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Communication Basics (I)
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I. Whats Communication process?
II. Signal and System representations
III. Information Source
IV. The Communication Channel
V. Concepts of Bandwidth
VI. The Modulation Process
VII. Sampling
VIII. Pulse Coded Modulation
IX. Baseband Coding
X. Multiplexing
I. Whats Communication Process?
A Basic Communication System
Information Source
and
input Transducer
Transmitter
Channel
Receiver
Output
Transducer
Output Signal
Path Loss
and Noise
I. Whats Communication Process?
A Typical Digital Communication System
Format
Source
Encoder
Information
Source
Channel
Encoder
Encrypt Multiplex Modulate
Freq.
Spread
Multiple
Access
XMT
Channel
RCV
Format
Source
Decoder
Channel
Decoder
Decrypt DeMuX DeMOD
Freq. De
spread
Multiple
Access
Information
Sink
Synchronization
Digital
Waveform
Bit
Stream
Digital
Input
Digital
Output
Source
bits
Channel bits
Channel bits
To other destinations
From other sources
I. Whats Communication Process?
Design Consideration
1. Range
Wired links require repeaters for longer distances while work well at low frequencies. However,
high frequencies require special cables: coaxial, waveguide (and now optical fiber)
Terrestrial radio links : different frequencies for different purposes.
Microwave for line-of-sight links.
Q: Whats LOS?
Answer: In radio communication:
Direct wave path: a path clear from the terrain contour
Line-of-sight path: a path clear from buildings.
Obstructive path: when the terrain contour blocks the direct wave path
HF(High Frequency band) for long-distance ionospheric Comm. across the world
VHF (30-300 MHz) for short range
UHF (300M-3G Hz) gives large bandwidth for TV
Satellite links can be used for both small and large terrestrial distances (but always
have long path lengths with the consequent problems of attenuation and noise)
I. Whats Communication Process?
2. Power
>>> The less the power required to transmit, the simpler and cheaper the transmitter.
>>> higher frequency produce a higher proportion of radiated power (~ f^2)
(one of reasons for passband transmission/modulation)
>>> higher radiated power, cheaper the receiver
(pulse coding, directional antenna, multiplexing are ideas of PW efficiency)
3. Cost
4. Bandwidth
No information will be obtained at all unless the signal received contains at least a small range of
frequencies----bandwidth. But using larger bandwidth increases cost and complexity and may
be wasteful !
5. Speed
Real-time transmission is very common such as telephone, mobile radio, TV). If you send
information slowly, you save BW but take more time, and vice versa.
6. Reliability
Here we dont mean the reliability of equipment but rather factors that cause signal degradation
in a working system. Digital data streams obviously need greater accuracy. (10^-6 compared
with 10^-3). There always exists a tradeoff between bandwidth and accuracy.
7. Convenience
It is very much appreciable that a new system to be compatible with older existing systems.
Black-white TV and Color TV
Digitized speeches with analog voice
Broadcast satellite
Digital TV and analog TV
Digital mobile cellular and Analog Cellular ()
8. Accuracy/Quality
the more accurate the received information, the more complex and expensive
Tolerable --- understandable telephone (~3kHz)
music may be up to 15kHz
image fidelity ( perceptible or accurate criterion?)
I. Whats Communication Process?
II. Signal and System Representations
Single-tone Sinusoidal
) cos( ) ( u + = t A t v
w
W=2tf=angular frequency radians/second
f=frequency Hz=1/second
Example: a voltage
Phase
Amplitude
=
u
A
T=1/f=2t/w= period
Multi-tone Sinusoidal
II. Signal and System Representations
) 3 cos(
3
) cos( ) ( wt
A
t A t v
w
=
Q1: Can any signal be dissected in terms of its frequency components?
Q2: Are frequencies all discrete?
Answer: Fourier Analysis
Five classes of signals
1. Continuous and Discrete Signals
2. Analog and Digital Signals
3. Periodic and Aperiodic Signals
4. Deterministic and Random Signals
5. Power and Energy Signals
II. Signal and System Representations
1. Continuous/Analog and Discrete/Digital Signals
II. Signal and System Representations
2. Periodic/Aperiodic Signals
A periodic signal always has a period T, its reciprocal is called fundamental frequency.
Example: Is v(t)=cos(t/3)+cos(t/4) periodic?
Answer: Yes !
If we let v(t)=v(t+T), we found that T=24t and its fundamental frequency is f=(1/24t)
Analog(discrete) or digital (binary)
Analog(discrete) or M-ary digital
Analog(continuous)
II. Signal and System Representations
3. Deterministic/Random Signals
The value of a deterministic signal is determined once its time parameter is given.
While a random signal cannot be determined based on time only.
Lets say, well, it will be something A with probability 0.4, B with probability 0.6)
4. Power signals and Energy signals
A resistor R Ohm with voltage v(t) across it:
Instantaneous power
) (
2
2
) (
) (
t i
R
R
t v
t p = =
Normalized to R=1 Ohm, we have
) (
2
) (
t g
t p =
Where g(t)=v(t) or i(t)
II. Signal and System Representations
Therefore, we define
Total energy of a signal g(t)=E(joule)
Average power of a signal g(t)=P(watt)
}

=
T
T
dt
T
E
t g ) (
2
lim
}

=
T
T
dt
T T
P
t g ) (
2
2
1
lim
A signal is an energy signal <<<>>> 0<E<infinite
A signal is a power signal <<<>>> 0<P<infinite
Note: 1. power =energy/time.
Its unit is Watt and is usually expressed in decibels () !
2. An energy signal has zero average power while a power signal
has infinite energy, it means a signal is either energy signal or power signal
but cannot be both.
dB
p
P
x
ref
dB
log 10 =
Usually, Pref is one Watt ! If it is 0.001 Watt, then we say dBm !
Sometimes, we can also express bandwith or temperature in dBs in a similar manner !
Frequency Domain Spectra: Amplitude and Phase Spectrum
II. Signal and System Representations
) 2 / 3 cos( ) 2 cos( ) cos(
) 3 cos( ) 2 cos( ) cos( ) (
t t + + + =
+ =
t C t B t A
t C t B t A t v
w w w
w w w
a a a
a a a
Note: if there are sine terms
then they must be expressed
in cosine terms and negative
terms have to be converted
to positive terms by phase
changes !
Amplitude
A
B
C
w
w
wa
2wa 3wa
Phase
t
t/2
II. Signal and System Representations
Complex Exponential Representation : Negative Frequency
From Euler expression: exp(jx)=cos(x)+j sin(x) , Then
{ } { }
e e e e
t w j t w j wt j wt j A A
wt A
] ) [( ] ) [( ) ( ) (
2 2
) cos(
u u u u
u
+ + + +
+ = + = +
Positive frequency
Negative frequency
Positive phase
Negative phase
Amplitude
Phase
Formal Analysis: Fourier Techniques !
FOURIER ANALYSIS: Fourier Series Expansion and Fourier Transform
Orthonormal functions: a set of functions defined on (a,b) are basis functions if
II. Signal and System Representations

=
=
=
}
n m
n m
dt t t
b
a
n m
, 1
, 0
) ( ) (
| |
Any finite-energy signals can be approximately expressed in terms of a set of pre-defined
Orthonormal basis functions. It can be looked as this way: given a set of orthonormal basis
functions, can we find the projected components on each function(direction, space) such that
the sum of all components in all directions can best represent the original signal ?
Remark: Cos(.) & sin(.) are
examples of orthogonal functions.
) (t
i
|
From above, we found that, given a periodic signal, the sine and
cosine functions are orthonormal within a period. Therefore, we
have the Fourier series expansion ! But before going on, you may raise
a question : Given a set of M signals, any way that we can
find a set of N (N<M)orthonormal basis functions that can be used to
represent these signals (GEOMETRIC REPRESENTATION) such that
they are orthogonal?
>>> YES ! Gram-Schmidt Orthogonization Procedure !
Gram-Schmidt Orthogonization Procedure
Given a set of signals: s1(t), s2(t), .. , sM(t) within a time period T
Goal: To find a set of orthonormal basis functions
so that we can represent them as (orthogonalized)
) (t
i
|
We continue
Fourier Series Expansion (for Periodic Signals)
II. Signal and System Representations

=
=
+ + =
+ + =
n
t jn
n
n
n
n n
n n
e c
w
b a
a
w b w a a
w
t n
n n
t n t n t v
) (
1
0
2 / 1
0
1 1
0 0 0
0
) cos(
2 2
) sin( ) cos( ) (
) ( u
Where
General-single sided
Single sinusoidal
-single sided
Double sided
complex exponential
) (
) (
1
) sin( ) (
2
) cos( ) (
2
) (
1
tan
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
a
b
e c
w b
w a
a
n
n
n
T
t jn
n
T
n
T
n
T
dt
w
t v
T
dt t n t v
T
dt t n t v
T
dt t v
T
=
=
=
=
=

}
}
}
}
u
Remark:
T
f
w
t
t
2
2
0
0
= =
Example: pulse train
II. Signal and System Representations
v(t)
A
0 T T/3
t
w
w0 2w0 4w0 5w0 7w0 8w0
Amplitude Spectrum
w
w0 2w0 4w0 5w0 7w0 8w0
Phase Spectrum
Remark: A periodic signal always has a Line Spectrum !
II. Signal and System Representations
Fourier Transform (for Aperiodic, finite energy Signals)
A trick: If we take the period to be infinite, a finite energy signal can also be pretended
to be a periodic signal with period T, lim T=infinite. This implies that there will be no line
spaces in frequency spectrum ! >>> Continuous Frequency Spectrum !
}
}

=
=
dw w V t v
dt t v w V
e
e
jwt
jwt
) (
2
1
) (
) ( ) (
t
Fourier Transform pair
Graphical Explanation
II. Signal and System Representations
III. Information Source
Baseband & Passband
f
Baseband
bandwidth
(although usually
count from zero)
Band
limits
Band
limits
Passband
bandwidth
III. Information Source
Type of Baseband Signals
Type Nature Class Baseband BW Usual Mod.
Morse Code Pulse c. wave digital 0-50 Hz ASK(OOK)
Teletype keyboard pulses digital 0-120Hz FSK/PSK
Facsimile Still copies digital 0-9.6 kHz FSK/PSK
Telephone Voice frequency analog 0-4kHz SSB/FDM
Audio music analog 0-15kHz FM
Radio broadcast AM(LF-HF)
FM(VHF)
analog 0-4.5kHz
0-15kHz
AM
FM
Radio Amateur
Citizen Band
analog 0-3kHz
0-4kHz
SSB/NBFM
NBFM
Mobile Radio mobile Analog
digital
0-3kHz
0-9.6kHz
Am/FM
PSK/GMSK
PCM Digitized audio digital 0-64kHz PSK
Computer data data digital ~ MHz ASK/PSK
TV Moving picture Analog
digital
0-6.5MHz (UK)
0-5.5 MHz (US)
0-6MHz (US)
0-6MHz(Japan)
0-7/8MHz(UK)
VSB
8-VSB
OFDM
OFDM
radar Pulsed c. wave digital ~ GHz ASK
III. Information Source
Concepts of Signal Bandwidth
Example 1: digital telegraph
Assumption 66 words per minute
5+1=6 characters per word (1 for space)
5+1+1.5=7.5 symbols per word (1.5 for start and 1
for stop)
# of words per minute fixed at = 66
# of characters per minute =66 X 6= 396
# of symbols per minute = 396 X 7.5 =2970
# of symbols per second =2970/60 =49.5 (~ 50 baud)
>>> symbol length =1/49.5 ~ 20ms =Ts
Now knowing the symbol length is the first step of estimating its required
bandwidth for transmission !
We can consider the worst case: T=2Ts
III. Information Source
Example 1: digital telegraph
t
Ts
T=2Ts
f
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
1 1
-1/3
1/5
-1/3
1/5
Amplitude
1/2Ts
3/2Ts
5/2Ts
In the worst case, the fundamental frequency is f0=1/2Ts=25 Hz, then from above
spectrum, most energy is contained within 3/2Ts ! Therefore, it is reasonable to estimate
that its baseband bandwidth is ~ 3/2Ts =3/f0 ~ 75 Hz !
But in practice, guard band is required when transmission, so it is agreed that to transmit
the telegraph signal will need channel bandwidth of 0-120 Hz !
III. Information Source
Example 2: TV Signal
Standard American
(NTSC)
European
System
# of lines per frame 525 625
# of frames per second 30 25
Field frequency, Hz (matched to P. line) 60 50
Line frequency, Hz 15,750 15,625
Channel width, MHz 6 7
Video bandwidth 4.2 5
Color subcarrier, MHz 3.58 4.43
Sound system FM FM
Maximum sound deviation, kHz 25 50
Intercarrier frequency, MHz (difference
between picture carrier & sound carrier)
4.5 5.5
III. Information Source
Q: How to evaluate the TV Signal bandwidth? (continued)
Fact: 1. Human eye contains many millions of photosensitive elements which are connected to the
brain by some 800,000 NERVE FIBERS (channels)
2. About 150,000 effective elements displayed in each scene. To take the scene, must we use
that many channels? Of course not !
The answer is :Only a single channel is used instead, each element being scanned in
succession, to convey the total information in the scene.
How we do that ? To cheat our eyes: we use a very high scanning rate so that the eyes
see the whole scene without being aware of the scanning motion.
3. Human perception of smooth motion:
If # of frames per second is greater than 18, the eyes will believe the motion picture is
continuous. U.S. : 30 frames/sec U. K. : 25 frames/sec >>> enough to cheat !
4. Q: why 30 in U.S. and 25 in U.K. ?
Answer: it has to do with the frequency of the AC power lines !
U.S. uses 60 Hz 110V and Europe uses 50 Hz 220V.
5. Commercial films are run at 24 frames/sec. This seems enough to cheat the eyes (24>18).
However, although it still results in perception of smooth motion, the FLICKER due to
the light cutoff between frames would be obvious and distracting.
Two intuitive ways to solve it:
(A) Passing the shutter across the lens a second time, while the frame is still being
screened, so that a light cutoff occurs 48 times per second. This rate is fast enough
so that the eye will not notice the flicker.
(B) The same effect as (A) by running at 48 frames/sec >>> but this would result in all
frames been twice as long as they need be (to indicate smooth motion).
III. Information Source
Q: How to evaluate the TV Signal bandwidth? (continued)
6. How we avoid flicker in TV systems?
Scanning process of the moving electron beam: 2 motions simultaneously
Fast and Horizontal 252/2 lines=262.5
Vertical and slow(262.5 times slower than the horizontal motion for U.S.)
A complete frame is covered by 525 horizontal lines, which is traced out 30 times per second.
However,
If each scene were shown traced thus from top to bottom (and from left to right)
Then it will be too slow to avoid flicker ! (since any given area of the picture tube would be
scanned once every (1/30) second)
How about doubling the vertical scanning speed to 60 frames per second ?
Well, it does the trick but would also double the bandwidth !
Solution: >>> Interlaced scanning !
We subdivide each frame into 2 fields.
One field covers even-numbered lines, from top to bottom.
The other field fills in the odd-numbered lines.
Using this way, we still have 30 frames per second, but any given area of the display tube is
now illuminated 60 times per second which is too fast to be registered by the eye !
III. Information Source
Q: How to evaluate the TV Signal bandwidth? (continued)
US NTSC system (similar for Europe system)
First field
1-242
Line
1
2
3
2nd field
264-504
Note: lines 242-266 & 505-525
occur during vertical retrace and
are beyond visible portion of screen
242
245
263
Vertical retrace
Horizontal retrace
III. Information Source
Q: How to evaluate the TV Signal bandwidth? (continued)
Example: U.K. System >>> 1. 625 lines per frame (horizontal and vertical)
2. 25 frames/sec 3. Rectangular shape of aspect ratio 4:3 4. Assuming smallest
areas of constant intensity are squares (picture elements or pixels)
Element 1
Element 520625
Element 833
III. Information Source
Q: How to evaluate the TV Signal bandwidth? (continued)
# of pixels each line = 625 x 4/3 = 833 pixels
# pixels each scan =625 X 625 X 4/3 =520k pixels
Time to complete each scan = (1/25) sec = 40ms
Time for each pixel to be scanned = (40ms/520k)=76.8 ns
>>> Therefore, pixel length Tp=76.8 ns
Now for the worst case : pixel intensity is changing most often and by the largest
amount of time (this obviously occurs when alternating black and white elements
occur). Then the fundamental frequency is f0=(1/2Tp)=(1/153 ns)=6.54 MHz
Note : 1. The pixel intensity fall off at the edges is visually quite acceptable, sending f0
is enough without any of its harmonics. (It means harmonics are small
compared to the f0 !)
2. But to be sure of channel separation, VSB modulation and sound signals,
the UK TV bandwidth is set to 8MHz (while 6.5 MHz in US)
IV. The Communication Channels
TYPE CHARACTERISTICS
Telephone Twisted pair < MHz linear band-limited
Coaxial cable Several MHz linear band-limited
Optical fibers Several GHz Linear time-invariant
Power-limited
Mobile radio (cellular) Mobility linear time-varying (multi-path)
HF VHF UHF
Microwave (waveguide) ~ GHz multi-path noisy time-varying
Satellite ~ GHz broad area coverage wide transmission
bandwidth nonlinear time-varying
power-limited
IV. The Communication Channels

1m
100mm
10cm
1m
1km
100km
Visible light
Ultraviolet
InfraRed
Waveguide
Coaxial cable channels
Wireline channels
Sonar subsonic survival
1000THz
100THz
100GHz
1GHz
1MHz
1kHz
=10^{-6}
k=10^{3}
M=10^{6}
G=10^{9}
T=10^{12}
IV. The Communication Channels
BAND FREQUENC
Y
WAVELENGT
H
TYPICAL AAPLICATIONS
ELF(extra low) 30-300 Hz 1000-10^{4} km Survival communication
ULF(ultra low) 300-3kHz 100-1000 km Survival communication
VLF(very low) 3k-30kHz 10-100 km Survival communication Omega navigation
Sonar (acoustic)
LF(low) 30k-300kHz 1-10 km Loran C navigation
Amateur Radio
MF(medium) 300k-3MHz 0.1-1 km Commercial AM (540k-1.6 MHz)
HF(high) 3M-30MHz 10-100 m Amateur Radio Citizen-band (CB) Radio
Over-the-horizon Radar commercial
VHF(very high) 30M-300MHz 1-10 m CB radio TV (54-88MHz, 174-216 MHz)
Commercial FM (88-108 MHz)
Phase array Radar Air-ground communication
UHF(ultra high) 300M-3GHz 0.1-1m Air-ground communication TV(420-890 MHz)
Cellular telephone Common carrier microwave
Global Positioning System
Tactical air surveillance and control
SHF(super high) 3G-30GHz 1-10cm Common carrier microwave Radio navigation
Precision Approach Radar Advanced
communication technology satellite (ACTS)
Airborne fire control & navigation Radar
IV. The Communication Channels
BAND FREQUENC
Y
WAVELENGT
H
TYPICAL AAPLICATIONS
EHF (extremely
high)
30G-300GHz 0.1-1cm Millimeter wave seeker/sensor navy auto carrier
landing Artillery location Radar
Strategic satellite communications
300G-3THz 0.1-1mm Experimental Far Infrared at upper end
3THz up Laser Communication (IR) visible light
100THz Ultraviolet
EM Wave
90 degree
E
B
Direction of
travel
Magnetic field
Electric field
Orthogonal
Shadow zone
IV. The Communication Channels
Reflection, Refraction, and Diffraction
Reflected wave
less dense
more dense
Incident wave
Refraction wave
Direction of
Travel
Object
Advancing wave
Diffraction zone
IV. The Communication Channels
Radio Paths
Ionosphere
Direct path space wave
Reflected path
Refracted into
ground
Trophospheric Path
Multi-path
clouds
IV. The Communication Channels
Mobile Radio Environment and Multipath fading
Free Space
Path loss (attenuation) is proportional to
Direct Wave Path
A path that is clear from terrain contour
Line-of-sight
A path that is clear from buildings >>> Rayleigh fading !
Obstructive Path
A path that is obstructed by terrain contour >>> Shadow loss !
Remark: In general, the loss is proportional to , where is between 2 & 5
In most cases, ~ 4
D
2
D

V. Definitions of Bandwidth
No Universal Definition but three are useful:
1. Null-to-null BW
2. 3 dB- BW
0
f
fc
f
fc+fu fc-fu
Low-pass signal Band-pass signal
0
f
Low-pass signal
3 dB
fc
f
fc+fu fc-fu
Band-pass signal
3 dB
V. Definitions of Bandwidth
3. Rms (Root-mean-square) BW
}
}

=
df
df
rms
X
X
f
W
2
2
2
mean
variation
Note:
1. The null-to-null BW definition will lost all the information contained in sidelobes.
2. The 3-dB BW suffers when there is a long tail.
3. Although the RMS BW definition seems quite reasonable, it can only be estimated
rather than direct measure.
4. Either definition will obey the following rule:
(duration in time domain) X (Bandwidth in frequency domain)= constant.
This confirms that you cannot define a signal on both domains simultaneously.
VI. The Modulation Process
1. Whats modulation?
Two types:
(a) Frequency translation
The whole baseband frequency is moved to a higher frequency range by a carrier.
(b) Digitizing
Changing the baseband to a discrete/digital form (e.g., binary) by sampling.
2. Why modulation?
Some reasons:
(a) The original format may not be suitable for reliable, distant transmission.
(b) Size of antenna: as frequency >>> size
(c) Diffraction (especially in Radar/microwave)
narrow beam >>> power
Proportional to

D
Wavelength =
C

Distance
VI. The Modulation Process
(d) Multiplexing (FDM)different information sources such as audio, radio, TV, telephone, ---
Example: SCPC (Single channel per carrier)
Digital Encoder 1
Digital Encoder n
Modulator 1
Modulator n
f
c
f n
c
f
A +
Mixer
RF
filter
Power
Amp
VI. The Modulation Process
3. How? Modulation Types:
By frequency translation by sampling
Continuous wave modulation Pulse modulation
Analog
Binary Analog/discrete/not quantized Digital/quantized
AM FM
PM ASK
FSK
GFSK
PSK
BPSK
QPSK
DPSK
M-PSK
MSK
GMSK
PAM
M-PAM
PDM
PPM
M-QAM
DeltaM
PCM
DPCM
ADPCM
DSB
SSB
VSB
OOK
VI. The Modulation Process
4. Example: Analog modulation
) cos( ) (
u
c
t
c c
t v
w A
+ =
Changing Amplitude
A Carrier :
Changing Frequency
Changing Phase
For Example, a message signal sin(wt) (single-tone) is to be modulated using
DSBSC (Double side band suppressed carrier) :
Carrier
Envelope (message information
is contained in variation of
carrier amplitude)
Remark : When the message signal is binary, i.e., 0 or 1,
then it is digital but analog-modulated !
B
A
Modulation Index=
A-B
A+B
VI. The Modulation Process
5. General Form of DSB modulation
(a) DSBFC
) 2 cos( )] ( 1 [ u t + + = t
c
t ms
c
f
A v
DSBFC
(b) DSBSC
) 2 cos( ) (
) ( ) (
t
c
t s
DSBFC
c
f
t v t
v v
DSBSC
t | =
=

S(f)
VI. The Modulation Process
6. FM Modulation
Definitions of Instantaneous phase, frequency
Q: For x(t)=A cos(6tt+5), what is its frequency?
Of course, it is 3 Hz.
Now how about
) 2 cos( ) (
e
t
t A t x

= t
)) ( ) ( cos( )) ( cos( ) ( t t
c
A t A t x
w
u + = =
In general,
Instant phase, radian
) ( 2 ) (
'
) (
t
i
t
c
dt
t d
f
w
t
u

= + =
While
Instant frequency, Hz
Now we can answer:
Instant frequency deviation, radian/sec
Instant phase deviation
e e
e
f
t
t
t
dt
t
t d
t
i

=
) 2 (
2
1
) (
t
t
Hz >>> function of time
VI. The Modulation Process
6. FM Modulation (continued)
Now the FM modulation is to let the carrier frequency be changed according to the
message signal !
) ( ) ( t s
c
t
i
k
f f
f
+ =
message
Frequency sensitivity of the modulator
Unmodulated carrier frequency
Now since phase is integration of frequency, we have (assume zero initial phase)
] ) ( [ 2
0
0
) ( 2 ) (
}
= =
+
}
t
f
d s t
c
t
i
k
f dt t f t
t t t
t u
}
+ = =
t
f FM
d s t
c
A t A t
k
f
v
0
] ) ( [ 2 cos )] ( cos[ ) ( t t t u
>>>
VII. Sampling
1. Sampling is the first step for analog to digital operation.
2. Why digital (binary)? At least two obvious reasons:
(a) A digital waveform is easier to regenerate for long transmission
(b) binary is overwhelming across most applications
Ps: Circuit Switching and Packet Switching
(c) Digital form is flexible in system design and performance demand.
(d) Many features can be added such as Encryption, Coding, Frequency Spreading
3. Although digital form not necessary binary (e.g., ternary), binary form can resist much
noise and easy to process.
VII. Sampling
4. The sampling theory
Any band-limited waveform, with frequency limited to W Hz, can be reconstructed
from all its samples as long as the sampling rate is greater than 2W samples/second.
The sampling rate 2W is called the Nyquist rate, and its reciprocal is called the
Nyquist interval.
Nyquist interval T = 1/2W
f
Using a low-pass
filter is able to
recover the original
waveform
VII. Sampling
5. What will happen as the sampling rate is < Nyquist rate ?
It is called Aliasing and has no way
to recover the original signal !
VII. Sampling
6. Pulse Modulations
(a) PAM (pulse amplitude modulation)
Original
message
signal
Pulse
Carrier
) (t
s
PAM
S(t)
Sc(t)
S(t)Sc(t)
Flat-top sampling
(sample and hold0
Natural sampling
VII. Sampling
6. Pulse Modulations
(b) PDM (pulse width modulation)
Original
message
signal
Pulse
Carrier
S(t)
Sc(t)
VII. Sampling
6. Pulse Modulations
(c) PPM (pulse position modulation)
PDM wave
Differentiate to PDM wave
After threshold : only pass the negative pulse
PPM wave (After one-shot multivibrator)
Remark:1. PAM mainly for signal
pre-processing, not for xmission.
2. PDM : Waste power
3. Although PPM is the
most efficient, it is not
used often in modern
communication compared
to the popular digital
schemes
VIII. Pulse-coded Modulation
Sampling Quantization Coding
001
000
010
011
100
101
110
111
IX. Baseband Coding
0 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 binary data
OOK(NRZ-L)
NRZ-Mask (1: change in level
0:no change)
Bipolar
RZ(unipolar)
AMI
Manchester (BiPhase): half-wide
1: positive followed by negative
Differential: transition occurs only
when data is zero
Reference
bit
X. Multiplexing
Source 1
Source 2
Source N
High-speed Link ()
Multiplexer
Destination 1
Destination N
Destination 2
DeMultiplexer
X. Multiplexing
Example: T-carrier
Anti-aliasing
filter
U.S. T1
Channel 1
Sample&
hold
A/D(coding
&-law)
TDM
Multiplexer
Anti-aliasing
filter
Channel 24
Sample&
hold
Analog I/P
64 kbps
64 kbps
1.544 Mbps
DS-1
8 kHz sampling
A/D(coding
&-law)
X. Multiplexing
Cross
connector
T-carrier
Modem
Voice
Data
MUX
(4 channels)
T1
1.544 Mbps
MUX
(7 channels)
Cross
connector
Picture
phone(video)
Modem
Cross
connector
T3
43.8 Mbps
T2 6.3 Mbps
TV
MUX
(6 channels)
MUX
(2 channels)
T4 274.2Mbps
T5 560.2Mbps
X. Multiplexing
Multiplexing of signals with different frequencies(rates)
output
2 kbps 1 kbps
1 kbps
X. Multiplexing
Asynchronous Multiplexing
Data
Source
1
Data
Source
1
Buffer
Asynchronous
Synchronous clock
Output clock