Uaupes
0 -2

O (, VSMOW)

4 -6 -8 -10 -12 0 100 200 300 400 Precipitation (mm) 500 600

18

C: Sao Gabriel
0

O (, VSMOW)

-2

4 -6 -8 -10 -12 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

18

Preicipitation (mm)

Fig. 8. Measured monthly d18Op values plotted against precipitation-amount for the IAEA GNIP stations used in this study. Lower d18Op values are roughly correlated with greater precipitation amounts, though there is signicant scatter in the data.

from the Eastern Cordillera and so issues related to the source and pathway of the water vapor become a major concern (Blisniuk and Stern, 2005). We developed Dd18Osw and DdDsw versus elevation relationships in order to allow direction comparison with previous studies and thermodynamic models, thus facilitating stable isotope paleoelevation studies. The zero elevation d18Osw and dDsw values were calculated using the d18Osw and dDsw versus elevation relationships above (Eqs. (7) and (8)). The resulting relationships and associated 2r uncertainties from Fig. 11 are, for Dd18Osw,

z 565:150:37Dd18 Osw 455:6 and for DdDsw, z 68:636:670Dd18 Osw 405:4

10

For comparison, a simple linear regression through the data yields the following resulting relationships and associated 2r uncertainties; for Dd18Osw, z 606:1Dd18 Osw 854m and for DdDsw, 11

Isotopic composition of water, Colombia

4000

7013

Hypsometric Mean Catchment Elevation (m)

Bogota Uaupes Sao Gabriel Bootstrap mean EC Eastern Flank Magdalena Valley

0
-12

1000

2000

3000

-11

-10

-9
18

-8

-7

-6

-5

-4

O ( VSMOW)
4000

Hypsometric Mean Catchment Elevation (m)

Bogota Uaupes

3000

Sao Gabriel EC Eastern Flank Magdalena Valley

2000

Bootstrap Mean

0
-85 -80

1000

-75

-70

-65

-60 -55 -50 -45 D ( VSMOW)

-40

-35

-30

-25

-20

Fig. 9. Measured d18O and dD values of streams, rivers and IAEA GNIP stations plotted against hypsometric mean catchment elevation. Also shown is the linear t to 100 bootstraps (of 1024 iterations each) of the data. Bootstraps included data from the GNIP IAEA stations. The equations for the bootstraps are z = 565.1 d18O 2731 and z = 68.63 dD 1767.

z 73:37Dd18 Osw 933m

18

12

The uncertainties in the Dd O versus elevation regression presented in Eqs. (11) and (12) are based on the dierence between the elevation predicted by the Dd18O versus elevation regression and the hypsometric mean catchment elevation for that sample. This dierence was used to calculate a 2r uncertainty envelope for the population. In order to test the applicability of thermodynamic models to the Eastern Cordillera we compared the results of isotopic analysis of Colombian stream water to a thermodynamic Dd18O versus elevation relationship (Fig. 12). The thermodynamic relationship is based on a Rayleigh distillation model where orographically lifted water vapor masses are subjected to adiabatic cooling (Siegenthaler and Oeschger, 1980; Rowley et al., 2001; Rowley and Garzione, 2007; Rowley, 2007). Condensation is immediately removed from the system and the resulting water vapor, and later precipitation, is progressively depleted in 18O and D. These models are extremely sensitive to the initial, low-elevation temperature. Average low-elevation air temperature for both the Atlantic coast and locations in the Llanos for 19482009 is 2526 C (Kalnay et al., 1996). When we calibrated our Rayleigh distillation model with these initial conditions it provided a rea-

sonable t to the empirical data over the elevation range in question (Fig. 11). Most mountain peaks in the Eastern Cordillera are <4000 m and all are < $5000 m. The local evaporation line dened by three of the Eastern Cordilleran lakes intersects the GMWL at d18Osw = 11.4& and dDsw = 81& (VSMOW, Eq. (4), Fig. 4). Applying these values to the Dd18Osw and DdDsw versus elevation lapse rates above yields elevations of 3712 787 m and 3913 786 m, respectively. 4.6. Uncertainty estimates The uncertainties in the Dd18O versus elevation regression presented in Eqs. (9) and (10) are based on the uncertainty of the linear t to 100 average bootstraps each with 1024 iterations. The uncertainty in both the slope and intercept was used to calculate a 2r uncertainty envelope for the population. Thermodynamically based models typically reproduce the average of modern data well (Gonantini et al., 2001; Rowley et al., 2001; Rowley and Currie, 2006; Rowley and Garzione, 2007; Rowley, 2007). However, they explain local lapse rates almost entirely by local low-elevation

7014

J.E. Saylor et al. / Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018

Bogota and Uaupes Bogota and Sao Gabriel Bogota and Maracay Linear (Bogota and Uaupes) Linear (Bogota and Sao Gabriel) Linear (Bogota and Maracay)

Op Low-elevation Station (, VSMOW)

y = 0.1201x + 0.0313 R2 = 0.0155 y = 0.186x - 2.9325 2 R = 0.0743 y = -0.0696x - 4.4719 R2 = 0.0126

-2

-4

-6

-8

18

-10

-12 -16 -14 -12

Op Bogota ( VSMOW)
Fig. 10. Synchronously measured values from the Bogota (x-axis) and low-elevation (y-axis) IAEA GNIP stations. The lack of correlation between low-elevation variability and high-elevation variability in the d18Op values indicates that the seasonal variability observed in at the Bogota station is not the result of low-elevation seasonal variability but rather reects seasonal amount eect driven variability at high elevations.

18

-10

-8

-6

-4

-2

1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000

Hypsometric Mean Catchment Elevation (m)

EC Eastern Flank Uaupes Bogota Sao Gabriel Bootstrap Mean Bootstrap +2sigma Bootstrap -2igma Huascaran Magdalena Valley

Elevation = -565.118O

0
-13 -12 -11 -10

-9

-8

-7 -6 -5 -4 18 O ( VSMOW)

-3

-2

-1

5000

Hypsometric Mean Catchment Elevation (m)

1000

2000

3000

EC Eastern Flank Bogota Uaupes Sao Gabriel Bootstrap Mean Bootstrap +2sigma Bootstrap -2sigma Magdalena Valley

4000

Elevation = -68.63D

0
-60

-55

-50

-45

-40

-35 -30 -25 -20 D ( VSMOW)

-15

-10

-5

Fig. 11. Calculated Dd18O and DdD values of streams, rivers and IAEA GNIP stations plotted against hypsometric mean catchment elevation. Also shown is the linear t to 100 bootstraps (of 1024 iterations each) of the data and 2r condence intervals on the regression. Bootstraps included data from the GNIP IAEA stations. The data for the Huascaran ice core (Thompson et al., 2003) is also included for comparison but was not included in the bootstrap as it is $1500 km south of Bogota.

Isotopic composition of water, Colombia

7015

EC Eastern Flank Bootstrap Mean bootstrap 2s bootstrap -2s Thermodynamic Model: Ti=299 K Thermodynamic model +2sigma Thermodynamic model -2sigma

5000

Mean Catchment Elevation (m)

4000 3000 2000 1000 0

-7

-6

-5

-4
18

-3

-2

-1

O (VSMOW )

Fig. 12. Calculated Dd18O and DdD values of streams and rivers sampled on the eastern ank of the Eastern Cordillera and IAEA GNIP stations plotted against hypsometric mean catchment elevation. See the text for a discussion of calculation methods. Also shown is a regression from a thermodynamically based model and 2r condence intervals on the regression. The linear empirical regression from Fig. 10 and the 2r condence intervals on the regression are also shown for comparison.

temperature. Hence, any time that these models are applied, they must be calibrated using, at a bare minimum, upwind, low-elevation temperature data. The same mechanism is invoked to explain all variability in modern calibration data (Rowley et al., 2001; Rowley and Garzione, 2007; Rowley, 2007). However, these studies have not established a correlation between variability in seasonal low-elevation temperatures and observed precipitation stable isotope compositions. Nor have they determined to what degree the variability in modern isotopic systems observed within a single season is attributable to this single mechanism (Rozanski et al., 1993; Garzione et al., 2000b; Gonantini et al., 2001). Based on the Bogota IAEA GNIP station data, it appears that much of the yearly variability may be due to the amount eect. In addition, thermodynamic models, as applied to date, establish condence limits based on temperature variability in the global tropics, rather than for a given locality. When combined with another assumption of the model; that all the regressions must pass through the origin, the result is that this thermodynamic approach will underestimate uncertainty at high Dd18O values and overestimate uncertainty at low Dd18O values (Fig. 12). 4.7. Humidity and the local evaporation line The slope of the local evaporation line from Eqs. (5) and (6) allows calculation of the theoretical relative humidity conditions under which evaporation took place (Gonantini, 1986). Following the equation of Gat (1971), the slope (S) of the local evaporation line in d18O versus dD space is given by S hdDv dDi dD =hd18 Ov d18 Oi d18O 13

The equilibrium enrichment factor (ee) is dependent on the fractionation factor (a) and hence on temperature and is calculated as: e a 11000: 14

The kinetic enrichment factor (ek) was calculated using Gonantinis (1986) equation: k 14:21 h 15

A temperature of 13 C was chosen, being the long-term average at the Bogota IAEA GNIP station (IAEA/WMO, 2008). The d18Osw and dDsw values of the lake water were obtained from the most evaporatively enriched sample (110109-18) and were 3& and 33& (VSMOW), respectively. d18Oi and dDi values were obtained from the intersection of the local evaporation line and the GMWL and were 11& and 81& (VSMOW), respectively. The resultant calculation yields a slope of 5.7 (Eq. (5)) at a relative humidity value of 0.78 and a slope of 5.5 (Eq. (6)) at a relative humidity value of 0.75. The long-term average rela tive humidity value at the Bogota station is 0.79 (IAEA/ WMO, 2008). Although extrapolation of the humidity value at one location across the Eastern Cordillera is admittedly problematic, it is encouraging that the results of the theoretical calculation and the available data are in close agreement. The implication is that the local evaporation line is controlled primarily by the long-term humidity conditions and that, once again, the local hydrological conditions in Colombia are consistent with theories developed based on a global dataset (Craig, 1961; Dansgaard, 1964; Rozanski et al., 1993). 5. CONCLUSIONS (1) Stable isotope data for 72 new stream and river water samples from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia lie along the Global Meteoric Water Line (GMWL) indicating that the sampled waters in this part of the northern Andes are free from signicant evaporative eects.

where h is relative humidity, dv and di are the stable isotopic composition of the local atmosphere and the input to the evaporating body, respectively and e is the total enrichment factor (including both equilibrium and kinetic enrichment factors) between water and air.

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J.E. Saylor et al. / Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 73 (2009) 69997018 Bayona G., Cortes M., Jaramillo C., Ojeda G., Aristizabal J. J. and Reyes-Harker A. (2008) An integrated analysis of an orogensedimentary basin pair: latest Cretaceous-Cenozoic evolution of the linked Eastern Cordillera orogen and the Llanos foreland basin of Colombia. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 120, 11711197. Blisniuk P. M. and Stern L. A. (2005) Stable isotope paleoaltimetry: a critical review. Am. J. Sci. 305, 10331074. Chamberlain C. and Poage M. (2000) Reconstructing the paleotopography of mountain belts from the isotopic composition of authigenic minerals. Geology 28, 115118. Clark I. and Fritz P. (1997) Environmental Isotopes in Hydrogeology. CRC Press, Boca raton. Corredor F. (2003) Eastward extent of the late Eoceneearly Oligocene onset of deformation across the northern Andes: constraints from the northern portion of the Eastern Cordillera fold belt, Colombia. J. South Am. Earth Sci. 16, 445457. Craig H. (1961) Isotopic variations in meteoric waters. Science 133, 17021708. Currie B., Rowley D. and Tabor N. (2005) Middle Miocene paleoaltimetry of southern Tibet: implications for the role of mantle thickening and delamination in the Himalayan orogen. Geology 33, 181184. Cyr A., Currie B. and Rowley D. (2005) Geochemical evaluation of Fenghuoshan Group lacustrine carbonates, North-Central Tibet: implications for the paleoaltimetry of the Eocene Tibetan Plateau. J. Geol. 113, 517533. Dansgaard W. (1964) Stable isotopes in precipitation. Tellus 16, 436468. DeCelles P., Quade J., Kapp P., Fan M., Dettman D. and Ding L. (2007) High and dry in central Tibet during the Late Oligocene. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 253, 389401. Dettman D., Kohn M., Quade J., Ryerson F., Ojha T. and Hamidullah S. (2001) Seasonal stable isotope evidence for a strong Asian monsoon throughout the past 10.7 m.y. Geology 29, 3134. Dorale J. A., Edwards R. L., Ito E. and Gonzalez L. A. (1998) Climate and vegetation history of the midcontinent from 75 to 25 ka: A speleothem record from Crevice Cave, Missouri, USA. Science 282, 18711874. Ehlers T. A. and Poulsen C. J. (2009) Inuence of Andean uplift on climate and paleoaltimetry estimates. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 281, 238248. Garcia M., Callalba F., Araguas Araguas L. and Rozanski K. (1998) The role of atmospheric circulation patterns in controlling the regional distribution of stable isotope contents of precipitation. Preliminary results from two transects in the Ecuadorian Andes, Isotope Techniques in the Study of Environmental Changes. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna. Garzione C., Dettman D., Quade J., DeCelles P. and Butler R. (2000a) High times on the Tibetan Plateau: paleoelevation of the Thakkhola graben, Nepal. Geology 28, 339342. Garzione C., Quade J., DeCelles P. and English N. (2000b) Predicting paleoelevation of Tibet and the Himalaya from delta O-18 vs. altitude gradients in meteoric water across the Nepal Himalaya. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 183, 215229. Garzione C. N., Molnar P., Libarkin J. C. and MacFadden B. J. (2006) Rapid late Miocene rise of the Bolivian Altiplano: evidence for removal of mantle lithosphere. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 241, 543556. Gat J. (1971) Comments on the stable isotope method in regional groundwater investigations. Water Resources Res. 7, 980993. Gonantini R. (1986). Environmental isotopes in lake studies. In The terrestrial environment (eds. P. Fritz and J. C. Fontes). Elsevier, Amsterdam. Gonantini R., Roche M. A., Olivry J. C., Fontes J. C. and Zuppi G. M. (2001) The altitude eect on the isotopic composition of tropical rains. Chem. Geol. 181, 147167.

(2) Three of four lakes sampled in the Eastern Cordillera show signicant evaporative eects. Stable isotope data from these three lakes dene a local evaporation line whose intersection with the GMWL is in close agreement with their hypsometric mean catchment elevations which range from 2439 m. to 3459 m. (3) On a monthly basis, the d18Op values for the Bogota IAEA GNIP station are controlled primarily by the seasonally-driven amount eect. d18Op values for the Uaupes and Sao Gabriel stations in the northern Andean foreland are also signicantly controlled by the amount eect. However, synchronous d18Op values from Bogota and low-elevation stations are not correlated. (4) On a multi-year basis, the amount weighted average d18Op value at the Bogota IAEA GNIP station is consistent with that predicted by its elevation (2547 m.) and a lapse rate based on Eastern Cordilleran rivers and streams. (5) A combination of stream, river and IAEA GNIP data denes linear Dd18O versus elevation lapse rates of 1.8& km1 for Dd18O and 14.6& km1 for DdD. These values, which are based on 65 new surface water samples and 393 months of IAEA GNIP station data, provide the basis for stable isotope paleoelevation studies in northern South America and calibration of models of stable isotope variation. We emphasize that the data to not establish the variation of the isotopic lapse rate through time, but rather a snapshot in the present. However, they provide an essential anchor for models of paleoelevation through time in the northern Andes. Additional factors such as climate change (particularly changes in temperature or rainfall amount), changes in topography or changes in moisture source must be considered before applying these lapse rates to the past (Garzione et al., 2000a; Garzione et al., 2006; Ehlers and Poulsen, 2009). (6) For the modern Colombian dataset, thermodynamically based uncertainty estimates tend to be underestimates at high Dd18O and DdD values and overestimates for low Dd18O and DdD values. Uncertainty in paleoelevation studies in northern South America may be well addressed using empirically derived condence intervals from datasets of sucient size to ensure statistical integrity. (7) The isotopic composition of precipitation and surface water in Colombia conform to theories developed based on a global dataset.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Thanks to J. Corredor and A. Gonzalez for excellent assistance in the eld. Thanks to C. Eastoe for rapid sample analysis. We also thank D. Rowley and two anonymous reviewers for thoughtful reviews that signicantly improved this manuscript. This work was funded by a research grant from the Instituto Colombiano del Pet roleo project; Cronologa de la Deformacion en las Cuencas Subandinas, as part of an ocial collaborative agreement between Ecopetrol and the University of Texas at Austin.

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