EXPERIMENT NO: 2

OBJECT:Study of P.W.M. (Pulse Width Modulation) using timer I.C. 555 and Demodulation using Op-Amp I.C. 741.

COMPONENT REQUIRED: Pulse Train(carrier) 50 Hz A.C. sinusoidal modulating signal. Pulse Width Modulator based on 555 Timer. Pulse Width Demodulator based on Operational Amplifier(741). ON/OFF Switch, Fuse. Connecting wires. Some other electronic component (Capacitors and Resistors). Cathode Ray Oscilloscope (C.R.O.) 20 MHz.

THEORY:PULSE WIDTH MODULATION:Pulse Width Modulation (PWM), also known as Pulse Duration Modulation (PDM), is a digital modulation technique where by the width of the pulse carrier is made to vary in accordance with the modulation voltage. The PWM waveform has fixed amplitude and starting time of each pulse, but the width of each pulse

is proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal at that instant. Thus the pulses corresponding to positive peaks of a modulating signal shall be wider as compare to the pulses corresponding to negative going point. This variation is shown in the fig 1-

Fig-1, Wave form of pulse width modulation

WORKING:PWM can be obtained by using a monostable multivibrator circuit. The starting time of the pulses is controlled by the trigger pulses i.e. pulse carrier waveform and the modulating signal controls the width of the pulses. We are using timer I.C. 555. Internal working of the timer I.C. 555 :Fig 2 shows the functional block diagram of the timer I.C. 555 and external components to form a monostable multivibrator. Resistors R1, R2 and R3 form a voltagereference potential divider. There are two voltage-comparator OP-amp, one R-S FlipFlop, a low power complementary output stage and a transistor T1. 2/3 Vcc appears at the junction of the upper two resistors of the potential divider i.e. R1, R2. This voltage is fed to one input of the upper voltage-comparator Op-amp. The output of two comparator controls the R-S Flip-Flop which in turn controls the states of the complementary output stage and the slave transistor. The state of the flip-flop can also influenced by signals applied to the Pin 5 i.e. RESET terminal. When the circuit is in quiescent state the Pin 2 i.e. TRIGGER terminal is held high via resistor R4. Under this condition T1 is driven to saturation and forms a short circuit across external timing capacitor Ct and the Pin 3 output terminal of the I.C. is driven to LOW state. The monostable action is initiated as soon as a negative going trigger pulse is applied at Pin 2. When this pulse falls below the 1/3 Vcc reference value of built in potential divider the

output of the lower stage comparator op-amp, changes state and causes the R-S Flip-Flop to switch over. As the Flip-Flop switches over it cuts off T1 and drives the Pin 3 output of the IC 555 to the HIGH state.
As T1 cuts off it removes the short circuit across capacitor Ct, so Ct starts to charge up towards the apply voltage Vcc. As the voltage across Ct reaches 2/3 Vcc the upper voltage comparator changes state and causes the R-S Flip-Flop to its original state i.e. turning on T1, rapidly discharging Ct and putting the output at LOW state. The delay time of the circuit is given by t = 1.1RtCt where t is the time in seconds during which the output at pin 3 is high. The timing period of the circuit is independent of the supply voltage that can however be varied by applying a voltage at Pin 5 is CONTROL VOLTAGE terminal of the IC 555.

If we apply a continuously varying voltage at Pin 5 then the width of the output pulses vary in accordance with this control voltage, hence a pulse width modulated output results and the circuit functions as a Pulse Width Modulator. The trigger or the Carrier Pulses are generated by the astable multivibrator built around another timer IC 555. the modulating signal to be fed to Pin 5 of the PW Modulator is obtained from the secondary of the step-down transformer and is 50 Hz sinusoidal AC waveform.

Fig-3, CIRCUIT DIAGRAM FOR PULSE WIDTH MODULATOR

DEMODULATION:Demodulation is the process of extracting the original information from a modulated carrier wave. A demodulator is an electronic circuit used to recover the information content from the modulated carrier wave. The process of integration is employed in to demodulate a P.W. signal for recover the modulating signal. In this circuit we are using an op-amp integrator built around IC 741. In this current is summed over a period of time and the resultant voltage generated is the integral of that current as a function of time. In this process we are measuring the area under each pulse, and for this we are using integration method. And to integrate the wave we use I.C. 741 as an integrator. The 100K resistor across 0.1uF capacitor is added to provide DC stability. However the output waveform has some error as compared to the original modulating waveform.

Fig- 4, shows the demodulated waveform

Fig -5

P.W.M. Demodulator using Op.Amp

RESULT:Hence we study and perform the Pulse Width Modulation ( P.W.M.) and demodulation and obtained the waveforms.