Jimenez FVM

Decomposed Piecewise-Linear
Representation
Applied to DC Analysis

by

Vctor Manuel Jimnez Fernndez

A Dissertation Submitted to the Program in
Electronics
Electronics Department in partial fulfillment of the
requirements for the degree of

DOCTOR IN ELECTRONICS

At the
National Institute for Astrophysics, Optics and
Electronics

November 2006
Tonantzintla, Puebla

Thesis Advisors:

Dr. Luis Hernndez Martnez
Dr. Arturo Librado Sarmiento Reyes

Principal Reserarch Scientists
Electronics Department
INAOE
INAOE 2006
All rights reserved
The author hereby grants to INAOE permission to
reproduce and to distribute copies of this thesis
document in whole or in part.
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ASTROPHYSICS OPTICS
AND ELECTRONICS
CAD Group
Decomposed Piecewise-Linear Representation
Thesis summited by
Vctor Manuel Jimenez Fern andez
as a partial requirement
to obtain the Degree of Doctor
in Electronics
Sta. Mara Tonantzintla, Puebla. Spring - 2007
NATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR ASTROPHYSICS OPTICS
AND ELECTRONICS
CAD Group
Decomposed Piecewise-Linear Representation
Thesis summited by
Vctor Manuel Jimenez Fern andez
as a partial requirement
to obtain the Degree of Doctor
in Electronics
Thesis Advisors:
Dr. Luis Hern andez Martnez
Dr. Arturo Sarmiento Reyes
Sta. Mara Tonantzintla, Puebla. January - 2007
Acknowledgements
I would to thank the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnologa (CONACyT), Mexico,
for the economical support during the development of this thesis. I would like to express
my deep felt gratitude to my advisors: Dr. Luis Hernandez Martnez and Dr. Arturo
Sarmiento Reyes, for their endless patience, constant support, and encouragement. I
thank them for all the explanations of very decult concepts in this thesis that they
made simple and enjoyable.
I would also like to thank the other members of committe: Ph. D. Roberto S. Murphy
Arteaga, Ph. D. Mara Teresa Sanz, Ph. D. Miguel Angel Gutierrez de Anda, Ph.
D. Pedro Rosales Quintero and Ph. D. Pedro Marcelo Juli an by their comments and
suggestions to improve this thesis.
I want to dedicate this dissertation to my wife Yanet, my son Vctor and to my family
for the great love that they have for me.
i
Contents
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Piecewise-Linear modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Thesis overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Thesis organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 Existing PWL Models: Explicit and Implicit Approaches 5
2.1 PWL functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
2.2 The explicit and implicit PWL models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 The explicit model of Chua-Kang . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 The implicit model of Van Bokhoven . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Types of one-dimensional PWL curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3.1 Shortcomings in the representation of one-dimensional PWL curves 18
2.4 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3 The Piecewise-Linear ID-Model 21
3.1 One-dimensional ID-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.1.1 Equivalent circuits for the one dimensional ID-Model . . . . . . . . 26
3.1.2 Condensed ID-Model form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.2 Two-dimensional ID-Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.2.1 The iterarive geometric plane (IGP) formulation . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2.2 The two-dimensional ID-Model formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.3 Equivalent circuit for the two-dimensional ID-Model . . . . . . . . . 39
iii
iv CONTENTS
4 The Decomposed Explicit and Implicit PWL Models 47
4.1 The Hyperplane Unbending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.1.1 An Ill-conditioned case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.2 The D-Explicit PWL model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2.1 D-Explicit model for univalued and simple-multivalued PWL curves 59
4.3 The D-Implicit PWL model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
4.3.1 D-Implicit model in univalued and simple-multivalued PWL curves 67
5 Applying the ID-Model in DC Analysis 69
5.1 DC analysis in PWL networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
5.2 A procedure for nding DC element regions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2.1 Finding DC solution regions in PWL networks with upper diagonal
matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.3 Finding DC solution regions by interval analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.4 Applying ID-Model to DC analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
6 Conclusions and Future Research 147
6.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
6.2 Future research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
A Resumen 149
A.1 Introducci on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
A.2 Los Modelos PWL Explcito e Implcito . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
A.2.1 Representaci on explcita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
A.2.2 Representaci on Implcita . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
A.2.3 Representaci on de Curvas PWL Unidimensionales . . . . . . . . . . 153
A.3 El Modelo PWL Iterativo-Descompuesto en una Dimensi on . . . . . . . . . 154
A.3.1 Forma Condensada del Modelo Iterativo-Descompuesto en una Di-
mensi on . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
CONTENTS v
A.4 El Modelo PWL Iterativo-Descompuesto
en Dos Dimensiones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
A.5 Desdoblamiento de hiperplanos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
A.5.1 El Modelo Explcito Descompuesto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
A.5.2 El Modelo Implcito Descompuesto . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
A.6 Procedimiento para determnar regiones-soluci on de elemento . . . . . . . . 161
A.7 Metodologa de DC Basada en el Modelo Iterativo-Descompuesto . . . . . 164
A.8 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
A.9 Investigaci on Futura . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Bibliography 167
List of Figures
2.1 A one-dimensional PWL curve for Example 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2 Parallel circuit for describing a one-dimensional PWL curve by the implicit
model of Van Bokhoven. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.3 Series circuit for describing a one-dimensional PWL curve by the implicit model
of Van Bokhoven. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.4 Diode characteristic that fulll the LCP condition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.5 A one-dimensional PWL curve for Example 2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.6 Types of one-dimensional PWL curves. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.7 (a)Univalued PWL curve. (b)Multivalued PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.8 (a)Simple-multivalued PWL curve. (b)Doubly-Multivalued PWL curve. . . 15
2.9 (a)Continuous PWL curve. (b)Discontinuous PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . 16
2.10 (a)J-Finite PWL curve. (b)J-Innite PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.11 A closed PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.12 Types of one-dimensional PWL curves where the basic PWL models are appli-
cable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.1 A general one-dimensional PWL curve and its graphic coordinates. . . . . . . 22
3.2 A k-th segment belonging to a general PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.3 X-type equivalent circuit for a segment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.4 Switch symbol included in the equivalent circuit diagrams. . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.5 Y-type equivalent circuit for a segment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
vii
viii LIST OF FIGURES
3.6 Electrical diagram for the ID-Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.7 (a)Nonlinear element, (b)PWL curve for the nonlinear element. . . . . . . . . 28
3.8 Equivalent circuit for the PWL curve shown in Figure 3.7(b). . . . . . . . . . 30
3.9 Interval intersection for k = 1, k = 2, k = 3. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.10 A three segment-closed-continuous PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.11 A geometric plane with three vertex coordinates. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.12 A two-dimensional PWL curve characterized by vertex coordinates. . . . . . . 37
3.13 k-th plane belonging at two-dimensional PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.14 The iterative equivalent circuit for the two-dimensional ID-Model. . . . . . . 39
3.15 Two port conguration of the n-channel MOSFET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.16 i
D
v
DS
PWL curve for the n-chanel MOSFET. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.17 Top view of Figure 3.16. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.18 Four planes two-dimensional PWL plot. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.19 An i
D
v
DS
view of Figure 3.18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.20 i
D
-v
DS
PWL curves considering 21 dierent vertices for the n-channel MOSFET
in the common source conguration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.21 Constitutive planes in the PWL curve, for the n-channel MOSFET in the com-
mon source conguration, considering 21 dierent vertices. . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.22 Iterative equivalent circuit for the PWL MOSFET curve. . . . . . . . . . . . 45
4.1 A doubly-multivalued PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4.2 Graphical illustration of the Hyperplane Unbending procedure. . . . . . . . . 49
4.3 The coordinates in a doubly-multivalued PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.4 An innite slope in a doubly-multivalued PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
4.5 Applying Hyperplane Unbending to ill-conditioned case of doubly-multivalued
PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.6 Hyperplane rotation in the ill-conditioned doubly-multivalued PWL curve. . . 51
4.7 Hyperplane Unbending in an ill-conditioned doubly-multivalued PWL curve. . 52
LIST OF FIGURES ix
4.8 A three segment doubly-multivalued PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.9 Application of the Hyperplane Unbending procedure to the PWL curve depicted
in Figure 4.8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.10 Decomposed PWL curve dened by y = f(). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.11 Decomposed PWL curve dened by x = f(). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
4.12 A three segment ill-conditioned PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.13 Hyperplane rotation in the three segment ill-conditioned PWL curve. . . . . . 57
4.14 Hyperplane Unbending applied to the three segments ill-conditioned PWL curve. 58
4.15 Univalued PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.16 Hyperplane Unbending applied to the univalued PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . 60
4.17 A three segment univalued PWL curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.18 Hyperplane Unbending applied to the univalued PWL curve depicted in Figure
4.17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.19 State variables assignation in a doubly-multivalued PWL curve decomposed by
the Hyperplanes Unbending procedure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.20 Parallel circuit used in implicit descriptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.21 Series circuit used in implicit descriptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
4.22 Univalued PWL curve y = f(, p). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.23 Univalued PWL curve x = f(, r). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.24 (a)Circuit for the univalued PWL curve y = f(, p). (b)Circuit for the univalued
PWL curve x = f(, r). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
5.1 A nonlinear network containing N-PWL elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.2 A PWL network for the example 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.3 PWL curve for R
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.4 PWL curve for R
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.5 Hyperplane partitions for the PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.6 Curves
1
and
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
x LIST OF FIGURES
5.7 Curves
2
and
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
5.8 The three DC solutions for the example 10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
5.9 A nonlinear network containing two PWL elements in series connection. . . . . 81
5.10 Curves for the PWL elements R
1
and R
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
5.11 Hyperplane partition regions for the nonlinear network of Figure 5.9. . . . . . 82
5.12 Resulting curve of the series connection of R
1
and R
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
5.13 Intersections
1

1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.14 Intersections
2

2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
5.15 DC solution region for the case E = 14 and R = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
5.16 Intersections
1

1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.17 Intersections
2

2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
5.18 DC solution region for the case E = 11 and R = 0. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5.19 A nonlinear electrical network containing three PWL elements. . . . . . . . . 88
5.20 (a)PWL curve for R
1
. (b)PWL curve for R
2
. (c)PWL curve for R
3
. . . . 89
5.21 Iterative circuit used in the analysis for determining the DC element regions. . 89
5.22 k = 1 results in the iterative analysis for determining the DC element regions. 90
5.25 Nonlinear electrical network containing three PWL elements. . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.26 PWL curve for the relation x
1
-y
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
2
-y
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3
-y
3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.29 Hyperplane partition for the relations x
1
-y
1
, x
2
-y
2
and x
3
-y
3
. . . . . . . . . . 95
5.30 Part of the hyperplane partition region in the rst segment of x
3
-y
3
relation. . 96
5.31 Part of the hyperplane partition region in the second segment of x
3
-y
3
relation. 96
5.32 Part of the hyperplane partition region in the third segment of x
3
-y
3
relation. . 97
5.33 Part of the hyperplane partition region in the fouth segment of x
3
-y
3
relation. . 97
5.34 Intersection
3

3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
LIST OF FIGURES xi
5.35 Intersection
2

2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.36 Intersection
1

1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
5.37 DC solution regions for the nonlinear circuit shown in Figure 5.25. . . . . . . . 101
5.38 Cases of J-Finite PWL segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.39 Cases of J-Innite PWL segments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
5.40 Equivalent PWL curve for the series circuit of example 11. . . . . . . . . . . . 104
5.41 A circuit containing two PWL elements in series connection. . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.42 Constitutive relations of PWL elements R
1
and R
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.43 Hyperplane partitions for R
1
and R
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.44 Intersections
1

1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.45 Intersections
1

1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5.46 DC solution regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.47 Constitutive relations of PWL element R
1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.48 Constitutive relations of PWL element R
2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.49 70 Hyperplane partition regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.50 Intersections
1

1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.51 Intersections
1

1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
5.52 DC solution regions from 70 hyperplane partition regions. . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.53 A PWL circuit containing a voltage source controlled by a PWL current. . . . 126
5.54 Hyperplane partitions for the example 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5.55 Intersections
1

1
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.56 Intersections
2

2
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.57 DC solution regions for the example 17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
5.58 Schmitt-Trigger circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.59 Simplied Ebers-Moll model of an npn transistor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
5.60 PWL approximation of diode v
D
-i
D
curve for = 1500 and + = 0.014. . . 133
5.61 Equivalent PWL network for the Schmitt Trigger after substituting the npn
transistors by its PWL equivalent reported in Figure 5.59. . . . . . . . . . . . 133
xii LIST OF FIGURES
5.62
2

2
intersections showing the DC solution regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.63 v-i PWL curve showing the DC solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.64 A ve-segment PWL approximation of diode curve. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.65 N-Type curve circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5.66 Resulting N-Type circuit after substituting the npn transistors by their nonlinear
equivalent circuit reported in Figure 5.59. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.67
2

2
intersections showing the DC solution regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
5.68 v-i PWL curve showing the DC solutions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
5.69 Nine solutions circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
A.1 Tipos de curvas PWL en una dimensi on. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
A.2 Una curva PWL unidimensional descrita por coordenadas. . . . . . . . . . . 154
A.3 Supercie PWL en dos dimensiones caracterizada por vertices. . . . . . . . . 157
A.4 Curva PWL unidimensional multivaluada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
A.5 Desdoblamiento de hiperplanos para la curva PWL unidimensional multivaluada
de la Figura A.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
A.6 Asignaci on de variables de estado en las curvas univaluadas que resultan despues
de aplicar el desdoblamiento de hiperplanos a una curva PWL multivaluada . . 161
A.7 A nonlinear network containing N-PWL elements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
Abstract
The aim of this thesis is to develop a mathematical representation that guarantees a de-
scription for all types of one-dimensional piecewise-linear (PWL) curves and applying this
representation to the DC analysis of PWL networks. First, some important contributions
about the PWL modeling reported in the literature up to now are studied. In this way, an
introduction and a theoretical background is provided for the reader. Also all the types
of one-dimensional PWL curves are classied in several categories in order to show those
specic curves that cannot be covered by the existing PWL models here reported. Next,
as a proposal to overcome this shortcoming, an iterative and decomposed representation,
hereafter denoted as the ID-Model, is developed. Then, the existing models are recast
into decomposed forms by a technique here denominated Hyperplane Unbending. The
ID-Model, the f Unbending and therefore the decomposed forms of the existing models
are the main contributions of this thesis in the area of PWL modeling. After that, a
DC analysis methodology for PWL networks is developed. This methodology is compat-
ible with the ID-Model and guarantees nding all the operating points. Although the
proposed methodology is based on combinatorial analysis, a technique for identifying the
segments of a PWL curve not involved in the existence of any equilibrium point is also
developed. It avoids the exhaustive search in all the segment combinations and it makes
the process of nding any equilibrium point more ecient. This technique is in fact the
main contribution of this thesis in the area of PWL analysis.
xiii
Preface
A glance at the literature in nonlinear circuit theory attests the continuing interest in the
research of piecewise-linear (PWL) modeling and analysis. One of the important problems
in this area is DC analysis, which consists on the determination of the all the solutions
(equilibrium or operating points) of PWL resistive networks. This problem is important
not only from a circuit theoretical point of view, but even more so from a computational
point of view. In order to be able to analyze PWL resistive networks, the nonlinear
behavior of the PWL elements must be described by a mathematical model. So, the DC
analysis in PWL networks implies both aspects, modeling and analysis. This thesis is
focused on developing a mathematical representation for one-dimensional PWL curves
and determining a compatible methodology for DC analysis with such representation.
In Chapter 1, the concept of PWL modeling is introduced. Also, the thesis overview
and organization is presented. In Chapter 2, a review of some existing results in PWL
modeling is presented. In addition, a classication of all the types of one-dimensional
PWL curves is reported. In Chapter 3, a mathematical representation to describe all
types of one-dimensional PWL curves is presented. This representation is denoted as
Iterative and Decomposed Model (ID-Model). In Chapter 4, a mathematical procedure
to describe multivalued one-dimensional PWL curves by a transformation into univalued
forms is developed. This procedure is denominated as Hyperplane Unbending, and it
allows the recast of the existing PWL models into their decomposed forms. Chapter 5
presents the application of the ID-Model to DC analysis. Finally, in Chapter 6, a summary
of the contributions of this thesis is presented, and some conclusions are drawn.
xv
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Piecewise-Linear modeling
A model description is a mathematical representation that approximates a specic sys-
tems functionality. Approximating a nonlinear function or behavior by a known mathe-
matical function is a technique often used[1]. From a modeling point of view, the purpose
is to achieve a simple formulation to describe the nonlinear behavior, and also to get more
insight by applying known theorems to the function. An approximation approach, widely
used in modeling nonlinear systems, is the so called piecewise-linear (PWL) ([2], [3], [4],
[5], [6], [7], [8]). PWL functions approximate the nonlinear behavior of a system, by using
a set of linear mappings. It means transforming a single nonlinear equation into several
linear equations which can easily be solved by standard methods from linear algebra [9].
The factor that prevalently motivates the use of PWL functions is the simplicity of its
structure, which is linear in each region of the domain.
In PWL theory, it is common to describe the functionality of nonlinear systems by PWL
curves [10], [11]. In systems like PWL electrical networks, the nonlinear elements be-
havior is graphically described by one-dimensional PWL curves. These curves must be
mathematically modeled rst by a PWL function, in order to make circuit analysis pos-
sible. In this sense, there are two basic approaches in the formulation of PWL models for
one-dimensional PWL functions and therefore one-dimensional PWL curves.
1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
One is the explicit model of Chua-Kang [12] which is also denoted as the canonical model
and the other approach is the implicit model of van Bokhoven [3]. Both models are im-
portant contributions, which are applicable to the representation of univalued and certain
type of multivalued PWL functions. However, they have the following shortcomings:
1. In the case of the explicit model of Chua-Kang, the explicit representation may be
used to model univalued PWL curves because it is dened in terms of a one-to-one
mathematical relation.
2. The implicit model proposed by Van Bokhoven is derived from a network theoretical
viewpoint [13]. According to this model, a PWL function is represented by a PWL
electrical network with state variables dening the partition of the domain space.
The electrical network includes resistors or conductances, independent voltage or
current sources and ideal diodes. The states are related to the ideal diodes operation.
For each state there is one and only one combination of blocking or conducting
diodes. Since the state variables support multiple solutions, it permits certain types
of multivalued PWL functions to be described by this model.
3. The parameters of both models, explicit and implicit, are strongly related to the
Jacobian terms. For one-dimensional PWL curves, the Jacobians can be seen geo-
metrically as the segment slopes in the curve. This constitutes a shortcoming when
the slope of the segment has an innity value.
4. The left-most and right-most region intervals, in both models, are open. It does not
allow the possibility of describing closed curves.
5. Due to the existing continuity condition between neighboring regions, in both mod-
els, the representation of discontinuous and separate curves is another kind of rep-
resentation that is not covered.
1.2. THESIS OVERVIEW 3
1.2 Thesis overview
Although PWL modeling constitutes an advantage because of its mathematical simplicity,
it implies a twofold problem. The rst problem regards a modeling problem because a
representation able of describing all types of PWL curves is needed. The second problem
consists of the method of localizing the particular regions in which the solutions can be
found. In this thesis the rst problem is overcome by introducing a novel proposal of
a decomposed PWL representation. This representation has the advantage of obtaining
the model parameters directly from graphical coordinates instead of Jacobian terms. It
guarantees the description of univalued and multivalued curves. The representation has
been denoted as an Iterative-Decomposed Model (ID-Model). It is denoted as a decom-
posed one, because the independent and dependent(s) variables in the PWL function
are treated separately. It is also called iterative , because the particular representation of
each constitutive segment (for the one-dimensional case) or plane (for the two-dimensional
case), depends on the value of one single parameter included in the mathematical formu-
lation, for that reason, the ID-Model is compatible with iterative simulation techniques
and it possesses features that make it suitable for simulation and modeling. This model
is also extended in order to deal with the representation of two-dimensional PWL func-
tions. Also, a mathematical procedure for decomposing multivalued PWL curves into a
univalued representations is presented. This procedure has been denoted as Hyperplanes
Unbending, and it has been applied to the explicit model of Chua-Kang and the implicit
model of Van Bokhoven, resulting in a recasting of these models into decomposed forms
which can be applied to achieve the description of continuous univalued and multivalued
one-dimensional PWL curves.
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION
1.3 Thesis organization
Chapter 2 introduces the explicit model of Chua-Kang and the implicit model of Van
Bokhoven. Several examples are presented to illustrate the application of these models.
A classication for one-dimensional PWL curves is presented in order to show those curves
that these models can directly describe and those that they are not able to represent. The
objective of this chapter is not only to establish a mathematical background but also to
provide the necessary support for introducing the ID-Model.
In Chapter 3, the ID-Model is presented. This chapter is divided into two sections: In the
rst, the ID-Model for the representation of one-dimensional PWL curves is treated. In
the second section, the description of two-dimensional PWL curves is considered. Both
sections in this chapter begin by developing the mathematical model expressions, then
theoretical equivalent circuits for the model are presented, and nally, numerical examples
are given.
In Chapter 4 the decomposed forms for the explicit and implicit PWL models are pre-
sented. The rst section deals with a mathematical procedure for decomposing multival-
ued PWL curves into univalued PWL curves that are related by a mapping variable. Such
a mathematical procedure is explained in detail in the rst section, titled as Hyperplane
Unbending. The second section deals with the decomposed explicit model, denoted as
D-Explicit, and the third section with the decomposed implicit model denominated as
D-Implicit. Every section includes illustrative examples to demonstrate the eciency of
this modeling technique.
Chapter 5 presents the application of the ID-Model to the DC analysis in PWL networks.
Since the parameters of this model are graphic coordinates, a technique based on co-
ordinates for identifying such regions where the operating points exist is also proposed.
Several examples have been solved in detail in order to show the ID-Model application in
the process of nding all the operating points. Finally, in Chapter 6 the conclusions of
this thesis are presented. Furthermore proposals for future research are presented.
Chapter 2
Existing PWL Models: Explicit and
Implicit Approaches
Introduction
In this chapter the mathematical background for the explicit and implicit PWL models is
reviewed. The chapter is organized as follows: in Section 2.1, the denition and required
conditions for a PWL function are introduced. In Section 2.2, the one-dimensional explicit
model of Chua-Kang and the implicit model of Van Bokhoven are described. In Section
2.3, the dierent types of one-dimensional PWL curves are presented and classied. Fi-
nally, in Section 2.4 the conclusions of the chapter are summarized.
2.1 PWL functions
A PWL function approximates the nonlinear behavior of a function by a collection of lin-
ear segments. For the one-dimensional case, these segments are just straight lines dened
along consecutive intervals over the domain axis. Each one of these straight lines is only
valid in a certain region called polytope, which is bounded by line equations denoted as
hyperplanes. The points indicating the transition between two polytopes in the PWL
curve are denominated breakpoints.
5
6CHAPTER 2. EXISTING PWL MODELS: EXPLICIT ANDIMPLICIT APPROACHES
For the multi-dimensional case the domain in R
n
is also divided into a collection of
polytopes and they are bounded by a set of linear frontiers of hyperplanes.
A formal denition for a PWL function is reported in ([2], [8]), and it is given by:
Denition 1. A function f : D R
n
R
m
, where D is a compact set, is a PWL
function if and only if it satises the following conditions:
1. The domain D is divided into a nite number of polyhedral regions R
(1)
,R
(2)
,...,R
(N)
( with D =
N
i=1
R
(i)
) by a nite set of boundaries
H = {H
i
D, i = 1, 2, ..., h} , (2.1)
such that each boundary is either an (n 1)-dimensional hyperplane characterized
by
H
i
=
_
x R
n
|
T
i
x
i
= 0
_
, (2.2)
where
i
R,
i
R
1
for i = 1, 2, ..., h, or a subset of it.
2. f is expressed by an ane representation of the form
f
(i)
(x) = J
(i)
x + w
(i)
, (2.3)
for any x R
(i)
, where J
(i)
R
mn
is the Jacobian matrix of the region R
(i)
and
w
(i)
R
m
.
3. f is continuous on any boundary between two regions , namely,
J
(p)
x + w
(p)
= J
(q)
x + w
(q)
, (2.4)
for any x R
(p)
R
(q)
.
2.2. THE EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT PWL MODELS 7
2.2 The explicit and implicit PWL models
Two approaches have been formulated to describe PWL functions. One is the approach
of the explicit representation proposed by Chua and Kang [14] given by
y = a +bx +
i=1
c
i
T
i
x i
(2.5)
where a,c
i
R
m
,
i
R
n
, b R
mn
and
i
R
1
.
The other is the approach of the implicit representation of Van Bokhoven [3]. This repre-
sentation is based on the expression of a linear resistive network with k ports terminated
with ideal diodes given by
y = Ax +Bu + f, (2.6)
j = Cx +Du +g, (2.7)
where A R
mn
, B R
mk
, f R
m
, C R
kn
, D R
kk
, g R
k
, and the variables
u, j R
k
satisfy the linear complementary problem ([15], [16], [7], [17]):
u
T
j = 0, u 0, j 0. (2.8)
The explicit model of Chua-Kang has a compact structure which can be evaluated directly.
In contrast, the implicit representation of Van Bokhoven demands the use of an algorithm
to solve the function value y for a given x, because in this case it is necessary to solve for
the state variables u and j, prior to the solution of y.
Hereafter, this chapter is devoted to a review of these two models when they are applied
to the representation of one-dimensional PWL curves. The required formulations needed
for determining the model parameters are given and also the types of one-dimensional
curves to which these models can be applied.
2.2.1 The explicit model of Chua-Kang
The history of the development of compact explicit PWL models started in 1977 with the
paper of Chua and Kang [14]. In this paper they proposed a section-wise PWL function
and dened the properties for this model. A year later, they came up with the global
representation of multi-dimensional PWL functions [12]. Since then many researchers
have tried to extend this model for the most general model description that can cover
all explicit continuous functions. In this research work the basic form of this model is
considered and it is dened by the following theorem:
Theorem 1. Any one-dimensional PWL curve with L segments and breakpoints
1
<
2
< ... <
, can be represented by the expression

y = a + bx +
i=1
c
i
|x
i
| , (2.9)
where = L 1 and a, b, c
i
,
i
R
1
can be calculated as follows:
b =
_
J
(1)
+ J
()+1
_
2
, (2.10)
c
i
=
_
J
(i+1)
J
(i)
_
2
, i = 1, 2, ..., (2.11)
a = f (0)
i=1
c
i
|
i
| (2.12)
with J
(i)
denoting the slope of the i-th constitutive segment in the PWL curve.
Example 1. Consider the one-dimensional PWL curve depicted in Figure 2.1. This curve
is characterized by 3 segments (L = 3) and 2 breakpoints ( = L 1).
0
x
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
-1
1
2
3
1
-1
2
Figure 2.1: A one-dimensional PWL curve for Example 1.
From this gure, several parameters can be obtained, namely the three slopes J
(1)
= 1,
J
(2)
= 1, J
(3)
= 2 and the two breakpoints
1
= 1,
2
= 4. In accordance with (2.10)-
(2.12), the model parameters of the canonical expression (2.9) are obtained as follows:
b =
_
J
(1)
+ J
(3)
_
2
=
(1 + 2)
2
=
3
2
c
1
=
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_
2
=
(1 1)
2
= 1
c
2
=
_
J
(3)
J
(2)
_
2
=
(2 (1))
2
=
3
2
a = f (0) c
1
|
1
| c
2
|
2
| = 1 (1) |1|
_
3
2
_
|4| = 4
Therefore, the canonical explicit model can be written as
y = 4 +
3
2
x |x 1| +
3
2
|x 4|
2.2.2 The implicit model of Van Bokhoven
A few years after the introduction of the rst PWL model description by Chua and Kang,
Wim M.G. Van Bokhoven came up with an implicit model description [3]. This model
was derived from a more network theoretical viewpoint and it is dened by the following
theorem:
Theorem 2. Any one-dimensional PWL curve with L segments and ( = L 1)
breakpoints
1
<
2
< ... <
, can be represented by the expression

y = Ax +Bu + f, (2.13)
j = Cx +Du +g, (2.14)
where the state variables u and j fulll the Linear Complementary Problem (LCP) condi-
tion
u
T
j = 0, u 0, j 0. (2.15)
Each one of the breakpoints in the PWL curve indicates a transition between the
ending and the beginning of any constitutive segment. In fact, the number of breakpoints
indicates the number of required state variables within the implicit model description.
Theorem 3. In the implicit model description of any one-dimensional PWL curve at
most 2
state variables are needed. Being the number of breakpoints.

For a one-dimensional PWL curve dened by the function y = f(x), the implicit model
of Van Bokhoven is strongly related and also derived from any of the electrical networks
shown in Figure 2.2 or Figure 2.3.
+
_
y
+
_
u
1
j
1
G
0
G
1
+
_
u
L-1
j
L-1
G
L-1
+
_
u
2
j
2
G
2
E
1
E
2
E
L-1
x
Figure 2.2: Parallel circuit for describing a one-dimensional PWL curve by the implicit model
of Van Bokhoven.
+
_
x
+
_
j
1
u
1
R
1
j
L-1
u
L-1
R
L-1
+
_
j
2
u
2
R
2
I
1
I
2
I
L-1
+
_
R
0
y
Figure 2.3: Series circuit for describing a one-dimensional PWL curve by the implicit model
of Van Bokhoven.
In these circuits, the variables u and j have a physical meaning and indicate the volt-
ages and currents of ideal diodes, the breakpoints are modeled by independent voltage
(E
1
, E
2
, , E
L1
) or current sources (I
1
, I
2
, , I
L1
), the variables x and y represent
the voltage and current in an input port and the segment slopes are physically expressed
by the conductances (G
0
, G
1
, , G
L1
) or the resistors (R
0
, R
1
, , R
L1
).
In both circuits, parallel and series, the diodes exhibit the ideal behavior shown in
Figure 2.4. Observe that the state variables (u, j) fulll the LCP condition (2.15).
u
j
0
Figure 2.4: Diode characteristic that fulll the LCP condition.
An analytic study to obtain the parameters of the implicit model of Van Bokhoven from
any one-dimensional PWL curve reveals that the parameters A, B, f, C, D and g can be
calculated as follows:
A = J
(L)
, (2.16)
B =
_
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_ _
J
(3)
J
(2)
_

_
J
(L)
J
()
_
_
, (2.17)
f =
i=1
_
J
(i+1)
J
(i)
_
i
, (2.18)
C =
_
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_ _
J
(3)
J
(2)
_

_
J
(L)
J
()
_
_
T
, (2.19)
D =
_
_
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_
0 0 0
0
_
J
(3)
J
(2)
_
0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0
_
J
(L)
J
()
_
_
_
, (2.20)
g =
_
_
J
(1)
J
(2)
_
1
_
J
(2)
J
(3)
_
2

_
J
()
J
(L)
_
_
T
(2.21)
Example 2. Figure 2.5 shows a one-dimensional PWL curve. In this curve there are
three segments (L = 3) with the slopes given by J
(1)
= 2, J
(2)
= 1 and J
(3)
= 1/2. The
two breakpoints ( = L 1) are
1
= 1 and
2
= 2.
0
x
y
1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
1
2
3
2
-1
1/2
Figure 2.5: A one-dimensional PWL curve for Example 2.
Because there are two breakpoints, then four (2
2
= 4) state variables are required in the
model. Therefore, the state vectors are dened as
u =
_
_
u
1
u
2
_
_
, j =
_
_
j
1
j
2
_
_
The implicit model of Van Bokhoven, dened in (2.13)-(2.15), for this curve can be ob-
tained after applying equations (2.16)-(2.21) as follows:
A = J
(3)
=
1
2
,
B =
_
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_ _
J
(3)
J
(2)
_
_
=
_
(1 2)
_
1
2
(1)
_
_
=
_
3
3
2
_
,
f =
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_
_
J
(3)
J
(2)
_
2
= (1 2) (1)
_
1
2
(1)
_
(2) = 3 3 = 0,
C =
_
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_ _
J
(3)
J
(2)
_
_
T
=
_
(1 2)
_
1
2
(1)
_
_
T
=
_
3
3
2
_
T
,
D =
_
_
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_
0
0
_
J
(3)
J
(2)
_
_
_
=
_
_
(1 2) 0
0
_
1
2
(1)
_
_
_
=
_
_
3 0
0
3
2
_
_
,
g =
_
_
J
(1)
J
(2)
_
1
_
J
(2)
J
(3)
_
2
_
T
=
_
(2 (1)) (1)
_
(1)
_
1
2
__
(2)
_
T
=
_
3 3
_
T
The implicit PWL model is given by
y =
1
2
x +
_
3
3
2
_
_
_
u
1
u
2
_
_
, (2.22)
_
_
j
1
j
2
_
_
=
_
_
3
3
2
_
_
x +
_
_
3 0
0
3
2
_
_
_
_
u
1
u
2
_
_
+
_
_
3
3
_
_
, (2.23)
with the LCP conditions:
_
u
1
u
2
_
_
_
j
1
j
2
_
_
= 0,
_
_
u
1
u
2
_
_
0,
_
_
j
1
j
2
_
_
j 0 (2.24)
and the state variables values along the independent variable x are given by
_
_
u
1
u
2
_
_
=
_
_
u
1
0, u
2
0 for x
1
u
1
= 0, u
2
0 for
1
x
2
u
1
= 0, u
2
= 0 for x
2
(2.25)
or
_
_
j
1
j
2
_
_
=
_
_
j
1
= 0, j
2
= 0 for x
1
j
1
0, j
2
= 0 for
1
x
2
j
1
0, j
2
0 for x
2
(2.26)
The implicit model equations (2.22)-(2.23) are associated to a multiport equation
system and with the equivalent electrical circuits shown in Figure 2.2 and Figure 2.3.
2.3 Types of one-dimensional PWL curves
As a rst attempt to carry out a systematic study of the representation capability for
the PWL models studied in the previous section, a classication for the one-dimensional
PWL curves is given in Figure 2.6.
Types of one-dimensional PWL curves
Univalued Multivalued
Continuous Discontinuous
J-Finite J-Infinite J-Finite J-Infinite
Open
J-Finite J-Infinite
Closed Open Closed
J-Finite J-Infinite
Figure 2.6: Types of one-dimensional PWL curves.
This classication has been made in three levels for the univalued case and four levels for
the multivalued case.
In the rst category appears the univalued and multivalued curves.
Theorem 4. A PWL curve described by a function y = f(x) is dened as univalued if
and olny if for a value of the independent variable x corresponds one and only one value
of the dependent variable y.
Theorem 5. A PWL curve described by y = f(x) is dened as multivalued if and only
if at least there exists a value of the independent variable x which corresponds with more
than one value of the dependent variable y.
Examples of univalued and multivalued PWL curves are shown in Figure 2.7.
2.3. TYPES OF ONE-DIMENSIONAL PWL CURVES 15
0
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
-1
1
2
3
x
y=f (x)
0
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
-1
1
2
3
x
y=f (x)
Figure 2.7: (a)Univalued PWL curve. (b)Multivalued PWL curve.
A more detailed study reveals that multivalued PWL curves can be classied into two
sub-categories, here denoted as: simple-multivalued and doubly-multivalued.
Theorem 6. A PWL curve described by a function y = f(x) is said to be simple-
multivalued if its inverse function x = f(y) is univalued.
Theorem 7. A PWL curve described by x and y variables is said to be doubly-multivalued
if the functions y = f(x) and x = f(y) are multivalued.
Examples of simple and doubly multivalued PWL curves are shown in Figure 2.8.
0
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
-1
1
2
3
x
y=f (x)
0
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
-1
1
2
3
x
y=f (x)
Figure 2.8: (a)Simple-multivalued PWL curve. (b)Doubly-Multivalued PWL curve.
In order to simplify the reading of the block diagram of Figure 2.6, the PWL curve
classication in simple or double multivalued is not shown and both sub-categories are
simply here denoted as multivalued. However, it is important to keep in mind both sub-
categories because they are considered in Chapter 4.
The second classication level considers the continuity between the constitutive segments
in a PWL curve.
Theorem 8. A PWL curve is said to be continuous if all its L segments are geometrically
linked by breakpoints (for = L 1) from the leftmost until the rightmost constitutive
segment.
Theorem 8 is only a sucient condition, but a necessary condition is given by the
following lemma.
Lemma 1. If only one trajectory running sequentially through the segments that belong
to the PWL curve can be traced, then it is said that this is a continuous curve.
A complementary lemma is
Lemma 2. If more than one trajectory running sequentially through the consecutive seg-
ments in a PWL curve does exist, then it is said that this is a discontinuous curve.
Figure 2.9 shows examples of continuous and discontinuous PWL curves.
0
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
-1
1
2
3
x
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
0
y
1 2 3 4 5 6 -1
-1
1
2
3
x
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
Figure 2.9: (a)Continuous PWL curve. (b)Discontinuous PWL curve.
The third level of classication in the diagram of Figure 2.6 refers to the value that the
segment slope may take.
Theorem 9. A PWL curve represented by y = f(x) is denoted as J-Finite if all the slopes
of their constitutive segments are numerically dened by a nite value for the rate
_
y
x
_
.
Theorem 10. If at least one of the segment slopes in a PWL curve represented by y =
f(x) are dened by a rate
_
y
x
_
that includes a division by zero (x = 0), then this curve
is denominated as J-Innite.
Figure 2.10 shows illustrative examples for the J-Finite and J-Innite classication.
0
y
1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
1
2
3
x
J
(1)
=1
J
(2)
=1/2
J
(3)
=3/2
0
y
1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
1
2
3
x
J
(1)
= - 1
J
(2)
=1
J
(3)
=2/0
J
(4)
=1/2
Infinite slope
Figure 2.10: (a)J-Finite PWL curve. (b)J-Innite PWL curve.
The last classication of PWL curves refers to the dierence between open and closed
curves.
Until now, all the PWL curves considered have been open because in all the cases, if a
trajectory running sequentially through the consecutive segments is traced, it results in
an open path.
Theorem 11. A PWL curve is said to be closed if and only if a closed path is obtained
after tracing a trajectory running sequentially through the consecutive segments.
An example of closed PWL curve is depicted in Figure 2.11.
0
y
1 2 3 4 5 6
-1
1
2
3
x
(1)
(2)
(4)
(3)
Figure 2.11: A closed PWL curve.
2.3.1 Shortcomings in the representation of one-dimensional PWL
curves
The basic form of the explict model (2.9) denes a one-to-one mathematical relation
between the independent and dependent variables. It represents a shortcoming because
it does not allow the representation of multivalued curves.
The state variable representation in the implicit model (2.13)-(2.15) supports multiple
solutions, it allows that certain types of multivalued PWL curves can be described.
However, because the parameters of both models, explicit and implicit, depend directly
on the segment slopes, the representation of J-Innite PWL curves is not covered.
In both models, the leftmost and rightmost segments belong to open intervals. It also
means a shortcoming because it does not allow the possibility of describing closed curves.
Finally, due to the continuity condition between neighboring regions, the representation
of discontinuous curves is another kind of representation that is not covered by the basic
PWL models.
After analyzing these shortcomings and the classication shown in Figure 2.6, the resulting
schema reported in Figure 2.12 can be obtained.
The dashed lines indicate the types of PWL curves that can not be represented by the
basic explicit and implicit PWL models. The types of one-dimensional curves which can
be eciently described by the basic PWL models appear boxed by thick solid lines.
Types of one-dimensional PWL curves
Univalued Multivalued
J-Finite J-Infinite J-Finite J-Infinite
Open
J-Finite J-Infinite
Closed Open Closed
J-Finite J-Infinite
Explicit
model
Implicit
model
Figure 2.12: Types of one-dimensional PWL curves where the basic PWL models are appli-
cable.
From Figure 2.12 it can be seen that all the J-Innite curves, discontinuous or closed, can
not be represented by the basic PWL model descriptions.
It is important to point out that particular extensions in the form of the basic explicit
and implicit models have been proposed as a solution to overcome this problem. For
example, in [14] a parametric form for the explicit model in order to make it applicable
in the description of multivalued PWL curves is reported. Also in [14], the representation
of discontinuous PWL curves is achieved by including the signum function (sgn) into the
basic explicit mathematical formulation.
The implicit model has also been submitted to modications in order to expand its ap-
plication [1]. For example in the so called Bokhoven II, the hyperplanes are not limited
to have vertical or horizontal positions, they could be considered as line equations with a
slope dierent to zero or innite.
However, it implies that for a specic PWL curve, a particular modied PWL model form
must necessarily be used. It represents a problem because it is not desirable in an analysis
process to handle dierent models.
It shows the necessity of having a general model description that guarantees the repre-
sentation of all types of one-dimensional PWL curves.
2.4 Conclusion
The mathematical background for the explicit and implicit PWL models was introduced.
Also a classication for one-dimensional PWL curves was presented. Several theorems
were given in order to describe the characteristics for each type of the classied curves.
Then, the shortcomings that the basic forms of the explicit and implicit models exhibit
for the representation of PWL curves were presented. Finally, it the need of having a
model for describing all types of one-dimensional PWL curves is expressed.
Chapter 3
The Piecewise-Linear ID-Model
Introduction
As shown in the previous chapter, the explicit and implicit PWL models can be e-
ciently applied to the representation of univalued and certain types of multivalued one-
dimensional PWL curves. However, they are not able to provide a model description
for discontinuous, J-Innite and closed curves. In order to overcome this problem, an
iterative and decomposed model description, for one and two dimensional PWL curves,
is proposed. This description can be eciently applied to model both, univalued and
multivalued PWL curves, and it has the advantage of obtaining the model parameters
directly from graphic coordinates. Hereafter, this mathematical representation is denoted
as the Iterative-Decomposed Model (ID-Model). It is denominated as iterative, because
the particular representation of each segment (for the one-dimensional case) or geometri-
cal plane (for the two-dimensional case), depends on the value of one parameter included
in the formulation. It is also denoted as decomposed because all the variables are included
separately in a system of linear equations. This chapter is divided in two sections, Section
1 deals with the one dimensional ID-Model and Section 2 with the two dimensional case
of this model.
21
22 CHAPTER 3. THE PIECEWISE-LINEAR ID-MODEL
3.1 One-dimensional ID-Model
Let the one-dimensional PWL curve, depicted in Figure 3.1, be characterized by L linear
segments and (L+1) graphic coordinates: {(X
1
, Y
1
), (X
2
, Y
2
), ..., (X
L
, Y
L
), (X
L+1
, Y
L+1
)}.
x
y
0
k=1
k=2
k=3
k=L-2
k=L-1
k=L
(X
1
,Y
1
)
(X
2
,Y
2
)
(X
3
,Y
3
)
(X
L-2
,Y
L-2
)
(X
L-1
,Y
L-1
)
(X
L
,Y
L
)
(X
L+1
,Y
L+1
)
Figure 3.1: A general one-dimensional PWL curve and its graphic coordinates.
A k-iterative parameter running from (X
1
, Y
1
) to (X
L+1
, Y
L+1
) is assigned. This parameter
is in accordance with each one of the constitutive segments and it takes the values: k =
1, 2, ..., L.
An iterative decomposed formulation for this curve can be obtained as follows:
Firstly, the particular problem of obtaining the line equation for any of the k-th segments
belonging to the PWL curve is analyzed. The graphic exposition of this problem is
illustrated in Figure 3.2.
The line equation y
k
for the k-th segment is given as:
y
k
=
_
Y
k+1
Y
k
X
k+1
X
k
_
x +
_
Y
k
X
k+1
Y
k+1
X
k
X
k+1
X
k
_
(3.1)
Then, (3.1) is factored into the form
y
k
= P
k
Y
k
+ Q
k
Y
k+1
(3.2)
3.1. ONE-DIMENSIONAL ID-MODEL 23
x
y
0
y
k+1
y
k
y
k-1
X
k+1
Y
k+1
X
k
Y
k
Figure 3.2: A k-th segment belonging to a general PWL curve.
where P
k
and Q
k
are variables dened by the determinant ratios:
P
k
=
x X
k+1
1 1
X
k
X
k+1
1 1
, Q
k
=
X
k
x
1 1
X
k
X
k+1
1 1
(3.3)
The relation between (3.2) and (3.3) is expressed as the system of linear equations given
by:
_
_
y
k
x
1
_
_
=
_
_
Y
k
Y
k+1
X
k
X
k+1
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
k
Q
k
_
_ (3.4)
The linear system (3.4) describes the k-th line equation included in the PWL curve to be
modeled.
Finally, a complete mathematical expression which involves all the line equations of the
constitutive segments and therefore it guarantees a complete description for the curve
depicted in Figure 3.1 is achieved if (3.4) is generalized for all the L segments. In order
to obtain this generalization, it is necessary to recast (3.4) with a new subscript. The
variable subscript n is dened as n = {1, 2, , L} and the general model description can
be written:
_
_
y
x
1
_
_
=
L
n=1
_
_
Y
n
Y
n+1
X
n
X
n+1
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
n
Q
n
_
_
C
n
(k) (3.5)
with the condition:
Q
n
(x), P
n
(x), Q
n
(y), P
n
(y) 0 (3.6)
where C
n
(k) is denoted as the activation coecient and it is dened as indicated by (3.7)
and (3.8).
C
n
(k) =
1
n!(L n)!
n1
=0
|k |
Ln
=1
|k (n + )| (3.7)
for n = 1...(L 1), and
C
n
(k) =
1
L!
n1
=0
|k | (3.8)
for n = L.
The relation between the activation coecients and the k parameter is shown in Table
3.1:
k C
1
(k) C
2
(k) C
3
(k) C
L2
(k) C
L1
(k) C
L
(k)
1 1 0 0 0 0 0
2 0 1 0 0 0 0
3 0 0 1 0 0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
L 2 0 0 0 1 0 0
L 1 0 0 0 0 1 0
L 0 0 0 0 0 1
Table 3.1: Relation between the activation coecients and the k parameter.
Table 3.1 shows that according with (3.7) and (3.8), C
n
(k) = 1 when k = n and otherwise
C
k
(n) = 0. The mathematical formulation (3.5) can be seen as the collection of all the
segment line equations involved in a PWL curve. The coecients C
n
(k) are included with
the purpose of selecting a specic line equation for a value of k.
The variables P
n
and Q
n
in (3.5) have an important function because they control the
interval where the k-th line equation exists.
This is expressed in the condition (3.6) and it is demonstrated as follows:
Firsty, the notations X
n
and Y
n
are dened as:
X
n
= X
n+1
X
n
, Y
n
= Y
n+1
Y
n
(3.9)
Then, mathematical expressions for the variables P
n
and Q
n
can be obtained if the de-
composed linear equations (3.5) are algebraically manipulated.
y = Y
n
P
n
+ Y
n+1
Q
n
(3.10)
x = X
n
P
n
+ X
n+1
Q
n
(3.11)
1 = P
n
+ Q
n
(3.12)
After solving P
n
from (3.12) and substituting it into (3.10) and (3.11), Q
n
can be expressed
as
Q
n
(x) =
x
X
n
X
n
X
n
, Q
n
(y) =
y
Y
n
Y
n
Y
n
(3.13)
A similar analysis when Q
n
is obtained from (3.12) and then susbstituted into (3.10) and
(3.11) yields:
P
n
(x) =
x
X
n
+
X
n+1
X
n
, P
n
(y) =
y
Y
n
+
Y
n+1
Y
n
(3.14)
If the equations (3.13) and (3.14) are subjected to the condition given in (3.6), one gets:
Q
n
(x) =
x X
n
X
n
0, x X
n
(3.15)
Q
n
(y) =
y Y
n
Y
n
0, y Y
n
(3.16)
P
n
(x) =
X
n+1
x
X
n
0, x X
n+1
(3.17)
P
n
(y) =
Y
n+1
y
X
n
0, y Y
n+1
(3.18)
The numerical relations (3.15),(3.16),(3.17) and (3.18) indicate the intervals where a lin-
ear segment belonging to a PWL curve exists. The shadowed area depicted in Figure 3.2
results from the intersection of these intervals for the k-th segment.
3.1.1 Equivalent circuits for the one dimensional ID-Model
The mathematical formulation (3.5) consists of a sum of linear equation systems, where
each linear system describes a k-th segment in a PWL curve. Any of these linear systems
can be electrically modeled by the equivalent circuits shown in Figure 3.3 or Figure 3.5.
+
_
y
x
n
Q
n
(y)
Y
n
-1
(X
n+1
-1)
Y
n
P
n
(y)
(1- X
n
)
Y
n
Y
n
Y
n
+
C
n
(k)
_
+
_
Y
n+1
Figure 3.3: X-type equivalent circuit for a segment.
Element Symbol
Switch
controlled by
C (k)
n
Figure 3.4: Switch symbol included in the equivalent circuit diagrams.
+
_
x
y
n
Q
n
(x)
X
n
-1 (Y
n+1
-1)
X
n
P
n
(x)
(1- Y
n
)
X
n
X
n
-1
X
n
X
n+1
+
_
+
_
C
n
(k)
Figure 3.5: Y-type equivalent circuit for a segment.
In these circuits the variables {x, x
n
} represent the input voltages and {y, y
n
} the input
currents, respectively. The electrical diagrams include switches which are controlled by
the C
n
(k) coecients. The symbol used for representing this switch is shown in Figure
3.4. The equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3.3 has been denominated as X-type because
it describes the equation x
n
as follows:
x
n
= P
n
(y)X
n
+ Q
n
(y)X
n+1
=
_
X
n+1
X
n
Y
n+1
Y
n
_
y +
_
X
n
Y
n+1
X
n+1
Y
n
Y
n+1
Y
n
_
(3.19)
The variables Q
n
(y) and P
n
(y) represent the voltage deerence appearing in the terminals
of the resistors Y
1
n
and Y
1
n
, respectively. The X-type circuit contains: resistors,
independent current sources and three C
n
(k) switches.
The equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3.5 has been denominated as Y-type because it
describes the equation y
n
as follows:
y
n
= P
n
(x)Y
n
+ Q
n
(x)Y
n+1
=
_
Y
n+1
Y
n
X
n+1
X
n
_
x +
_
Y
n
X
n+1
Y
n+1
X
n
X
n+1
X
n
_
(3.20)
The variables P
n
(x) and Q
n
(x) have a physical meaning, they represent the current owing
through the conductances whose values are X
1
n
and X
1
n
, respectively. The Y-type
circuit contains: conductances, independent voltage sources and two C
n
(k) switches.
In order to standardize notations, hereafter the PWL curves described by the ID-Model,
are dened by Y-type formulations and circuits.
Considering Y-type equivalent circuits, it is concluded that the ID-Model (3.5) can be elec-
trically modeled by the diagram shown in Figure 3.6. Each y
n
-Block (for n = 1, 2, , L)
is a simplied representation of the circuit shown in Figure 3.5. The C
n
(k)-Block rep-
resents an activation vector that collects all the activation coecients. The equivalent
circuits presented in this section are conceptual electrical implementations applicable in
iterative circuit analysis.
y
1
Block
y
2
Block
y
L-1
Block
y
L
Block
C
1
(k) C
2
(k) C
L-1
(k) C
L
(k)
k
x
y
+
_
C
n
(k) Block
Figure 3.6: Electrical diagram for the ID-Model.
Example 3. Consider the theoretical nonlinear element and its PWL curve depicted in
Figure 3.7. Determine its iterative decomposed model description.
(3)
(1)
(2)
B2
B4
B1
B3
u
j
+
_
(a) (b)
j
u
2 1 3 4
1
2
3
4
Figure 3.7: (a)Nonlinear element, (b)PWL curve for the nonlinear element.
An analysis from Figure 3.7 shows the existence of three linear equations labeled as
(1), (2) and (3). The four graphic coordinates are designated as B1, B2, B3, B4, and
summarized in Table 3.2.
i Coordinates V
i
I
i
1 B1 0 0
2 B2 3 3
3 B3 1 4
4 B4 4 1
Table 3.2: (V
i
, I
i
) coordinates for the PWL curve of Figure 3.7(b)
There are three segments, therefore L = 3 and k = 1, 2, 3. After substituting L and
the (V
i
, I
i
) coordinates of Table 3.2 into (3.5), we get:
_
_
j
u
1
_
_
=
3
i=1
_
_
I
i
I
i+1
V
i
V
i+1
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
i
Q
i
_
_
C
i
(k) =
_
_
0 3
0 3
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1
Q
1
_
_
C
1
(k) +
_
_
3 4
3 1
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2
Q
2
_
_
C
2
(k) +
_
_
4 1
1 4
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
3
Q
3
_
_
C
3
(k)
By the substitution of L into (3.7) and (3.8), the activation coecients can be obtained
as follows :
C
1
(k) =
k |k 2| |k 3|
2
C
2
(k) =
k |k 1| |k 3|
2
C
3
(k) =
k |k 1| |k 2|
6
Figure 3.8 shows the electrical circuit which models the PWL curve analyzed in this
example. Each j
k
-th Block is a simplied representation of the Y-type circuit shown in
Figure 3.5.
-
+
j
u
C (k)
j
Block
1
1
j
Block
2
j
Block
3
C (k)
2
C (k)
3
k
Figure 3.8: Equivalent circuit for the PWL curve shown in Figure 3.7(b).
When k = 1, C
1
(k) = 1, C
2
(k) = 0, C
3
(k) = 0, and the resulting linear system is:
_
_
j
u
1
_
_
=
_
_
0 3
0 3
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1
Q
1
_
_
+ 0 + 0
The line equation is j = u, and it is bounded by the intervals u = [0, 3] and j = [0, 3].
When k = 2, C
1
(k) = 0, C
2
(k) = 1, C
3
_
_
j
u
1
_
_
= 0 +
_
_
3 4
3 1
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2
Q
2
_
_
+ 0
The line equation is j = 0.5u + 4.5, and it is bounded by the intervals u = [1, 3] and
j = [3, 4].
When k = 3, C
1
(k) = 0, C
2
(k) = 0, C
3
_
_
j
u
1
_
_
= 0 + 0 +
_
_
4 1
1 4
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
3
Q
3
_
_
The line equation is j = u+5, and it is bounded by the intervals u = [1, 4] and j = [1, 4].
These results are summarized in Table 3.3 and Figure 3.9.
k Q
k
P
k
Interval
1 u/3 0 1 u/3 0 0 u 3
j/3 0 1 j/3 0 0 j 3
2 u/2 + 3/2 0 u/2 1/2 0 1 u 3
j 3 0 j + 4 0 3 j 4
3 u/3 1/3 0 u/3 + 4/3 0 1 u 4
j/3 + 4/3 0 j/3 1/3 0 1 j 4
Table 3.3: Q
k
and P
k
variables that fulll the conditions (3.6)
u
0
j
B2
1
B1
B3
B4
2 3 4 5
1
2
3
4
(1)
j=u
u
0
j
B2
1
B1
B3
B4
2 3 4 5
1
2
3
4
(2)
j=-0.5u+4.5
u
0
j
1
B1
B3
B4
2 3 4 5
1
2
3
4
(3)
j=-u+5
B2
Figure 3.9: Interval intersection for k = 1, k = 2, k = 3.
3.1.2 Condensed ID-Model form
The ID-Model (3.5) describes a one-dimensional PWL curve as a sum of independent linear
systems, where each system represents the line equation for any constitutive segment.
Notice that in order to guarantee the continuity between any two segments, the end-
segment coordinate of a k-th segment, must be repeated as the start-segment coordinate
for the (k + 1)-th segment.
A condensed form for (3.5) can be obtained if all the coordinates are collected in a unique
coordinate matrix and all the linear systems are formed by picking out from this matrix,
the coordinates belonging to any specic segment. This selection can be done if the
activation coecients are combined appropriately.
The condensed form for the one-dimensional ID-Model is given as follows:
_
_
y
x
1
_
_
=
_
_
Y
1
Y
2
Y
L+1
X
1
X
2
X
L+1
1 1 1
_
_
_
2
.
.
.
L+1
_
_
(3.21)
where, for an open-continuous PWL curve, the coecients are given by
1
= P
1
C
1
(k) (3.22)
n
= Q
n1
C
n1
(k) + P
n
C
n
(k) , (n = 2, 3, , L) (3.23)
L+1
= Q
L
C
L
(k) (3.24)
for closed-continuous PWL curves characterized by L-segments and L-coordinates, the
coecients are given by
1
= P
1
C
1
(k) + Q
L
C
L
(k) (3.25)
n
= Q
n1
C
n1
(k) + P
n
C
n
(k) , (n = 2, 3, , L 1) (3.26)
L
= Q
L1
C
L1
(k) + P
L
C
L
(k) (3.27)
Example 4. Obtain the condensed ID-Model for the PWL curve depicted in Figure 3.10.
1 0 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
(1) (2)
(3)
y
x
Figure 3.10: A three segment-closed-continuous PWL curve.
Figure 3.10 shows a closed-continuous PWL curve with three segments (L = 3).
3.2. TWO-DIMENSIONAL ID-MODEL 33
The rst segment is characterized by the coordinates (1, 1), the second by (3, 1) and
the third by (1, 3). From (3.21) and (3.25) the condensed model is given by
_
_
y
x
1
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 3
1 3 1
1 1 1
_
_
_
3
_
_
(3.28)
with the following coecients
1
= P
1
C
1
(k) + Q
3
C
3
(k) (3.29)
2
= Q
1
C
1
(k) + P
2
C
2
(k) (3.30)
3
= Q
2
C
2
(k) + P
3
C
3
(k) (3.31)
It is important to point out that both ID-Model forms, the extended (3.5) and the
condensed (3.21), are equally ecient from a computation viewpoint because for any k
value only one linear equation system is active. The condensed form is in fact, only a
shorter nomenclature for the ID-Model.
3.2 Two-dimensional ID-Model
The one-dimensional ID model can be extended in order to be applied to the representation
of two-dimensional PWL curves. In this section the iterative geometric plane (IGP)
concept is presented, wich is the mathematical foundation for the two-dimensional ID-
Model.
The PWL curves to be modeled are now considered as two dimensional surfaces composed
by a set of boundary planes, where each one of these planes can be described by an
IGP expression. Hence, the two-dimensional ID model can be seen as a collection of
IGP formulations and the selection of any specic plane can be done by the activation
coecients.
3.2.1 The iterarive geometric plane (IGP) formulation
Figure 3.11 shows a plane dened by y = f(x, z) as follows
y = Ax + Bz + G (3.32)
where A, B and G are constant coecients.
The graphic coordinates: {V
1
, V
2
, V
3
}, hereafter denoted vertices, are geometric points
belonging to this plane.
y=f (x,z)
x z
(X
1
,Y
1,
Z
1
)
(X
2
,Y
2
,Z
2
)
(X
3
,Y
3,
Z
3
)
V
1
V
2
V
3
y=Ax+Bz+G
Plane
Figure 3.11: A geometric plane with three vertex coordinates.
An equivalent mathematical expression for (3.32) in terms of the vertex coordinates can
be achieved as follows:
Firstly, the vertex coordinates are substituted into (3.32) yielding
Y
1
= X
1
A+ Z
1
B + G (3.33)
Y
2
= X
2
A+ Z
2
B + G (3.34)
Y
2
= X
2
A+ Z
2
B + G (3.35)
Then, (3.33), (3.34) and (3.35), are rewritten as a linear system
_
_
Y
1
Y
2
Y
3
_
_
=
_
_
X
1
Z
1
1
X
2
Z
2
1
X
3
Z
3
1
_
_
_
_
A
B
G
_
_
(3.36)
After solving (3.36) for {A, B, G}, results
A =
Y
1
Z
2
Y
1
Z
3
Z
1
Y
2
+ Z
1
Y
3
+ Y
2
Z
3
Z
2
Y
3
(3.37)
B =
X
1
Y
2
X
1
Y
3
Y
1
X
2
+ Y
1
X
3
+ X
2
Y
3
Y
2
X
3
(3.38)
G =

V
(3.39)
where
V
and are determinants given by
V
=
X
1
Y
1
Z
1
X
2
Y
2
Z
2
X
3
Y
3
Z
3
(3.40)
and
=
X
1
Z
1
1
X
2
Z
2
1
X
3
Z
3
1
(3.41)
After that, (3.37), (3.38) and (3.39), are substituted into (3.32) yielding
y =
_
Y
1
Z
2
Y
1
Z
3
Z
1
Y
2
+ Z
1
Y
3
+ Y
2
Z
3
Z
2
Y
3
_
x
+
_
X
1
Y
2
X
1
Y
3
Y
1
X
2
+ Y
1
X
3
+ X
2
Y
3
Y
2
X
3
_
z +

V
Then, the above equation is factored by the Y coordinates as follows

y = P
1
Y
1
+ Q
1
Y
2
+ S
1
Y
3
(3.42)
where P
1
, Q
1
and S
1
, can be expressed by the following determinant relations:
P
1
=
x X
2
X
3
z Z
2
Z
3
1 1 1
, Q
1
=
X
1
x X
3
Z
1
z Z
3
1 1 1
, S
1
=
X
1
X
2
x
Z
1
Z
2
z
1 1 1
(3.43)
Therefore, y can be written as
y =
x X
2
X
3
z Z
2
Z
3
1 1 1
Y
1
+
X
1
x X
3
Z
1
z Z
3
1 1 1
Y
2
+
X
1
X
2
x
Z
1
Z
2
z
1 1 1
Y
3
(3.44)
can be recast by the following equivalent determinant relation
=
X
1
Z
1
1
X
2
Z
2
1
X
3
Z
3
1
X
1
X
2
X
3
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
1 1 1
(3.45)
Then, (3.44) are nally reformulated as
_
_
y
x
z
1
_
_
=
_
_
Y
1
Y
2
Y
3
X
1
X
2
X
3
Z
1
Z
2
Z
3
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1
Q
1
S
1
_
_
(3.46)
The linear system (3.46) has been denominated as the IGP formulation, this mathematical
expression is the basis to obtain the two-dimensional ID-Model.
3.2.2 The two-dimensional ID-Model formulation
Figure 3.12 shows a two dimensional PWL curve characterized by boundary planes and
( + 1) vertex coordinates. This surface partition is denominated as line.
y=f (x,z)
x z
(2)
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
4
V
-1
V
V
+1
V
+2
(1)
(1 )
()
Figure 3.12: A two-dimensional PWL curve characterized by vertex coordinates.
A two-dimensional ID-representation can be obtained by the generalization of (3.46) for
the planes as follows
_
_
y
x
z
1
_
_
=
i=1
_
_
Y
1i
Y
2i
Y
3i
X
1i
X
2i
X
3i
Z
1i
Z
2i
Z
3i
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
P
i
Q
i
S
i
_
_
C
i
(k) (3.47)
For i = 1, 2, ..., .
with the condition:
P
i
(x, z), Q
i
(x, z), S
i
(x, z) 0 (3.48)
Notice that (3.47) is in fact the expansion of (3.5).
The i-th activation coecient C
i
(k) is dened as
C
i
(k) =
1
i!( i)!
i1
=0
|k |
i
=1
|k (i + )| (3.49)
for i = 1...( 1), and
C
i
(k) =
1
!
i1
=0
|k | (3.50)
for i = .
From Figure 3.12 can be seen that a two-dimensional PWL curve can be considered as a
surface built by a set of geometric planes. Each one of these planes is characterized by
three bounding vertices and described by an IGP formulation.
The formulation (3.47) collects all the IGP linear systems and the k parameters (for
k = 1, 2, ..., ) allow selecting a specic linear system.
The variables P
i
, Q
i
and S
i
control the intervals where a k-th plane exists. Figure 3.13
shows a constitutive k-th plane belonging to the PWL curve dened by y = f(x, z). The
boundary planes have intersections in three vertices labelled as (X
1i
, Y
1i
, Z
1i
), (X
2i
, Y
2i
, Z
2i
)
and (X
3i
, Y
3i
, Z
3i
).
y=f (x,z)
x z
(X
1i
,Y
1i,
Z
1i
)
(X
2i
,Y
2i
,Z
2i
)
(X
3i
,Y
3i ,
Z
3i
)
Figure 3.13: k-th plane belonging at two-dimensional PWL curve.
3.2.3 Equivalent circuit for the two-dimensional ID-Model
Due to the fact that the ID-Model description from (3.47) is composed by a set of limited
planes, it is possible to deduce an iterative electrical model for each one of these planes.
The geometric equation of the plane is given by
y
i
=
i
x +
i
z +
i
(3.51)
where i = 1... and {
i
,
i
,
i
} are constant terms for each constitutive plane.
If a physical meaning is assigned to the variables {x, y, z} , for example, if y is considered
as a current and the variables {x, z} as voltages, the circuit shown in Figure 3.14 can be
a valid iterative electrical model for the two-dimensional ID-description. The proposed
equivalent circuit is composed by a conductance (
i
), a voltage controlled current source
(
i
z) and an independent current source (
i
).
+
_
i
y
i
x
i
z

i
Figure 3.14: The iterative equivalent circuit for the two-dimensional ID-Model.
The two-dimensional ID-Model can be applied to the modeling of nonlinear devices such
as the BJT and MOSFET transistors. To illustrate this potential application an example
with a n-channel MOSFET is presented.
Example 5. Assume the n-channel MOSFET is connected in the common source cong-
uration as shown in Figure 3.15.
D
G
S
+
_
+
_
v
GS
v
DS
i
G
=0
i
D
Figure 3.15: Two port conguration of the n-channel MOSFET.
Two i
D
v
DS
PWL curves for this MOSFET conguration are depicted in Figure 3.16
for v
GS
= 5V and v
GS
= 2V .
Figure 3.16: i
D
v
DS
PWL curve for the n-chanel MOSFET.
The vertices of the PWL curves depicted in Figure 3.16 follow the Shichman-Hodges
model [18]; namely
i
D
=

k
_
(v
GS
V
t
) v
DS
v
2
DS
2
_
for v
DS
v
GS
V
t
(3.52)
i
D
=
k
2
(v
GS
V
t
)
2
_
1 +

v
DS
_
for v
DS
v
GS
V
t
(3.53)
with

k = 0.5 10
3
A/V, V
t
= 1V and

= 0.01V
1
.
Figure 3.17 shows a top view of Figure 3.16. As it can be seen, there are four limited
planes {(1), (2), (3), (4)}, that constitutes the PWL representation for both i
D
v
DS
curves
depicted in Figure 3.16.
Figure 3.17: Top view of Figure 3.16.
Table 3.4 shows the vertices that limit each one of the k-th constitutive planes depicted
in Figure 3.17.
k Plane V ertex coordinates
1 (1) V
3
, V
1
, V
2
2 (2) V
3
, V
2
, V
4
3 (3) V
4
, V
2
, V
5
4 (4) V
5
, V
2
, V
6
Table 3.4: Vertices that limit the k-th planes of Figure 3.17
After substituting the corresponding graphic coordinates of Table 3.4 into (3.47), for each
one of the four limited planes, it results in:
_
_
i
D
v
DS
v
GS
1
_
_
= A
1
_
_
P
1
Q
1
S
1
1
_
_
C
1
(k) +A
2
_
_
P
2
Q
2
S
2
1
_
_
C
2
(k) +A
3
_
_
P
3
Q
3
S
3
1
_
_
C
3
(k) +A
4
_
_
P
4
Q
4
S
4
1
_
_
C
4
(k)
(3.54)
where
A
1
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 0 0.25 10
3
0 0 1
5 2 2
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
, A
2
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 0.25 10
3
4 10
3
0 1 4
5 2 5
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
A
3
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
4 10
3
0.25 10
3
4.32 10
3
4 1 8
5 2 5
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
, A
4
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
4.32 10
3
0.25 10
3
0.27 10
3
8 1 8
5 2 2
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
After substituting = 4 into (3.49) and (3.50), the activation coecients are obtained as
follows:
C
1
(k) =
|k| |k 2| |k 3| |k 4|
6
C
2
(k) =
|k| |k 1| |k 3| |k 4|
4
C
3
(k) =
|k| |k 1| |k 2| |k 4|
6
C
4
(k) =
|k| |k 1| |k 2| |k 3|
24
The mathematical formulation (3.54) includes the four planes depicted in Figure 3.17.
These planes constitute the complete PWL ID-representation for the data vertex points
listed in Table 3.4. A two-dimensional PWL plot for this example is shown in Figure 3.18.
Figure 3.18: Four planes two-dimensional PWL plot.
A i
D
v
DS
view of Figure 3.18 is shown in Figure 3.19.
Figure 3.19: An i
D
v
DS
view of Figure 3.18.
A better approximation is obtained if more data points (graphic vertex coordinates) are
considered in the PWL ID representation.
Two plots, where 21 dierent vertices are taken into account for the example, are shown
in Figure 3.20 and Figure 3.21.
Figure 3.20: i
D
-v
DS
PWL curves considering 21 dierent vertices for the n-channel MOSFET
in the common source conguration.
From Figure 3.21 it can be seen than in order to have a better approximation a greater
number of vertices needs to be considered. The complete curve is partitioned in three
lines, each one of these lines contains a geometric plane partition as it is shown in Figure
3.12. Line 1 is characterized by 9 boundary planes and 11 vertices, line 2 and line 3 by
8 planes and 10 vertices each. Finally, according with the iterative electrical model, the
equivalent circuit shown in Figure 3.22 models each one of the limited planes depicted in
Figure 3.18 or Figure 3.21.
Figure 3.21: Constitutive planes in the PWL curve, for the n-channel MOSFET in the common
source conguration, considering 21 dierent vertices.
Figure 3.22: Iterative equivalent circuit for the PWL MOSFET curve.
Conclusions
The proposed iterative and decomposed models can describe any arbitrary PWL curve
(univalued [19] or multivalued [20]) by considering as model parameters its graphic coor-
dinates (vertices). The interval which bounds the range where a linear segment or plane
is valid, is determined by the variables P
n
and Q
n
by the one-dimensional case, and for
P
i
, Q
i
, S
i
by the two-dimensional case.
The equivalent circuits of the proposed PWL models have simulation capabilities because
the ID-Models are compatible with iterative simulation techniques [21].
Chapter 4
The Decomposed Explicit and
Implicit PWL Models
Introduction
This chapter presents two important contributions of this thesis. The rst consists of a
geometrical procedure denoted as Hyperplane Unbending. With this procedure it is pos-
sible to decompose a doubly-multivalued PWL curve into two univalued curves related
by a mapping variable. The second consists of decomposed mathematical formulations
for the explicit model of Chua-Kang and the implicit model of Van Bokhoven. These for-
mulations have been denominated as D-Explicit for the decomposed model of Chua-Kang
and D-Implicit for the decomposed model of Van Bokhoven.
The main reason that motivates the development of this kind of formulations is the ne-
cessity of extending the basic form of the explicit and implict models in order to make
them applicable to the representation of all types of doubly-multivalued PWL curves.
This chapter is divided into three sections. In Section 1 the Hyperplane Unbending pro-
cedure is exposed, Section 2 deals with the D-Explicit model and nally, in Section 3 the
D-Implicit model is presented.
47
48 CHAPTER 4. THE DECOMPOSED EXPLICIT AND IMPLICIT PWL MODELS
4.1 The Hyperplane Unbending
Consider the PWL curve shown in Figure 4.1. Let this curve be dened by the one-
dimensional function y = f(x). The number of segments is denoted by L and h
n
(for
n = 1, 2, ..., L 1) represents the n-th hyperplane.
The function y = f(x) is multivalued because in some x-intervals corresponds more than
one value of y to any value of x. Suppose that the inverse function x = f(y) exists, for
this function it can be seen that according with Figure 4.1, in some y-intervals any value
of y has multiple corresponding values of x. So, the function x = f(y) is also multivalued.
Since both functions, y = f(x) and its inverse x = f(y), are multivalued, then it can be
concluded that the PWL curve shown in Figure 4.1 is doubly-multivalued.
x
y
h
2
h
1
h
L-1
h
L-2
y=f (x)
0
(2)
(1)
(3)
(L-2)
(L-1)
(L)
Figure 4.1: A doubly-multivalued PWL curve.
This doubly-multivalued curve can be decomposed into two univalued curves by applying
the Hyperplane Unbending procedure. Hyperplane Unbending consists of a relocation of
the hyperplanes {h
1
, h
2
, ...h
L1
} in ascending order along the mapping varible . It gives
as a result a new hyperplane set denoted as {H
1
, H
2
, ...H
L1
}. This procedure implies
transforming the original function y = f(x) into a description containing two univalued
functions: y = f() and x = f().
This idea is gracally illustrated in Figure 4.2. This gure shows the geometric procedure
for moving the h
n
hyperplanes in a new location
n
along the variable. Notice that
while in the xy plane the hyperplanes h
n
do not follow an orderly sequence, in the y and
x planes, the hyperplanes H
n
have been ordered into an ascending sequence by following
4.1. THE HYPERPLANE UNBENDING 49
the segments (1), (2), ..., (L), along the doubly-multivalued PWL curve.
x
y
h
2 h
1
h
L-1
h
L-2
H
1
H
2
H
L-1
H
L-2
H
L-1
H
L-2
H
2
H
1
L2
L1
y=f (x)
y=f ()
x=f ()
(2)
(1)
(3)
(L-1)
(L-2)
(L)
Figure 4.2: Graphical illustration of the Hyperplane Unbending procedure.
Numerically, the coordinates that describe the PWL curves dened in the y and x
planes, are computed from the coordinates described in the xy plane.
The coordinates of y = f(x) have been labeled as {a
1
, a
2
, ..., a
L
, a
L+1
} as shown Figure
4.3.
Now, Let a
j
= (X
j
, Y
j
) be the j-th coordinate of y = f(x) (for j = 1, 2, ..., L + 1).
The j-th coordinate, (
j
, Y
j
) of the decomposed curve dened by y = f() and (
j
, X
j
) of
the decomposed curve dened by x = f(), can be obtained by computing
j
as follows
1
= |X
1
| (4.1)
j
= |X
j
X
j1
| +
j1
(4.2)
for j = 2, ..., L + 1.
Observe that it was necessary to consider the coordinates a
1
and a
L+1
in order to make
possible the computations. These points were assigned arbitrarily in the rst and last
subspaces in the xy plane.
x
y
h
2
h
1
h
L-1
h
L-2
y=f (x)
0
(2)
(1)
(3)
(L-2)
(L-1)
(L)
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
L-1
a
L
a
L+1
Figure 4.3: The coordinates in a doubly-multivalued PWL curve.
4.1.1 An Ill-conditioned case
So far we have assumed a doubly-multivalued PWL curve where all the slopes of the
constitutive segments have a nite value which has allowed us to apply the Hyperplane
Unbending procedure without any numerical diculty. That premise always guarantees
decomposing the original curve into two univalued curves, but it could be possible to nd a
doubly-multivalued PWL curve with an innite slope in any of the constitutive segments.
It is a problem, because after applying the Hyperplane Unbending there results, at least,
a new multivalued curve. It has been denoted as an ill-conditioned case and Figure 4.4
illustrates an example of this kind of PWL curve.
x
y
h
2
h
1
y=f (x)
0
(2)
(1)
(3)
Figure 4.4: An innite slope in a doubly-multivalued PWL curve.
4.1. THE HYPERPLANE UNBENDING 51
From Figure 4.4 it can be seen that segment (2) has an innite slope. In this segment
there is an overlap between the h
1
and h
2
hyperplanes. Figure 4.5 shows that after ap-
plying the Hyperplane Unbending, the original doubly-multivalued PWL curve can not
be decomposed into two univalued curves, in fact, it gives as a result a new doubly-
multivalued curve for y = f().
x
y
,h
2
h
1
H
1
H
2
H
2
H
1
1
y=f (x)
y=f ()
x=f ()
(2)
(1)
(3)
Figure 4.5: Applying Hyperplane Unbending to ill-conditioned case of doubly-multivalued PWL
curve.
To overcome that situation, an hyperplane rotation is proposed as illustrated in Figure
4.6.
x
y
h
2
(2)
h
1
(1)
y=f (x)
(2)
(1)
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
(3)
h
1
(2)
h
2
(3)
Figure 4.6: Hyperplane rotation in the ill-conditioned doubly-multivalued PWL curve.
The hyperplane rotation consists of modifying the original position of the n-th hyperplane
around the breakpoint coordinate a
n+1
. The hyperplane h
n
is rotated into two positions,
in the rst, it is renamed as h
(n)
n
and in the second as h
(n+1)
n
. Notice that the position of
h
(n)
n
is perpendicular to the n-th segment, and h
(n+1)
n
is also perpendicular to the (n+1)-th
segment.
In order to achieve the segment being perpendicular to its respective hyperplane, this
procedure must be repeated along the PWL curve following a trajectory starting from
the arbitrary coordinate a
1
located on the left-most segment and ending on the point
a
L+1
on the right-most segment. Figure 4.6 shows the proper rotation procedure in the h
1
and h
2
hyperplanes. This rotation allows us to obtain a mapping in the variable that
assures a decomposition of y = f(x) into two univalued curves dened by y = f() and
x = f().
Figure 4.7 shows how after applying the hyperplane rotation, the Hyperplane Unbending
can be achieved, and therefore, the doubly-multivalued curve can be eciently decom-
posed. Observe that now the locations of {
1
,
2
, ...,
L+1
} depend on the geometrical
distance between the a
n
points. In Figure 4.7 the notation a
n
a
n+1
means the distance
between the graphic coordinates a
n
and a
n+1
.
(2)
(1)
a
2
a
3
a
4
(3)
H
1
H
2
1

2

3

4
a
1
a
2
a
3
x
y
H
1
H
2
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
Figure 4.7: Hyperplane Unbending in an ill-conditioned doubly-multivalued PWL curve.
4.2. THE D-EXPLICIT PWL MODEL 53
Let a
j
= (X
j
, Y
j
) be the j-th coordinate of y = f(x) (for j = 1, 2, ..., L + 1), where the
xy plane contains a doubly-multivalued PWL curve with an innite slope in any of its
constitutive segments.
The j-th coordinate, (
j
, Y
j
) of the decomposed curve dened by y = f() and (
j
, X
j
) of
the decomposed curve dened by x = f(), can be obtained by computing
j
as follows
1
= |X
1
| (4.3)
j
=
_
(X
j
X
j1
)
2
+ (Y
j
Y
j1
)
2
+
j1
(4.4)
for j = 2, ..., L + 1.
It is important to emphasize that applying the rotation before the Hyperplane Unbending
is a method that always assures obtaining decomposed univalued curves. However, for
PWL curves with nite slopes, using the formulation (4.2) for computing the coordinates
in the y and x planes is recommended .
Although the Hyperplane Rotation-Unbending is a general procedure, it is only recom-
mended for PWL curves with innite slopes because the radical term in (4.4) is a more
complex expression to evaluate.
4.2 The D-Explicit PWL model
According to the basic form of the model description of Chua-Kang, the domain space
of the function y = f(x) is partitioned into L-subspaces bounded by a set of (L 1)
hyperplanes. Each internal n-th subspace is bounded by the hyperplane set {h
n
, h
n1
} and
the initial and nal subspaces are bounded by the hyperplanes h
1
and h
L1
, respectively.
However, since this model presents a one-to-one relation, a necessary condition is that only
one segment must exist in a subspace. Figure 4.1 shows that in PWL functions describing
curves that are doubly-multivalued, that condition is not fullled and therefore, the model
of Chua-Kang can not be applied. For example, Figure 4.1 shows that in the subspace
bounded by h
1
and h
2
there exist three segments (1), (2) and (3). Similarly, the three
segments (L 2), (L 1) and (L), belong to the subspace bounded by the hyperplane
set {h
L2
, h
L1
}.
To overcome this shortcoming, a decomposed form of the Chua-Kang model is proposed.
This new Chua-Kang formulation has been denoted as the D-Explicit model and it is
based on the Hyperplane Unbending procedure exposed in the last section. The D-Explicit
model description is given by:
_
_
y
x
_
_
=
_
_
a
y
a
x
_
_
+
_
_
b
y
b
x
_
_
+
L1
n=1
_
_
c
yn
c
xn
_
_
|
n
| (4.5)
where the absolute value terms contain the hyperplane equations dened by
H
n
:
n
= 0 (4.6)
The coecients: {a
y
, b
y
, c
yn
} and {a
x
, b
x
, c
xn
} are the parameters of the canonical Chua-
Kang description for the functions y = f() and x = f(), respectively.
Example 6. In this example, the doubly-multivalued PWL curve shown in Figure 4.8 is
considered. Let this curve be dened by the function y = f(x).
x
y
h
2
h
1
y=f (x)
0
(2)
(1)
(3)
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
4
Figure 4.8: A three segment doubly-multivalued PWL curve.
Figure 4.8 shows that the PWL curve dened by the function y = f(x) is formed by
three segments, therefore L = 3. The domain space of the function is partitioned by two
hyperplanes {h
1
, h
2
}, that generate three subspaces: the initial, bounded by h
1
in the
interval (, 4]; the internal, bounded by h
1
and h
2
in the interval [1, 4]; and the nal,
bounded by h
2
in the interval [1, +). As can be seen from Figure 4.8, the condition of
only one segment existing in a subspace in not satised because in the internal subspace
there exist the three segments labeled as (1),(2) and (3). Therefore, the Chua-Kang model
description can not be applied.
The D-Explicit model, for the three-segment PWL curve depicted in Figure 4.8 is obtained
by applying the equations (4.5) and (4.6) to the decomposed curves dened by functions
y = f() and x = f(). The Hyperplane Unbending procedure for this example is shown
in Figure 4.9.
x
y
h
2
h
1
y=f (x)
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
3
4
1
2
3
4
5
10
7
8
9
6
0
x=f ()
y=f ()
H
1
H
1
H
2
H
2
(1)
(2)
(3)
Figure 4.9: Application of the Hyperplane Unbending procedure to the PWL curve depicted in
Figure 4.8
Notice that in Figure 4.8 the hyperplane sequence along x is {h
2
, h
1
} with h
2
located in
x = 1 and h
1
in x = 4. After applying the Hyperplane Unbending, in the y and x
planes, the hyperplanes are ordered by the sequence {H
1
, H
2
} setting H
1
in = 4 and
H
2
in = 7. The two decomposed curves are shown in Figure 4.10 and Figure 4.11. In
these gures information such as segment slopes, breakpoints and hyperplane locations is
shown.
H
2
H
1
y=f ()
1/3
1/2
-1
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
7 8 9 10
Figure 4.10: Decomposed PWL curve dened by y = f().
H
2
H
1
x=f ()
0
-1 1
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
4
7 8 9 10
Figure 4.11: Decomposed PWL curve dened by x = f().
This graphical data is enough to obtain the Chua-Kang model description. So, the de-
composed functions y = f() and x = f() are given by
y = 5
1
4

1
12
| 4|
2
3
| 7|
x = 3 + | 4| + | 7|
Finally, these functions are recast into the decomposed form dened by (4.5) as follows:
_
_
y
x
_
_
=
_
_
5
3
_
_
+
_
1
4
1
_
_
+
_
1
12
1
_
_
| 4| +
_
2
3
1
_
_
| 7|
Where the hyperplanes H
1
and H
2
dened in (4.6) are given by
H
1
: 4 = 0, H
2
: 7 = 0
Example 7. Obtain the D-Explicit model description for the doubly-multivalued PWL
curve shown in Figure 4.12. Observe that the slope of segment (2) is innite and the
hyperplanes h
1
and h
2
overlap. So, it is an ill-conditioned curve and hyperplane rotation
must be applied before the Hyperplane Unbending procedure. The rotation of h
1
implies
relocating it into two diferent positions: in the rst, h
1
is labeled as h
(1)
1
and it is per-
pendicular to segment (1), in the second, h
1
is denoted as h
(2)
1
and it is perpendicular to
segment (2). The hyperplane h
2
is also moved into two diferent positions: in the rst, h
2
is
denominated as h
(2)
2
and it is perpendicular with segment (2), in the second, h
2
is denoted
as h
(3)
2
and it is perpendicular to segment (3). This rotation procedure is illustrated in
Figure 4.13.
x
y
h
2
h
1
y=f (x)
(2)
(1)
(3)
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
4
Figure 4.12: A three segment ill-conditioned PWL curve.
x
y
h
1
(1)
y=f (x)
(2)
(1)
(3)
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
h
1
(2)
h
2
(2)
h
2
(3)
Figure 4.13: Hyperplane rotation in the three segment ill-conditioned PWL curve.
Then, Hyperplane Unbending is applied as shown in Figure 4.14. The graphic coor-
dinates that describe the decomposed curves in they and x planes are obtained by the
points {a
1
, a
2
, a
3
, a
4
} and the values of {
1
,
2
,
3
,
4
} computed by (4.4).
x
y
H
2
H
1 y=f (x)
1 2 3 4
1
2
3
4
4.24
6.24
10.48
x=f ()
y=f ()
H
2
H
1
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
Figure 4.14: Hyperplane Unbending applied to the three segments ill-conditioned PWL curve.
The decomposed equations of the D-Explicit model are given by
y = 1.7075 + 0.7075 0.8537 | 4.24| + 0.8537 | 6.24|
x = 3.7073 0.3537 | 4.24| 0.3537 | 6.24|
Finally, the above functions are recast into the decomposed form dened by (4.5) as
follows:
_
_
y
x
_
_
=
_
_
1.7075
3.7073
_
_
+
_
_
0.7075
0
_
_
+
_
_
0.8537
0.3537
_
_
| 4.24|+
_
_
0.8537
0.3537
_
_
| 6.24|
Where the hyperplane H
1
and H
2
are given by
H
1
: 4.24 = 0, H
2
: 6.24 = 0
4.2.1 D-Explicit model for univalued and simple-multivalued
PWL curves
Until now, the D-Explicit model has been presented as a mathematical formulation to
obtain a model description for doubly-multivalued PWL curves, but it is not limited to
this particular application, in fact, it is a general procedure that can be also applied in
the description of simple-multivalued and univalued PWL curves.
To show how the D-Explicit model describes the univalued curves, Figure 4.15 is consid-
ered.
x
y
h
1
h
2
h
L-1
h
L-2
y=f (x)
0
(2) (1)
(L-1)
(L)
Figure 4.15: Univalued PWL curve.
After applying the Hyperplane Unbending to the univalued curve depicted in Figure 4.15,
results the two decomposed curves shown in Figure 4.16 and dened by the functions
y = f() and x = f().
Because of y = f(x) and y = f() have the same shape and numerically the graphic
coordinates (x, y) are equal to (, y), it can be concluded that both functions have the
same Chua-Kang parameters. Now, considering the decomposed curves, the D-Explicit
model for univalued PWL functions is given by
_
_
y
x
_
_
=
_
_
a
y
0
_
_
+
_
_
b
y
1
_
_
+
L1
n=1
_
_
c
yn
0
_
_
|
n
| (4.7)
with the corresponding hyperplane equations
h
n
: x
n
= 0 (4.8)
x
y
h
2
h
1
h
L-2
h
L-1
H
1
H
2
H
L-1
H
L-2
H
L-1
H
L-2
H
2
H
1
L2
L1
y=f (x)
y=f ()
x=f ()
1
Figure 4.16: Hyperplane Unbending applied to the univalued PWL curve.
H
n
:
n
= 0 (4.9)
In doubly-multivalued and simple-multivalued curves the requiered process to obtain a
model description is the same and their resulting mathematical formulations are given by
(4.5) and (4.6).
Example 8. An example of univalued PWL curve is given in Figure 4.17.
x
y h
2
h
1
y=f (x)
(2)
(1)
(3)
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
4
Figure 4.17: A three segment univalued PWL curve.
x
y
h
2
h
1
H
1
H
2
H
2
H
1
1
y=f (x)
y=f ()
x=f ()
1
3
4
0
1
3
4
1
2
3
2
2
Figure 4.18: Hyperplane Unbending applied to the univalued PWL curve depicted in Figure
4.17.
This curve is compound by three segments, therefore L = 3. The Hyperplane Unbending
is shown in Figure 4.18. From this gure, it can be seen that the set of (L+1) coordinate
pairs (x, y) are numerically equal to the set of coordinate pairs (, y). It means that for
any value of y the variables x and take the same value, that is x = .
From Figure 4.18 is possible infer all the required graphical data to obtain the parameters
of the Chua-Kang model. So, the decomposed functions y = f() and x = f() are given
by
y =
5
4

3
2
| 1| +
3
4
| 2| , x =
Recasting these functions into the form dened in (4.7) results
_
_
y
x
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
_
_
+
_
_
5
4
1
_
_
+
_
3
2
0
_
_
| 1| +
_
_
3
4
0
_
_
| 2|
with the corresponding hyperplane equations
H
1
: 1 = 0
H
2
: 2 = 0
It is important to observe that after applying the Hyperplane Unbending in univalued
PWL curves, the h
n
and H
n
hyperplanes have the same locations along their respective
variables x and . So, the h
n
hyperplanes for this example are given by
h
1
: x 1 = 0
h
2
: x 2 = 0
4.3 The D-Implicit PWL model
The implicit model proposed by Van Bokhoven is derived from a network theoretical view-
point. This model uses state variables to dene the partition of the domain space. The
states of a PWL electrical network are represented by the states of ideal diodes. For each
state there is exactly one combination of blocking or conducting diodes. According with
the Bokhoven model, a PWL function is represented by a PWL electrical network. Each
ideal diode dene a hyperplane and the set of (L 1)-hyperplanes divides the domain
space of the function in L regions. Ideally, it would be desirable that for each region
only one PWL segment exist. Unfortunately, it is not possible in simple-multivalued and
4.3. THE D-IMPLICIT PWL MODEL 63
specically in doubly-multivalued PWL curves. To overcome that problem, the Hyper-
plane Unbending and the state variables assignation is applied to the doubly-multivalued
PWL curve dened en the xy plane. This procedure is shown in Figure 4.19.
x
y
h
2
h
1
h
L-1 h
L-2
Hy
1
Hy
2
Hy
L-1
Hy
L-2
Hx
L-1
Hx
L-2
Hx
2
Hx
1
p
1
=q
1
y=f (x)
y=f (, p)
x=f (,r)
p
2
=q
2
p
L- 1
=q
L-1
p
L-2
=q
L-2
r
1
=s
1
r
2
=s
2
r
L- 2
=s
L-2
r
L- 1
=s
L-1
Figure 4.19: State variables assignation in a doubly-multivalued PWL curve decomposed by
the Hyperplanes Unbending procedure.
The resulting decomposed curves are described by the D-Implicit model as follows
y = A
y
+B
y
p + f
y
(4.10)
q = C
y
+D
y
p +g
y
(4.11)
p 0, q 0, p
T
q = 0 (4.12)
and
x = A
x
+B
x
r + f
x
(4.13)
s = C
x
+D
x
r +g
x
(4.14)
r 0, s 0, r
T
s = 0 (4.15)
where the dimensions of p, q, r, s, B
y
, B
x
, C
y
, C
x
, D
y
, D
x
, g
y
and g
x
depends on the
number of state variables required to describe an univalued PWL curve compound by L
segments. The hyperplanes in Figure 4.19 are dened by
Hy
n
: q
n
C
yn
D
yn
p
n
g
yn
pn=qn=0
= 0 (4.16)
Hx
n
: s
n
C
xn
D
xn
r
n
g
xn
rn=sn=0
= 0 (4.17)
For the cases of PWL curves with oset zero (y(0) = 0 or x(0) = 0), the equations
(4.10)-(4.15) are obtained from the PWL electrical networks depicted in gures Figure
4.20 and Figure 4.21. The electrical elements of these circuits are directly related with
the graphic parameters of the decomposed PWL curves, for example, the values of the
conductances (G
0
, G
1
, ..., G
L1
) and resistors (R
0
, R
1
, ..., R
L1
) depends on the segment
slopes and the independent voltage (E
1
, E
2
, ..., E
L1
) and current (I
1
, I
2
, ..., I
L1
) sources
are related with the breakpoints.
+
_
y
+
_
p
1
q
1
G
0
G
1
+
_
p
L-1
q
L-1
G
L-1
+
_
p
2
q
2
G
2
E
1
E
2
E
L-1
Figure 4.20: Parallel circuit used in implicit descriptions.
+
_
x
+
_
s
1
r
1
R
0
R
1
s
L-1
r
L-1
R
L-1
+
_
s
2
r
2
R
2
I
1
I
2
I
L-1
+
_
Figure 4.21: Series circuit used in implicit descriptions.
Example 9. In this example is presented the procedure to obtain the D-Implicit model
description for the doubly-multivalued PWL curve shown in Figure 4.8. From Figure
4.9 it was shown how after applying the Hyperplane Unbending, the original doubly-
multivalued PWL curve was decomposed into two univalued curves related by a mapping
variable . These univalued PWL curves are now depicted in Figure 4.22 and Figure 4.23.
Hy
2
Hy
1
y=f (, p)
1/3
1/2
-1
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
7 8 9 10
p
1
=q
1
=0 p
2
=q
2
=0
p
1
>0
p
2
>0
q
1
=0
q
2
=0
p
1
=0
p
2
>0
q
1
>0
q
2
=0
p
1
=0
p
2
=0
q
1
>0
q
2
>0
Figure 4.22: Univalued PWL curve y = f(, p).
Hx
2
Hx
1
x=f (,r)
0
-1 1
1
1 2 3 4 5 6
1
2
3
4
7 8 9 10
r
1
>0
r
2
>0
s
1
=0
s
2
=0
r
1
=0
r
2
>0
s
1
>0
s
2
=0
r
1
=0
r
2
=0
s
1
>0
s
2
>0
r
1
=s
1
=0 r
2
=s
2
=0
Figure 4.23: Univalued PWL curve x = f(, r).
In these gures, can be seen a state variables assignation in each one of the regions
produced by the hyperplane partitions. The state variables {p
1
, p
2
, q
1
, q
2
} are used to
dene de dierent states that the decomposed function y = f(, p) takes. For the function
y = f(, r) are used the states variables {r
1
, r
2
, s
1
, s
2
}. According with (4.16), for y =
f(, p) the state variable assignation where the hyperplanes Hy
1
and Hy
2
are located,
is dened by p
1
= q
1
= 0 and p
2
= q
2
= 0 respectively. From (4.17), for x = f(, x),
the assignation r
1
= s
1
= 0 and r
2
= s
2
= 0 is given in the hyperplanes Hx
1
and Hx
2
locations. From Figure 4.22 and Figure 4.23, the PWL electrical networks shown in Figure
4.24 are obtained.
+
_
y
+
_
p
1
q
1
1/2
4V
-1/6
+
_
+
_
p
2
q
2 -4/3
+
_
7V
+
_
x
+
_
s
1
r
1
1 -2
s
2
r
2
2
4A 7A
+
_
(a)
(b)
Figure 4.24: (a)Circuit for the univalued PWL curve y = f(, p). (b)Circuit for the univalued
PWL curve x = f(, r).
The equilibrium equations for these circuits are recast into the form of Bokhoven model
as follows:
y = 1
1
6
p
1
4
3
p
2
+ 10 (4.18)
q
1
=
1
6

1
6
p
1
+
4
6
(4.19)
q
2
=
4
3

4
3
p
2
+
28
3
(4.20)
and
x = + r
1
+ r
2
(4.21)
s
1
=
1
2
r
1
+ 4 (4.22)
s
2
= +
1
2
r
2
+ 7 (4.23)
where the state variables p, q, r and s fulll the linear complementary conditions dened
in (4.12) and (4.15). Equations (4.18)-(4.23) are the D-Implicit formulations that describe
the PWL curves depicted in Figure 4.22 and Figure 4.23 and therefore they also describe
the doubly-multivalued curve shown in Figure 4.8.
4.3.1 D-Implicit model in univalued and simple-multivalued PWL
curves
The Hyperplane Unbending, in simple-multivalued PWL curves, is similar as in doubly-
multivalued PWL curves. For univalued curves the Hyperplane Unbending can also be
applied, but only in one of the decomposed curves is required the state variables assigna-
tion, because in the other one it is y = or x = . In this sense is important to emphasize
that in implicit model descriptions is always desirable using the lowest number of state
variables. So, although the Hyperplane Unbending can be applied in simple-multivalued
and univaluede PWL curves, it is better to describe this kind of curves by the basic form
of Bokhoven model because it reduces the number of required state variables.
Conclusion
The Hyperplane Unbending was presented as a mathematical procedure to decompose
a doubly-multivalued PWL curve into two univalued PWL curves related by a mapping
variable. This mathematical procedure was eciently applied into the Chua-Kang and
Bokhoven models [22]. It lets that these models could be generalized in order to make them
applicable in the representation of univalued, simple-multivalued and doubly-multivalued
PWL curves. The resulting decomposed models, D-Explicit and D-Implicit, have the
same formulation form of Chua-Kang and Bokhoven models, respectively.
Chapter 5
Applying the ID-Model in DC
Analysis
Introduction
This chapter deals with the DC analysis in PWL networks by applying the ID-Model
description. In Section 1 the problem of nding all the operating points is introduced.
Section 2 presents a procedure for nding the element regions involved in the existence of
any operating point. In Section 3 by interval analysis testing expressions are derived which
can be used to validate the DC solutions. Finally, Section 4 exposes the DC analysis by
considering the PWL elements described by the ID-Model developed in Chapter 3. Also,
several numerical examples are reported in order to illustrate the application of this PWL
model in the task of computing all the operating points.
69
70 CHAPTER 5. APPLYING THE ID-MODEL IN DC ANALYSIS
5.1 DC analysis in PWL networks
Finding all the operating points in PWL networks is a topic of interest in nonlinear
circuit theory [23], [24], [25], [26], [27] . The solution of this problem implies solving an
equilibrium system F(x, y) = 0, where x and y are described by PWL mathematical
formulations. These formulations dene a PWL curve by a function componsed by a
collection of linear mappings for each segment. Each mapping is only valid in a certain
subspace or region that is bounded by line equations called hyperplanes. The hyperplanes
are frontiers located on the breakpoints that make partitions over all the domain space of
the PWL function. For a one-dimensional PWL curve composed by L
n
segments, there
are (L
n
1) hyperplanes and a set of L
n
regions for each n-th PWL element included in
the network. Hence, in order to achieve the DC analysis in a PWL network containing
N PWL elements, the number of regions to analyze is (L
1
L
2
... L
N
). It means a
large number of regions and therefore a hard computational eort [28], [29]. Because a
PWL function might have a solution in every region any method which claims to nd all
solutions must necessarily scan through all possible regions. Hence it is worthwhile to
develop methods which can reduce the computational eort for this task [30].
The (L
n
1) regions in a PWL curve which describes an n-th element are here denoted
as element regions and the set of (L
1
L
2
... L
N
) regions obtained by the combination
of all element regions are denominated as hyperplane partition regions. In this sense, the
element regions and the hyperplane partition regions that contribute in the occurrence
of any operating point are denoted as DC element regions and DC solution regions,
respectively.
5.2. A PROCEDURE FOR FINDING DC ELEMENT REGIONS 71
5.2 A procedure for nding DC element regions
The process of nding all the operating points in electrical networks containing PWL
elements represents an analysis problem. The problem consists in nding a suitable
mathematical model for the curves that describe the PWL elements and a compatible
methodology with such model description. In this section a methology compatible with
the ID-Model is presented. It ensures obtaining all the operating points existing in a non-
linear network that contains N-PWL elements. Figure 5.1 shows a general network where
the 2N-Port contains: conductances or resistances, independent sources and controlled
sources. The PWL elements R
1
, R
2
, ..., R
n
, ..., R
N
are connected to the two-terminal ports
x
1
y
1
+
_
R
1
x
2
y
2
+
R
2
x
N
y
N
+
_
R
N
x
n
y
n
R
n
.
.
.
2N- Port
_
+
_
.
.
.
Figure 5.1: A nonlinear network containing N-PWL elements.
and their respective voltages and currents are denoted by x
n
and y
n
(for n = 1...N).
The procedure presented in this section allows us discarding element regions that do not
participate in a DC solution. It represents a great advantage because it makes possible
that only such element regions involved in the occurrence of any operating point be taken
into account. The procedure considers the PWL curves dened as a set of graphic coor-
dinates what make it compatible with the ID-Model. Although the procedure can also
be extended in order to compute all the operating points [30], here it is only used as a
qualitative graphical tool for identifying DC element regions.
The procedure for nding DC element regions can be summarized in the following steps:
1. An equilibrium equation system F = 0 is obtained from Figure 5.1. It is achieved
by applying Kirchho laws and it is in fact, a hybrid-representation [24]
2. F = 0 is recast as follows
F = A
1
1
+A
2
2
+ ... +A
N
N
+ = 0 (5.1)
where
F =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
f
1
f
2
.
.
.
f
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
, A
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
n
A
11 n
A
12
n
A
21 n
A
22
.
.
.
.
.
.
n
A
N1 n
A
N2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
n
=
_
_
_
x
n
y
n
_
_
_
, =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
n
1
n
2
.
.
.
n
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
for n = 1...N
3. The nonlinear elements R
n
are described by PWL curves composed by L
n
segments.
These curves are dened as a set
n
of cordinates given by
n
= {(
n
X
1
,
n
Y
1
), (
n
X
2
,
n
Y
2
), ..., (
n
X
Ln+1
,
n
Y
Ln+1
)} (5.2)
It is important to point that there are as many
n
sets as PWL elements existing
in the network (n = 1...N).
4. The coordinates of the n-th
n
set are evaluated into (5.1). It results in (N1) sets
of modied PWL curves or equation systems. These modied curves are dened as
follows

m
=
_
(
m

X
1
,
m

Y
1
), (
m

X
2
,
m

Y
2
), ..., (
m

X
Lm+1
,
m

Y
Lm+1
)
_
(5.3)
for m = 1, 2, ..., (N 1).
Each element of
m
is obtained by substituting the
n
-coordinates into F = 0 and
solving the system for the rest of
n
-variables. Since the N elements are dened by
one-dimensional PWL curves, then every element involves 2 variables (x
n
, y
n
). It
implies the existence of N equations and 2(N 1) variables in (5.1) and therefore
the two following cases:
Case N = 2.
For this case, the
n
substitution into (5.1) always produce a consistent system,
it means, the same amount of equations and variables. Here, the computation
of
m
from
n
can be obtained directly.
Case N > 2.
For this case, the
n
substitution into (5.1) produce an inconsistent system
because the amount of variables is greater than the amount of equations. To
overcome that problem, the network is analyzed by considering only two arbi-
trary PWL elements (pivot elements) simultaneously. The (N2) complemen-
tary PWL elements are replaced with Norton or Thevenin equivalents for each
element region. Then the resulting circuit is analyzed by an iterative process
of all element region combinations. In every iteration, the DC element regions
of the pivot are determined.
5. Finally, the graphic intersections
m

m
indicate the DC element regions.
The above procedure avoids the necessity of scanning all the possible element region
combinations. As a result, a computational saving is obtained because a great amount of
combinations can be discarded.
Step 4 shows that (N > 2)-case is an iterative version of the (N = 2)-case. The pro-
posed procedure for nding DC element regions is justied by analyzing the (N = 2)-case
as follows:
Firstly, consider a nonlinear network containing two PWL elements. Suppose the nonlin-
ear behavior of the PWL elements is described by one-dimensional PWL curves charac-
terized by the graphic coordinates collected into the
n
and
m
sets, respectively. From
step 4, it can be seen that after substituting the elements of the
n
set into equation (5.1),
it always results in a two variables linear system. The solutions of the resulting linear
systems are the elements that constitutes the
m
set.
By linking the elements of the
m
set, a PWL curve is depicted. It is important to point
out that although all the points along the curve dened by the
m
set are solutions of
the two variables linear system, not all of them are DC solutions. Only the intercep-
tions between the two PWL curves,
n
and
m
, are DC solutions because they indicate
the points that satisfy de condition of belonging to the curves describing the two PWL
elements included in the nonlinear network.
Example 10. Find the DC solution regions for the PWL network shown in Figure 5.2
when v = 12.
v
i
3 i
1
2 Ohms
+
_
+
_
v
1
v
2
i
1
i
2
R
1
R
2
Figure 5.2: A PWL network for the example 10.
The nonlinear elements R
1
and R
2
are dened by the PWL curves depicted in Figure 5.3
and Figure 5.4.
0
v
1
i
1
(1)
(-100, 94)
(0,-6)
(3,3)
(100,-94)
(2)
(3)
1
h
1 1
h
2
Figure 5.3: PWL curve for R
1
.
According with (5.2) the following coordinates sets describe de above PWL curves.
1
= {(100, 94), (0, 6), (3, 3), (100, 94)}
2
=
_
(100, 56), (4, 4), (2, 1),
_
100,
49
2
__
Figure 5.3 is composed by three segments (L
1
= 3) and according with the PWL theory,
because this curve is controlled by voltage (i
1
= f(v
1
)), then two vertical hyperplanes are
dened by the following linear equations
1
h
1
: v
1
0 = 0
1
h
2
: v
1
3 = 0
0
v
2
i
2
(1)
(-100,56)
(100,-49/2)
(4,4)
(-2,1)
(2)
(3)
2
h
1
2
h
2
Figure 5.4: PWL curve for R
2
.
Similarly, Figure 5.4 is also composed by three segments (L
2
= 3) and because this curve
is controlled by current (v
2
= f(i
2
)), then two horizontal hyperplanes are dened by the
following linear equations
2
h
1
: i
2
1 = 0
2
h
2
: i
2
4 = 0
It is important to point that for this method, the above hyperplane assignation was merely
arbitrary , in fact, the hyperplanes for R
1
could be horizontal and for R
2
vertical without
aecting the nal result.
The number of regions generated by the hyperplane partitions are L
1
L
2
= 3 3 = 9.
The hyperplane partition is shown in Figure 5.5. This gure contains nine regions denoted
as {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3), (2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}, where every region is labeled
as (a, b), being a the a-th constitutive segment belonging to the R
1
PWL curve and b the
b-th segment belonging to the R
2
PWL curve.
The equilibrium system for the PWL network depicted in Figure 5.2 is obtained by ap-
plying the voltage Kirchho law and it yields:
v
1
+ 3i
1
+ v
2
= 0 (5.4)
12 + 2 (i
1
+ i
2
) + v
1
= 0 (5.5)
v
1
i
2
(1,1)
2
h
1
2
h
2
1
h
1 1
h
2
(2,1) (3,1)
(1,2) (2,2) (3,2)
(1,3) (2,3) (3,3)
Figure 5.5: Hyperplane partitions for the PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
.
Then, the equilibrium equations (5.4)-(5.5) are recast into the form of (5.1) as follows
F =
_
_
1 3
1 2
_
_
_
_
v
1
i
1
_
_
+
_
_
1 0
0 2
_
_
_
_
v
2
i
2
_
_
+
_
_
0
12
_
_
= 0 (5.6)
The elements of the sets
n
are obtained by the following procedure
Solving (5.6) for {v
1
, i
1
} when {v
2
= 100, i
2
= 56}
results: (v
1
, i
1
) = (100, 0)
1
, i
1
} when {v
2
= 4, i
2
= 4}
results: (v
1
, i
1
) = (4, 0)
1
, i
1
} when {v
2
= 2, i
2
= 1}
results: (v
1
, i
1
) = (26/5, 12/5)
1
, i
1
} when {v
2
= 100, i
2
= 49/2}
results: (v
1
, i
1
) = (383/5, 39/5)
The above computed coordinates are the elements of the set
1
. So
1
is given by

1
=
_
(100, 0), (4, 0),
_
26
5
,
12
5
_
,
_
383
5
,
39
5
__
Applying the same procedure to obtain
2
yields
2
, i
2
} when {v
1
= 100, i
1
= 94}
results: (v
2
, i
2
) = (382, 38)
2
, i
2
} when {v
1
= 0, i
1
= 6}
results: (v
2
, i
2
) = (18, 12)
2
, i
2
} when {v
1
= 3, i
1
= 3}
results: (v
2
, i
2
) = (6, 3/2)
2
, i
2
} when {v
1
= 100, i
1
= 94}
results: (v
2
, i
2
) = (382, 50)
And
2
is given by

2
=
_
(382, 38), (18, 12),
_
6,
3
2
_
, (382, 50)
_
Figure 5.6 shows the ploting of the sets
1
and
1
. Figure 5.7 shows the ploting of the
sets
2
and
2
.
v
1
i
1
(1)
(2)
(3)
(1)
(2)
(3)
curve
curve
(-100,94)
(0,-6)
(3,3)
(100,-94)
-100 0 4
(26/5,12/5)
(383 /5,-39/5)
Figure 5.6: Curves
1
and
1
.
From Figure 5.6 can be seen that there are three intersections:
1. The rst intersection occurs between the segment labeled as (1) in the curve
1
and
the segment (1) in the curve
1
. It allows conclude that the region (1, 1) contains a
DC solution.
2. The second intersection occurs between the segment (2) in the curve
1
and the
segment (1) in the curve
1
. It lets conclude that the region (2, 1) contains a DC
solution.
3. The third intersection occurs between the segment (3) in the curve
1
and the
1
solution.
These conclusions can be demonstrated by the analysis of Figure 5.7 with the same pro-
cedure.
v
2
(1)
(2)
(3)
curve
curve
i
2
(4,4)
(-2,1)
(100,- 49/2 )
(-100,56 )
(1)
(2)
(3)
(-382,-38 )
(18,12 )
(-6, 3/2)
(382,50 )
Figure 5.7: Curves
2
and
2
.
From Figure 5.7 can be seen that there are three intersections:
1. The rst intersection occurs between the segment labeled as (1) in the curve
2
and
the segment (1) in the curve
2
. It lets conclude that the region (1, 1) contains a
DC solution.
2. The second intersection occurs between the segment (1) in the curve
2
and the
2
solution.
3. The third intersection occurs between the segment (2) in the curve
2
and the
2
solution.
Knowing that {(1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 2)} are the DC solution regions is a very important infor-
mation because it allows us discarding six regions and avoids unnecessary computations.
If the input v-i curve for the voltage source is plotted, the DC solutions for this
example can be obtained. This results are depicted in Figure 5.8. It is important to point
out that although there are nine regions only three of them regions ((1, 1), (2, 1), (3, 2))
produce a DC solution for v = 12.
5 10 15 20 25 30 -5 -10 -15 -20
5
10
15
20
-5
-10
-15
v
i
v =12
(1,1)
(1,2)
(1,3)
(2,3)
(2,2)
(2,1)
(3,1)
(3,2)
(3,3)
(12, 9 )
(12, 5 )
(12, 3.66 )
DC SOLUTIONS
Figure 5.8: The three DC solutions for the example 10.
Example 11. Another example to illustrate the procedure to determine the element
regions is the nonlinear network depicted in Figure 5.9.
E
R
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
+
_
+
_
+
_
2N port
R
1
R
2
Figure 5.9: A nonlinear network containing two PWL elements in series connection.
The PWL elements R
1
and R
2
are described by the PWL curves depicted in Figure 5.10.
Each of these curves are composed by three segments, so there are three element regions
in both curves (L
1
= 3, L
2
= 3).
0
x
1
y
1
(-1,-3)
(3,0.5)
(1,3) (10,4)
(2) (1) (3)
Element regions
0
x
2
y
2
(4,2)
(2,4) (8,4)
(-1,-2)
(2) (1) (3)
Element regions
Figure 5.10: Curves for the PWL elements R
1
and R
2
.
The number of hyperplane partition regions is given by: L
1
L
2
= 3 3 = 9. Figure
5.11 shows these nine regions, the notation (er
1
, er
2
) is used to describe every hyperplane
partition region as a combinatination of the element regions of every PWL curve, er
1
indicates an element region of R
1
and er
1
an element region of R
2
.
Figure 5.11 shows that at most can be found nine operating points in the network
depicted in Figure 5.9. The number of these DC solutions depends on the E and R
values. In Figure 5.12 is plotted the resulting equivalent curve for the series connection
of R
1
and R
2
.
x
1
1 3 -1 10
x
2
2
4
8
(1,1) (2,1) (3,1)
(1,2) (2,2) (3,2)
(1,3) (2,3) (3,3)
Figure 5.11: Hyperplane partition regions for the nonlinear network of Figure 5.9.
Figure 5.12: Resulting curve of the series connection of R
1
and R
2
.
Figure 5.12 includes nine constitutive segments that results from the hyperplane par-
tition regions. Two load lines have been drawn: in the rst, one operating point occurs
when E = 14 and R = 0, in the second there are three operating points when E = 11
and R = 0.
To verify the results shown in Figure 5.12 by applying the mathematical procedure pre-
sented in this section, it is necessary to obtain the equilibrium equations for the two
elements series connection network depicted in Figure 5.9.
After applying KCL and KVL to Figure 5.9, the following equilibrium equations are
obtained.
E + Ry
1
+ x
1
+ x
2
= 0
y
1
y
2
= 0
(5.7)
The equilibrium equations are recast into the form of equation (5.1) as follows:
_
_
f
1
f
2
_
_
=
_
_
1 R
0 1
_
_
_
_
x
1
y
1
_
_
+
_
_
1 0
0 1
_
_
_
_
x
2
y
2
_
_
+
_
_
E
0
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
_
_
(5.8)
The PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
are dened by the following sets of breakpoint coordinates:
1
=
_
(1, 3) , (1, 3) ,
_
3,
1
2
_
, (10, 4)
_
(5.9)
for R
1
, and
2
= {(1, 2) , (2, 4) , (4, 2) , (8, 4)} (5.10)
for R
2
.
Then, the three load line cases ploted in Figure 5.12 are analyzed.
(E=14,R=0), case:
Firstly, the values E = 14 and R = 0 are substituted into (5.8). Then, after substuting
the elements of
2
into (5.8), a new set of breakpoint coordinates is obtained. This set is
denoted as
1
and the intersections
1

1
indicate that such regions are involved in the
existence of a DC solution.
1
Solving (5.8) for {x
1
, y
1
} when {x
2
= 1, y
2
= 2}
results: (x
1
, y
1
) = (15, 2)
1
, y
1
} when {x
2
= 2, y
2
= 4}
results: (x
1
, y
1
) = (12, 4)
1
, y
1
} when {x
2
= 4, y
2
= 2}
results: (x
1
, y
1
) = (10, 2)
1
, y
1
} when {x
2
= 8, y
2
= 4}
results: (x
1
, y
1
) = (6, 4)
And
1
is given by

1
= {(15, 2) , (12, 4) , (10, 2) , (6, 4)}
Now, if the elements of
1
are substituted into (5.8), then a new set of breakpoint coor-
dinates is obtained. This set is denoted as
2
2

2
indicate that
such regions are involved in the existence of a DC solution.
2
2
, y
2
} when {x
1
= 1, y
1
= 3}
results: (x
2
, y
2
) = (15, 3)
2
, y
2
} when {x
1
= 1, y
1
= 3}
results: (x
2
, y
2
) = (13, 3)
2
, y
2
} when
_
x
1
= 3, y
1
=
1
2
_
results: (x
2
, y
2
) =
_
11,
1
2
_
2
, y
2
} when {x
1
= 10, y
1
= 4}
results: (x
2
, y
2
) = (4, 4)
And
1
is given by

1
=
_
(15, 3) , (13, 3) ,
_
11,
1
2
_
, (4, 4)
_
The intersections
1

1
are shown in Figure 5.13. From this gure, it can be seen that
there are one intersection which occurs in the third constitutive segment of
1
. It means
that the third element region of R
1
is involved in the existence of a DC solution.
Figure 5.13: Intersections
1

1
.
The intersections
2

2
there are one intersection which occurs in the third constitutive segment of
2
. It means
that the third element region of R
2
2

2
.
From Figure 5.11 it can be seen that region (3, 3) combines the third element regions of
R
1
and R
2
. Therefore for the case E = 14 and R = 0, there is only one operating point
that occurs in the hyperplane partition region (3, 3). As this hyperplane region produce
a DC solution, it is denoted as DC solution region. The shadowed area in Figure 5.15
represent the DC solution region for the case E = 14 and R = 0 .
x
1
1 3 -1 10
x
2
2
4
8
(1,1) (2,1) (3,1)
(1,2) (2,2) (3,2)
(1,3) (2,3) (3,3)
Figure 5.15: DC solution region for the case E = 14 and R = 0.
(E=11,R=0), case:
The values E = 11 and R = 0 are substituted into (5.8). Following the same procedure
as in the last case, the sets
1
and
2
are obtained.

1
= {(12, 2) , (9, 4) , (7, 2) , (3, 4)}
and

2
=
_
(12, 3) , (10, 3) ,
_
8,
1
2
_
, (1, 4)
_
The intersections
1

1
although there are three intersections, they occurs in the third constitutive segment of
1
.
It means that the third element region of R
1
The intersections
2

2
are shown in Figure 5.17. From this gure, it can be seen
1

1
.
that there are three intersections, each one of them in every constitutive segment of
2
. It
means that the rst, second and third element region of R
2
are involved in the existence
of a DC solution.
2

2
.
From Figure 5.11 it can be seen that the hyperplane partition regions {(3, 1) , (3, 2) , (3, 3)}
combines the third element regions of R
1
and the three element regions of R
2
. Therefore
for the case E = 11 and R = 0, there are three operating point that occurs in the hyper-
plane partition regions {(3, 1) , (3, 2) , (3, 3)}. The shadowed area in Figure 5.18 represent
the DC solution region for the case E = 11 and R = 0 .
x
1
1 3 -1 10
x
2
2
4
8
(1,1) (2,1)
(1,2) (2,2)
(1,3) (2,3) (3,3)
(3,2)
(3,1)
Figure 5.18: DC solution region for the case E = 11 and R = 0.
Example 12. Consider the PWL network shown in Figure 5.19. The piecewise-linear
curves describing the nonlinear behavior for the elements R
1
, R
2
and R
3
, are depicted in
Figure 5.20.
v
3
i
3
+
_
R
3
v
2
i
2
+
_
R
2
v
1
i
1
+
R
1
_
+
_
3.4 V
Figure 5.19: A nonlinear electrical network containing three PWL elements.
In accordance with (5.2), the
n
sets are given by
1
= {(0, 0), (2, 4), (5, 1), (10, 3.5)} (5.11)
2
= {(0, 0), (1, 2), (2, 1), (10, 5)} (5.12)
3
= {(10, 10), (6, 10), (6, 10), (10, 10)} (5.13)
2,4 ( )
0,0
( )
( )
( )
5,1
10,3.5
v
1
i
1
1,2 ( )
0,0
( )
( )
( ) 2,1
10,5
v
2
i
2
10,10
( ) 6,10
( )
( )
( )
-6,-10
-10,-10
v
3
i
3
Figure 5.20: (a)PWL curve for R
1
. (b)PWL curve for R
2
. (c)PWL curve for R
3
.
After applying Kirchho laws to Figure 5.19, the following equilibrium equation system
is obtained:
F =
_
_
_
_
_
_
f
1
f
2
f
3
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1
0 0
1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
v
1
i
1
_
_
_
+
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1
1 0
1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
v
2
i
2
_
_
_
+
_
_
_
_
_
_
0 1
1 0
0 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
v
3
i
3
_
_
_
+
_
_
_
_
_
_
0
0
3.4
_
_
_
_
_
_
= 0
(5.14)
N = 3, therefore the system (5.14) is inconsistent. As it was mentioned, this problem
can be overcome by an iterative analysis process. In this example, the PWL elements
R
1
and R
2
have been chosen as pivot elements and therefore R
3
is replaced by a Norton
equivalent for each constitutive segments included in Figure 5.20(c).
The circuit used in this analysis is shown in Figure 5.21.
I
3
(k)
r
3
(k)
v
2
i
2
+
_
R
2
v
1
i
1
+
R
1
_
+
_
3.4 V
Norton equivalent for
the k-th segment
Figure 5.21: Iterative circuit used in the analysis for determining the DC element regions.
Now, from Figure 5.21, the consistent (N = 2) iterative equilibrium equation system
is given by
F =
_
_
_
f
1
f
2
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
0 1
1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
v
1
i
1
_
_
_
+
_
_
_
r
k
(3)
1
1 0
_
_
_
_
_
_
v
2
i
2
_
_
_
+
_
_
_
I
(k)
3
3.4
_
_
_
= 0 (5.15)
Figure 5.20(c) shows a three-segment PWL curve. In the rst segment k = 1, r
(1)
3
= 0
and I
(1)
3
= 10, for the second segment k = 2, r
(2)
3
= 5/3 and I
(2)
3
= 0 and nally, in the
third segment k = 3, r
(3)
3
= 0 and I
(3)
3
= 10.
From (5.15), the
1
and
2
element sets can be computed and therefore, the graphical
intersections
1
1
,
2
2
are obtained. As a result of the iterative analysis, the DC
element regions for R
3
can also be determined.
The results in this iterative analysis are reported in Figure 5.22 and Figure 5.24.
Figure 5.22: k = 1 results in the iterative analysis for determining the DC element regions.
Since there are only graphic intersections when k = 3, then it can be concluded that
second segment belongs to the unique DC element region for R
3
. It allows us discarding
the rst and third element regions of Figure 5.20(c) in the process of searching all the
operating points of Figure 5.19. The thick solid lines in Figure 5.23 show such constitutive
segments where the graphic intersections
1
1
and
2
2
occur. Since there are three
intersections which occur in the rst and second segments of R
1
and R
2
, then it can be
said that Figure 5.19 have three operating points and the third segments of R
1
and R
2
can be excluded from the process of nding these DC solutions.
(k
1
, k
2
, k
3
) denote a combination of the k
n
-th parameters which is running from the rst to
the ending segment in the R
n
PWL curve. Finding all the operating points by the brute
force procedure would imply scanning 27 element regions, in other words, the (3 3 3)
possible k
n
-combinations would necessarily be analyzed. By the procedure presented in
this section, it can be seen that only four combinations satisfy the condition for deter-
mining DC element regions. This combinations are: {(1, 1, 2), (1, 2, 2), (2, 1, 2), (2, 2, 2)}.
Observe that because there are only three operating points, one of the combinations yields
a false DC solution. This false solution are easily identied by a interval analysis. Interval
analysis is used for testing that all the DC solutions occur in a DC element region. If at
least one solution is outside, then it is a false DC solution that must be eliminated from
the DC solutions set.
5.2.1 Finding DC solution regions in PWL networks with upper
diagonal matrix
The particular case of PWL networks with upper diagonal matrix is studied in this section.
Until now, it has been necessary a numerical substitution and an iterative equation system
solution for obtaining the graphic intersections
m

n
and therefore the DC solution
regions. But, the elements of the set
n
can be obtained directly if the system dened by
(5.1) has the following upper diagonal matrix form:
F = A =
_
A
1
.
.
. A
2
.
.
.
.
.
. A
N
_
_
2
.
.
.
N1
N
_
_
+
_
2
.
.
.
N1
N
_
_
= 0 (5.16)
with
F =
_
f
1
f
2
f
N1
f
N
_
T
(5.17)
=
_
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
x
N1
y
N1
x
N
y
N
_
T
(5.18)
and A is expressed into the upper diagonal form
A =
_
_
1
A
11 1
A
12
|
2
A
11 2
A
12
| |
N1
A
11 N1
A
12
|
N
A
11 N
A
12
0 0 |
2
A
21 2
A
22
| |
N1
A
21 N1
A
22
|
N
A
21 N
A
22
.
.
.
.
.
. |
.
.
.
.
.
. | |
.
.
.
.
.
. |
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 | 0 0 | |
N1
A
(N1)1 N1
A
(N1)2
|
N
A
(N1)1 N
A
(N1)2
0 0 | 0 0 | | 0 0 |
N
A
N1 N
A
N2
_
_
(5.19)
If the system dened by (5.1) does not have directly the upper diagonal form, then an A
matrix transformation must be applied in order to recast it into the form (5.19).
From the last matrix row of A, it can be obtained the
N
curve as a linear equation
instead of a set of coordinates. The line equation of
N
is achieved as follows:
f
N
=
N
A
N1
x
N
+
N
A
N2
y
N
+
N
(5.20)
Since f
N
= 0, then
y
N
=
N
A
N1
N
A
N2
x
N

N
N
A
N2
(5.21)
After obtaining y
N
, the intersections
N

N
can be computed and the segments where
these intersections occur are the element regions for the element N.
Knowing the (x
N
, y
N
) intersections in the element N, these coordinates can be substituted
into the (N 1) row of A yielding the line equation that describes the
N1
curve as:
y
N1
=
N1
A
(N1)1
N1
A
(N1)2
x
N1
_

N1
N1
A
(N1)2
+
N
A
(N1)1
N1
A
(N1)2
+
N
A
(N1)2
N1
A
(N1)2
_
(5.22)
In order to obtain the element regions for the element (N 1), the intersections
(N1)
(N1)
are computed and they are substituted again into the row (N 2) of A. This
procedure is repeated until all the DC element regions in the N elements are determined.
Example 13. Consider the nonlinear electrical network shown in Figure 5.25 that con-
tains three PWL elements described by the PWL curves depicted in Figure 5.26, Figure
5.27 and Figure 5.28.
Figure 5.26 shows the relation x
1
-y
1
dened by a three-segments PWL curve. The graph-
ical space of this one-dimensional curve is partitioned in three regions by the two hy-
perplanes:
1
h
1
and
1
h
2
. The relation x
2
-y
2
, depicted in Figure 5.27 is given by a three-
segments PWL curve where similarly to Figure 5.26, the graphical space is partitioned
in three regions by the two hyperplanes:
2
h
1
and
2
h
2
. Figure 5.28 illustrates the relation
x
3
-y
3
by a four-segments PWL curve. The graphical space is now partitioned in four
regions by the three hyperplanes:
3
h
1
,
3
h
2
and
3
h
3
.
Hence there is a set of 7 hyperplanes {
1
h
1
,
1
h
2
,
2
h
1
,
2
h
2
,
3
h
1
,
3
h
2
,
3
h
3
}. It generates a hy-
perplane partition into 36 regions as shown in Figure 5.29.
x
1
+
_
+
_
y
1
x
2 +
_ y
2
2y
1
2x
2
5V
x
3
y
3
y
3
x
1
2 1 1 1
Figure 5.25: Nonlinear electrical network containing three PWL elements.
-6
y
1
-4 -2 2 4 6
0
5
10
x
1
-5
-10
(-6,-10)
(6,10)
1
h
1 1
h
2
Figure 5.26: PWL curve for the relation x
1
-y
1
.
y
2
1/2 1
5
x
2
(1,5)
-1/2
(-1,-1)
-1
-1
2
h
1
2
h
2
2
-y
2
.
y
3
1 2 3 4
2
4
x
3
-2
(1,1)
(3,5/2)
-1 -1/4
(4,13/4)
(2,-1/4)
3
h
1 3
h
2 3
h
3
3
-y
3
.
x
3
x
1
y
2
1
h
1 1
h
2
2
h
1
2
h
2
3
h
1
3
h
2
3
h
3
Figure 5.29: Hyperplane partition for the relations x
1
-y
1
, x
2
-y
2
and x
3
-y
3
.
In the rectangular lattice structure of Figure 5.29 each cell represents a hyperplane par-
tition region. To identify clearly every partition in the space (x
1
y
2
x
3
), the regions
are numerated as indicate Figure 5.30, Figure 5.31, Figure 5.32 and Figure 5.33 .
x
1
y
2
x
3
1
h
1 1
h
2
2
h
1
2
h
2
3
h
1
(2) (1) (3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7) (8) (9)
Figure 5.30: Part of the hyperplane partition region in the rst segment of x
3
-y
3
relation.
x
1
y
2
x
3
1
h
1 1
h
2
2
h
1
2
h
2
3
h
2
(11) (10)
(12)
(13)
(14)
(15)
(16)
(17) (18)
3
h
1
Figure 5.31: Part of the hyperplane partition region in the second segment of x
3
-y
3
relation.
x
1
y
2
x
3
1
h
1 1
h
2
2
h
1
2
h
2
3
h
3
(20) (19)
(21)
(22)
(23)
(24)
(25)
(26) (27)
3
h
2
Figure 5.32: Part of the hyperplane partition region in the third segment of x
3
-y
3
relation.
x
1
y
2
x
3
1
h
1 1
h
2
2
h
1
2
h
2
(29) (28)
(30)
(31)
(32)
(33)
(34)
(35) (36)
3
h
3
Figure 5.33: Part of the hyperplane partition region in the fouth segment of x
3
-y
3
relation.
To avoid a scanning over all the 36 regions, the mathematical procedure for nding DC
element regions is applied as follows:
After applying Kirchho laws into the nonlinear circuit shown in Figure 5.25, the following
equilibrium equation system is obtained.
_
_
f
1
f
2
f
3
_
_
=
_
_
1 1
0 0
0 0
_
_
_
_
v
1
i
1
_
_
+
_
_
0 1
1 1
0 0
_
_
_
_
v
2
i
2
_
_
+
_
_
1 0
1 0
1 1
_
_
_
_
v
3
i
3
_
_
+
_
_
5
5
5
_
_
(5.23)
After recasting (5.23) into the form (5.16) results
_
_
f
1
f
2
f
3
_
_
=
_
_
1 1 0 1 1 0
0 0 1 1 1 0
0 0 0 0 1 1
_
_
_
_
x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
x
3
y
3
_
_
+
_
_
5
5
5
_
_
(5.24)
where A is an upper diagonal matrix.
According to (5.21), from the third row of A it can be obtained the line equation
y
3
= x
3
+ 5 for the curve
3
. Figure 5.34 shows the graphic intersection
3

3
.
y
3
1 2 3 4
2
4
x
3
-2
x
3
=43/15
-1 -1/4 5
y
3
=-x
3
+5
5
Figure 5.34: Intersection
3

3
.
Notice that occurs only a graphic intersection in the third segment of
3
, therefore, this
is the unique DC element region in the relation x
3
-y
3
.
Now, according with (5.22), the coordinate where the intersection occurs, x
3
=
43
15
, is eval-
uated into the second row of A in order to obtain the line equation y
2
= x
2
+ (5 x
3
) =
x
2
+
32
15
for the curve
2
2

2
.
y
2
1/2 1
5
x
2 -1/2 -1
-1
y
2
=x
2
+32/15
y
2
=11/5
2

2
.
Notice that in this case also there is a unique graphic intersection and it occurs in the
second segment of
2
, therefore, this is the unique DC element region in the relation x
2
-y
2
.
Finally, following the same mathematical procedure, the coordinates y
2
=
11
5
and x
3
=
43
15
are evaluated into the rst row of A in order to obtain the line equation y
1
= x
1
+
(y
2
+ x
3
5) = x
1
+
1
15
for the curve
1

1

1
.
-15
y
1
-10 -5 5 10 15
0
5
10
x
1
-5
-10
x
1
=1/10
x
1
=149 /15
x
1
=-151 /15
y
1
=x
1
+1/15
1

1
.
Notice that in this case, each constitutive segment of
1
presents a graphic intersec-
tion (x
1
=
_
151
15
,
1
10
,
149
15
_
), therefore, the three segments in the relation x
1
-y
1
are DC
element regions.
As a summary it can be reported:
In the relation x
1
-y
1
the three regions are DC element regions.
In the relation x
2
-y
2
, the region bounded between the hyperplanes
2
h
1
and
2
h
2
is
only a DC element region, it is the region containing the second segment.
In the relation x
3
-y
3
, the region bounded between the hyperplanes
3
h
2
and
3
h
3
is
only a DC element region, it is the region containing the third segment.
This results are graphically shown in Figure 5.37.
x
3
x
1
y
2
1
h
1
1
h
2
2
h
1
2
h
2
3
h
1
3
h
2
3
h
3
(23) (22) (24)
Figure 5.37: DC solution regions for the nonlinear circuit shown in Figure 5.25.
The dashed line in Figure 5.37 indicates the 36 hyperplane partition regions. The thick
line closes those regions where a DC solution is found, these are the so called DC solution
regions and they are formed from the DC element regions interception.
For this example it can be concluded that there are three DC solutions and they occurs
in the regions: 22,23 and 24.
(22) :
_
_
x
1
y
2
x
2
_
_
=
_
151
15
11
5
43
15
_
_
, (23) :
_
_
x
1
y
2
x
2
_
_
=
_
_
1
10
11
5
43
15
_
_
, (24) :
_
_
x
1
y
2
x
2
_
_
=
_
_
149
15
11
5
43
15
_
_
To summarize this example, it can be said that for nding the DC solutions it was
only needed to scan in three hyperplane partition regions instead of over all the 36. It
represented an advantage because the computational eort was reduced by discarding
33 regions and solving the three specic regions where it is assured the existence of DC
solutions.
5.3 Finding DC solution regions by interval analysis
In the previous section, a procedure for identifying the element regions which are involved
in the existence of an operating point was presented. Now, it is shown that from the
breakpoint graphic coordinates is also possible to derive interval expressions that can be
used to test if the (x
n
, y
n
) values obtained from the equilibrium system F = 0 belong or
not to any operating point. It allows determining if a hyperplane partition region is or
not a DC solution region.
Figure 5.38 shows the four cases of J-Finite segments that can be found in a PWL curve.
x
y
x
y
X
n
X
n+1
Y
n
Y
n+1
x
X
n
X
n+1
Y
n
Y
n+1
y
X
n
X
n+1
Y
n
Y
n+1
x
X
n
X
n+1
Y
n
Y
n+1
y
(a) (b) (c) (d)
Figure 5.38: Cases of J-Finite PWL segments .
Figure 5.39 shows the four cases of J-Innite segments that can be found in a PWL curve.
x
y
x
y
X
n
= X
n+1
Y
n
Y
n+1
x
y
X
n
X
n+1
Y
n
=Y
n+1
X
n
X
n+1
y
(a) (b) (c) (d)
X
n
= X
n+1
Y
n
Y
n+1
x
Y
n
=Y
n+1
Figure 5.39: Cases of J-Innite PWL segments .
5.3. FINDING DC SOLUTION REGIONS BY INTERVAL ANALYSIS 103
The boundary intervals for the cases depicted Figure 5.38 and Figure 5.39 are suma-
rized in the Table 5.1.
Case J-Finite J-Innite
(a) X = [X
n
, X
n+1
], Y = [Y
n
, Y
n+1
] X = [X
n
] = [X
n+1
], Y = [Y
n
, Y
n+1
]
(b) X = [X
n+1
, X
n
], Y = [Y
n+1
, Y
n
] X = [X
n
] = [X
n+1
], Y = [Y
n+1
, Y
n
]
(c) X = [X
n
, X
n+1
], Y = [Y
n+1
, Y
n
] X = [X
n
, X
n+1
], Y = [Y
n
] = [Y
n+1
]
(d) X = [X
n+1
, X
n
], Y = [Y
n
, Y
n+1
] X = [X
n+1
, X
n
], Y = [Y
n
] = [Y
n+1
]
Table 5.1: Boundary intervals.
From Table 5.1 the following testing conditions for both, the J-Finite and the J-Innite
cases can be derived:
For the case (a): X + Y = [X
n
+ Y
n
, X
n+1
+ Y
n+1
]
For the case (b): X + Y = [X
n+1
+ Y
n+1
, X
n
+ Y
n
]
For the case (c): X Y = [X
n
Y
n
, X
n+1
Y
n+1
]
For the case (d): X Y = [X
n+1
Y
n+1
, X
n
+ Y
n
]
These conditions can be used to test if the (x
n
, y
n
) values obtained from the equilib-
rium system (5.1), belong or not to any operating point.
Since these values result by considering the hyperplane partition regions in F = 0, then
these interval expressions can be used for determining if a hyperplane partition region is
or not a DC solution region.
Example 14. To show the application of the testing interval expressions in the process
of nding all the operating points, the two PWL elements series circuit of example 11 is
considered. Figure 5.40 shows the equivalent curve for R
1
and R
2
in a series connection
and the load line for {E = 12, R = 3.5}. It shows that there are ve operating points
and therefore by considering the nine hyperplane partition regions, four solutions must
be discarded.
Figure 5.40: Equivalent PWL curve for the series circuit of example 11.
After substituting the values: E = 12 and R = 3.5 in the equilibrium system (5.8), the
nine solutions reported in Table 5.2 are obtained.
The testing interval expressions for the element R
1
are given by
X1 + Y 1 = [4, 4] for the rst element region.
X1 Y 1 = [2, 2.5] for the second element region.
X1 + Y 1 = [3.5, 14] for the third element region.
The testing interval expressions for the element R
2
are given by
X2 + Y 2 = [3, 6] for the rst element region.
X2 Y 2 = [2, 2] for the second element region.
5.3. FINDING DC SOLUTION REGIONS BY INTERVAL ANALYSIS 105
Region (x
1
, y
1
)-Solution (x
2
, y
2
)-Solution
(11) x
1
= (0.9230), y
1
= (2.7692) x
2
= (1.3846), y
2
= (2.7692)
(12) x
1
= (0.7058), y
1
= (2.1176) x
2
= (3.8823), y
2
= (2.1176)
(13) x
1
= (0.6857), y
1
= (2.0571) x
2
= (4.1142), y
2
= (2.0571)
(21) x
1
= (1.2500), y
1
= (2.6875) x
2
= (1.3437), y
2
= (2.6875)
(22) x
1
= (2.1764), y
1
= (1.5294) x
2
= (4.4705), y
2
= (1.5294)
(23) x
1
= (1.9361), y
1
= (1.8297) x
2
= (3.6595), y
2
= (1.8297)
(31) x
1
= (5.3333), y
1
= (1.6666) x
2
= (0.8333), y
2
= (1.6666)
(32) x
1
= (3.7777), y
1
= (0.8888) x
2
= (5.1111), y
2
= (0.8888)
(33) x
1
= (4.6666), y
1
= (1.3333) x
2
= (2.6666), y
2
= (1.3333)
Table 5.2: Solutions of (5.8) for the case (E = 12, R = 3.5).
X2 + Y 2 = [6, 12] for the third element region.
Now, the solutions reported in Table 5.2 are tested by the interval expressions as follows
hyperplane partition region (1, 1).
x
1
+ y
1
= 3.6922 [4, 4]
x
2
+ y
2
= 4.1538 [3, 6]
Conclusion: (1, 1) is a DC solution region, therefore (x
1
, y
1
) = (0.9230, 2.7692) and
(x
2
, y
2
) = (1.3846, 2.7692) produce an operating point.
x
1
+ y
1
= 2.8234 [4, 4]
x
2
y
2
= 1.7647 [2, 2]
1
, y
1
) = (0.7058, 2.1176) and
(x
2
, y
2
x
1
+ y
1
= 2.7428 [4, 4]
x
2
+ y
2
= 6.1713 [6, 12]
1
, y
1
) = (0.6857, 2.0571) and
(x
2
, y
2
x
1
y
1
= 1.4375 [2, 2.5]
x
2
+ y
2
= 4.0312 [3, 6]
1
, y
1
) = (1.2500, 2.6875) and
(x
2
, y
2
x
1
y
1
= 0.647 [2, 2.5]
x
2
y
2
= 2.9411 / [2, 2]
Conclusion: (2, 2) is not a DC solution region.
x
1
y
1
= 0.1064 [2, 2.5]
x
2
+ y
2
= 5.4892 / [6, 12]
x
1
+ y
1
= 6.9999 [3.5, 14]
x
2
+ y
2
= 2.4999 [3, 6]
1
, y
1
) = (5.3333, 1.6666) and
(x
2
, y
2
x
1
+ y
1
= 4.6666 [3.5, 14]
x
2
y
2
= 4.2222 / [2, 2]
x
1
+ y
1
= 5.9999 [3.5, 14]
x
2
+ y
2
= 3.9999 / [6, 12]
These conclusions can also be veried by the intersections between the equivalent curve
and the load line depicted in Figure 5.40.
5.4. APPLYING ID-MODEL TO DC ANALYSIS 107
5.4 Applying ID-Model to DC analysis
In this section a methodology for nding all the operating points in a PWL network is
proposed. The network to be considered is the one shown in Figure 5.1, but now the R
n
PWL elements are described by ID-Model formulations.
Given a nonlinear network containing N-PWL elements which are dened by ID-Model
descriptions, the following methodology can be applyied for nding all the operating
points.
1. By applying Kirchho laws, obtain the equilibrium equation system into the form
(5.1).
2. Dene the n-th PWL elements (for n = 1, 2, , N) by the ID-Model as follows
_
_
y
n
x
n
1
_
_
=
Ln
m=1
_
_
Y
m,n
Y
(m+1),n
X
m,n
X
(m+1),n
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
m,n
Q
m,n
_
_
C
m,n
(k
n
) (5.25)
in the extended form (3.5), or
_
_
y
n
x
n
1
_
_
=
_
_
Y
1,n
Y
2,n
Y
Ln+1,n
X
2,n
X
2,n
X
Ln+1,n
1 1 1
_
_
_
1,n
2,n
.
.
.
Ln+1,n
_
_
(5.26)
in the condensed form (3.21).
The index n = {1, 2, ..., N} indicates the n-th PWL element, here m is only an
auxiliar variable used as sumatory index (m = {1, 2, ..., L
n
}).
The parameter k
n
= {1, 2, ..., L
n
} denotes the k
n
-th segment beloging to any PWL
curve and it also indicates a specic element region for an n-th PWL element.
3. Determine the DC element regions (the k
n
-values). It means nding all the element
regions (the k
n
-values) involved in the occurrence of an operating point.
4. Knowing the specic element regions that must be considered in the DC analysis, the
equilibrium system (5.1) is solved by considering all the k
n
-value combinations (DC
hyperplane partition regions). This process always assures to achieving a consistent
linear system for each combination. It is demonstrated by considering the number
of equations and variables as follows:
Number of equations= 4N:
N linear equations from the equilibrium system.
3N linear equations for each k
n
value.
Number of variable= 4N:
N variables {x
1
, x
2
, ..., x
N
}.
N variables {y
1
, y
2
, ..., y
N
}.
2N variables {P
m,n
, Q
m,n
, P
m+1,n+1
, Q
m+1,n+1
..., P
Ln,N
, Q
Ln,N
}.
Example 15. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 5.41 where the nonlinear elements:
R
1
,R
2
, are dened by the PWL curves depicted in Figure 5.42.
9 V
2
x
1
x
2
y
1
y
2
+
_
+
_
+
_
Figure 5.41: A circuit containing two PWL elements in series connection.
0
x
1
y
1
k
1
=2
(-10,-20)
(5,1)
(2,4)
(20,17/2 )
k
1
=1
k
1
=3
0
x
2
y
2
k
2
=1
(-10,-20)
(3,6)
(20,29/2)
k
2
=2
Figure 5.42: Constitutive relations of PWL elements R
1
and R
2
.
The ID-Model description for the PWL elements: R
1
and R
2
, is given by
_
_
y
1
x
1
1
_
_
=
_
_
20 4
10 2
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1,1
Q
1,1
_
_
C
1,1
(k
1
) +
_
_
4 1
2 5
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2,1
Q
2,1
_
_
C
2,1
(k
1
) (5.27)
+
_
_
1
17
2
5 20
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
3,1
Q
3,1
_
_
C
3,1
(k
1
)
for the PWL element R
1
and
_
_
y
2
x
2
1
_
_
=
_
_
20 6
10 3
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1,2
Q
1,2
_
_
C
1,2
(k
2
) +
_
_
6
29
2
3 20
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2,2
Q
2,2
_
_
C
2,2
(k
2
) (5.28)
2
.
With the activation coecients dened as follows:
C
1,1
(k
1
) =
k
1
|k
1
2| |k
1
3|
2
C
2,1
(k
1
) =
k
1
|k
1
1| |k
1
3|
2
C
3,1
(k
1
) =
k
1
|k
1
1| |k
1
2|
6
C
1,2
(k
2
) = |k
2
| |k
2
2|
C
2,2
(k
2
) =
k
2
|k
1
1|
2
or in the condensed form
_
_
y
1
x
1
1
_
_
=
_
_
20 4 1
17
2
10 2 5 20
1 1 1 1
_
_
_
1,1
2,1
3,1
4,1
_
_
(5.29)
with
1,1
= P
1,1
C
1,1
(k
1
) (5.30)
2,1
= Q
1,1
C
1,1
(k
1
) + P
2,1
C
2,1
(k
1
) (5.31)
3,1
= Q
2,1
C
2,1
(k
1
) + P
3,1
C
3,1
(k
1
) (5.32)
4,1
= Q
3,1
C
3,1
(k
1
) (5.33)
for R
1
, and
_
_
y
2
x
2
1
_
_
=
_
_
20 6
29
2
10 3 20
1 1 1
_
_
_
1,2
2,2
3,2
_
_
(5.34)
with
1,2
= P
1,2
C
1,2
(k
2
) (5.35)
2,2
= Q
1,2
C
1,2
(k
2
) + P
2,2
C
2,2
(k
2
) (5.36)
3,2
= Q
2,2
C
2,2
(k
2
) (5.37)
for R
2
.
obtained.
y
1
=
9 x
1
x
2
2
(5.38)
y
1
y
2
= 0 (5.39)
For each value of k
1
and k
2
a linear system is obtained.
_
_
1 0 0 0 Y
k
1
Y
k
1
+1
0 0
0 1 0 0 X
k
1
X
k
1
+1
0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 Y
k
2
Y
k
2
+1
0 0 0 1 0 0 X
k
2
X
k
2
+1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1
1
2
0
1
2
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
y
1
x
1
y
2
x
2
P
k
1
,1
Q
k
1
,1
P
k
2
,2
Q
k
2
,2
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
1
9
2
0
_
_
(5.40)
Since k
1
= {1, 2, 3} and k
2
= {1, 2}, there are six possible regions where a DC solution
could exist. These six regions results from the hyperplane partition as shown in Figure
5.43.
x
1
x
2
2
1
5 -10 20
20
3
2 3
4 5 6
Figure 5.43: Hyperplane partitions for R
1
and R
2
.
From Figure 5.43 it can be seen that every region relates a (k
1
, k
2
) combination, i.e.
region 1 relates the combination (1, 1), region 2 the combination (2, 1), region 3 the
combination (3, 1), region 4 the combination (1, 2), region 5 the combination (2, 2) and
region 6 the combination (3, 2).
Now, it is necessary to determine the DC solution regions.
The equilibrium equations are recast into the decomposed form F = 0.
_
_
f
1
f
2
_
_
=
_
_
1
2
1
0 1
_
_
_
_
x
1
y
1
_
_
+
_
_
1
2
0
0 1
_
_
_
_
x
2
y
2
_
_
+
_
9
2
0
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
_
_
(5.41)
The PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
are now dened by a set of breakpoint coordinates as
follows
1
=
_
(10, 20) , (2, 4) , (5, 1) ,
_
20,
17
2
__
(5.42)
for R
1
, and
1
=
_
(10, 20) , (3, 6) ,
_
20,
29
2
__
(5.43)
for R
2
.
After substuting the elements of
2
into F = 0, a new set of breakpoint coordinates is
obtained. This set is denoted as
1
1

1
indicate such regions
and therefore the k
1
values where a DC solution occurs.
1
1
, y
1
} when {x
2
= 10, y
2
= 20}
results: (x
1
, y
1
) = (59, 20)
1
, y
1
} when {x
2
= 3, y
2
= 6}
results: (x
1
, y
1
) = (6, 6)
1
, y
1
} when
_
x
2
= 20, y
2
=
29
2
_
results: (x
1
, y
1
) =
_
40,
29
2
_
And
1
is given by

1
=
_
(59, 20) , (6, 6) ,
_
40,
29
2
__
Now, if the elements of
1
are substituted into F = 0, then a new set of breakpoint
coordinates is obtained. This set is denoted as
2
2

2
indicate
such regions and therefore the k
2
values where a DC solution occurs.
Applying the same procedure to obtain
2
yields
2
, y
2
} when {x
1
= 10, y
1
= 20}
results: (x
2
, y
2
) = (59, 20)
2
, y
2
} when {x
1
= 2, y
1
= 4}
results: (x
2
, y
2
) = (1, 4)
2
, y
2
} when {x
1
= 5, y
1
= 1}
results: (x
2
, y
2
) = (2, 1)
2
, y
2
} when
_
x
1
= 20, y
1
=
17
2
_
results: (x
2
, y
2
) =
_
28,
17
2
_
And
1
is given by

1
=
_
(59, 20) , (1, 4) , (2, 1) ,
_
28,
17
2
__
The intersections
1

1
that there are three intersections: one occurs in the rst segment, other in the second
segment and the last of them, in the third constitutive segment of
1
. It means that the
k
1
values where a DC solution exists are k
1
= {1, 2, 3}.
1

1
.
The intersections
2

2
although there are three intersections they occurs in the rst constitutive segment of
2
.
It means that the k
2
value where a DC solution exists is k
2
= {1}.
1

1
.
The shadowed areas in Figure 5.46 represent the DC solution regions for this example.
x
1
x
2
2 5 -10 20
20
3
4 5 6
1 2 3
Figure 5.46: DC solution regions.
So, the DC solution regions dened as (k
1
, k
2
) are: {(1, 1) , (2, 1) , (3, 1)}.
The ID-Models involved in the analysis to nd all the operating points is written as
_
_
y
1
x
1
1
_
_
=
_
_
20 4
10 2
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1,1
Q
1,1
_
_
C
1,1
(k
1
) +
_
_
4 1
2 5
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2,1
Q
2,1
_
_
C
2,1
(k
1
) (5.44)
+
_
_
1
17
2
5 20
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
3,1
Q
3,1
_
_
C
3,1
(k
1
)
1
, and
_
_
y
2
x
2
1
_
_
=
_
_
20 6
10 3
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1,2
Q
1,2
_
_
C
1,2
(k
2
) (5.45)
2
.
The DC solution of region 1 is given when k
1
= 1 and k
2
= 1, that is (k
1
, k
2
) = (1, 1).
It means solving the following linear system:
_
_
1 0 0 0 20 4 0 0
0 1 0 0 10 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 20 6
0 0 0 1 0 0 10 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1
1
2
0
1
2
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
y
1
x
1
y
2
x
2
P
1,1
Q
1,1
P
1,2
Q
1,2
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
1
9
2
0
_
_
(5.46)
1
= 2 and k
2
= 1, that is (k
1
, k
2
) = (2, 1). It
means solving the following linear system:
_
_
1 0 0 0 4 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 2 5 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 20 6
0 0 0 1 0 0 10 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1
1
2
0
1
2
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
y
1
x
1
y
2
x
2
P
2,1
Q
2,1
P
1,2
Q
1,2
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
1
9
2
0
_
_
(5.47)
1
= 3 and k
2
= 1, that is (k
1
, k
2
) = (3, 1).
_
_
1 0 0 0 1
17
2
0 0
0 1 0 0 5 20 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 20 6
0 0 0 1 0 0 10 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1
1
2
0
1
2
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
y
1
x
1
y
2
x
2
P
3,1
Q
3,1
P
1,2
Q
1,2
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
1
9
2
0
_
_
(5.48)
The solution of these linear systems for the variables {y
1
, x
1
, y
2
, x
2
} are reported in Table
5.3.
Region x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
1
3
2
3
3
2
2
2 4 2 1 2
3
17
3
4
3
2
3
4
3
Table 5.3: DC solutions for R
1
and R
2
.
Example 16. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 5.41 again. Now let the bias E = 10
and the elements R
1
and R
2
be dened by the PWL curves depicted in Figure 5.47 and
Figure 5.48.
Figure 5.47: Constitutive relations of PWL element R
1
.
Figure 5.48: Constitutive relations of PWL element R
2
.
The graphic coordinates for the PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
are shown in Table 5.4.
i X
i,1
Y
i,1
X
i,2
Y
i,2
1 -20 -6.7 -20 -25
2 -1 -2 -8 -1
3 2 4 -5 -4
4 5 1 -3 0
5 11 4 -1 -2
6 13 4.5 3 6
7 15 0.5 8 8.5
8 20 10.5 10 4.6
9 13 8
10 16 16.5
11 18 17.5
Table 5.4: i-th coordinate for the PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
.
where the condensed ID-Models for the elements R
1
and R
2
are given by
_
_
y
1
x
1
1
_
_
=
_
_
6.7 2 4 1 4 4.5 0.5 10.5
20 1 2 5 11 13 15 20
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
_
_
_

1
_
(5.49)
with
_

1
_
=
_

1,1

2,1

3,1

7,1

8,1
_
T
(5.50)
and the
m,1
-coecients given by
1,1
= P
1,1
C
1,1
(k
1
) (5.51)
m,1
= Q
m1,1
C
m1,1
(k
1
) + P
m,1
C
m,1
(k
1
) , (m = 2, 3, , 7) (5.52)
8,1
= Q
7,1
C
7,1
(k
1
) (5.53)
for R
1
, and
_
_
y
2
x
2
1
_
_
=
_
_
25 1 4 0 2 6 8.5 4.6 8 16.5 17.5
20 8 5 3 1 3 8 10 13 16 18
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
_
_
_

2
_
(5.54)
with
_

2
_
=
_

1,2

2,2

3,2

10,2

11,2
_
T
(5.55)
and the
m,2
-coecients given by
1,2
= P
1,2
C
1,2
(k
2
) (5.56)
m,2
= Q
m1,2
C
m1,2
(k
2
) + P
m,2
C
m,2
(k
2
) , (m = 2, 3, , 10) (5.57)
11,2
= Q
10,2
C
10,2
(k
2
) (5.58)
for R
2
.
Since k
1
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7} and k
2
= {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10}, there are seventy possible
regions where a DC solution could exist. These seventy regions result from the hyperplane
partition as indicates Figure 5.49.
The PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
are dened by a set of breakpoint coordinates as follows
1
= {(20, 6.7) , (1, 2) , (2, 4) , (5, 1) , (11, 4) , (13, 4.5) , (15, 0.5) , (20, 10.5)} (5.59)
for R
1
, and
2
= {(20, 25) , (8, 1) , (5, 4) , (3, 0) , (1, 2) , (3, 6) , (8, 8.5) , (10, 4.6) ,
(13, 8) , (16, 16.5) , (18, 17.5)}
for R
2
.
Following the same procedure as was done in last example,
1
is given by

1
= {(80, 25) , (20, 1) , (23, 4) , (13, 0) , (15, 2) , (5, 6) , (15, 8.5) , (9.2, 4.6) ,
(19, 8) , (39, 16.5) , (43, 17.5)}
And
2
is given by

2
= {(43.4, 6.7) , (15, 2) , (0, 4) , (3, 1) , (9, 4) , (12, 4.5) , (6, 0.5) , (31, 10.5)}
x
1
x
2
-20 -1 2 5 11 13 15 20
-20
-8
-5
-3
-1
3
8
10
13
16
18
(64) (65) (66) (67) (68) (69) (70)
(57) (58) (59) (60) (61) (62) (63)
(50) (51) (52) (53) (54) (55) (56)
(43) (44) (45) (46) (47) (48) (49)
(36) (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42)
(29) (30) (31) (32) (33) (34) (35)
(22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28)
(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21)
(8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Figure 5.49: 70 Hyperplane partition regions.
The intersections
1

1
that there are three intersections: one occurs in the second segment, other in the third
segment and the last of them, in the fourth constitutive segment of
1
. It means that the
k
1
1
= {2, 3, 4}.
1

1
.
The intersections
2

2
although there are three intersections they occurs in the fth constitutive segment of
2
.
It means that the k
2
2
= {5}.
1

1
.
x
1
x
2
-20 -1 2 5 11 13 15 20
-20
-8
-5
-3
-1
3
8
10
13
16
18
(64) (65) (66) (67) (68) (69) (70)
(57) (58) (59) (60) (61) (62) (63)
(50) (51) (52) (53) (54) (55) (56)
(43) (44) (45) (46) (47) (48) (49)
(36) (37) (38) (39) (40) (41) (42)
(29) (33) (34) (35)
(22) (23) (24) (25) (26) (27) (28)
(15) (16) (17) (18) (19) (20) (21)
(8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
(31) (30) (32)
Figure 5.52: DC solution regions from 70 hyperplane partition regions.
1
= 2 and k
2
= 5, that is (k
1
, k
2
) = (2, 5).
_
_
1 0 0 0 2 4 0 0
0 1 0 0 1 2 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 2 6
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1
1
2
0
1
2
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
y
1
x
1
y
2
x
2
P
2,1
Q
2,1
P
5,2
Q
5,2
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
1
5
0
_
_
(5.60)
1
= 3 and k
2
= 5, that is (k
1
, k
2
) = (3, 5). It
means solving the following linear system:
_
_
1 0 0 0 4 1 0 0
0 1 0 0 2 5 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 2 6
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1
1
2
0
1
2
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
y
1
x
1
y
2
x
2
P
3,1
Q
3,1
P
5,2
Q
5,2
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
1
5
0
_
_
(5.61)
1
= 4 and k
2
= 5, that is (k
1
, k
2
) = (4, 5).
_
_
1 0 0 0 1 4 0 0
0 1 0 0 5 11 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 2 6
0 0 0 1 0 0 1 3
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1
1
2
0
1
2
0 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
y
1
x
1
y
2
x
2
P
4,1
Q
4,1
P
5,2
Q
5,2
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
1
5
0
_
_
(5.62)
The solution of these linear systems for the variables {y
1
, x
1
, y
2
, x
2
} are reported in Table
5.5.
Region x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
30
5
3
10
3
5
3
10
3
31
10
3
8
3
4
3
8
3
32
55
9
14
9
7
9
14
9
1
and R
2
.
Example 17. Consider the circuit shown in Figure 5.53. Observe that this circuit con-
tains a CCVS (Current Controlled Voltage Source).
8 V
2
x
2 y
2
+
_
+
_
2y
1
+
_
x
1
y
1
+
_
3
1
R
1
R
2
Figure 5.53: A PWL circuit containing a voltage source controlled by a PWL current.
The nonlinear elements R
1
and R
2
are described by the PWL curves depicted in Figure
5.3 and Figure 5.4, respectively.
The graphic coordinates for the PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
are shown in Table 5.6.
i X
i,1
Y
i,1
X
i,2
Y
i,2
1 -100 94 -100 56
2 0 -6 4 4
3 3 3 -2 1
4 100 -94 100 -
49
2
Table 5.6: i-th coordinate for the PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
.
The extended ID-Model description for the PWL elements: R
1
and R
2
, is given by
_
_
y
1
x
1
1
_
_
=
_
_
94 6
100 0
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1,1
Q
1,1
_
_
C
1,1
(k
1
) +
_
_
6 3
0 3
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2,1
Q
2,1
_
_
C
2,1
(k
1
) +
_
_
3 94
3 100
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
3,1
Q
3,1
_
_
C
3,1
(k
1
)
1
, and
_
_
y
2
x
2
1
_
_
=
_
_
56 4
100 4
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1,2
Q
1,2
_
_C
1,2
(k
2
) +
_
_
4 1
4 2
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2,2
Q
2,2
_
_C
2,2
(k
2
) +
_
_
1
49
2
2 100
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
3,2
Q
3,2
_
_
C
3,2
(k
2
)
2
.
C
1,1
(k
1
) =
k
1
|k
1
2| |k
1
3|
2
, C
2,1
(k
1
) =
k
1
|k
1
1| |k
1
3|
2
,
C
3,1
(k
1
) =
k
1
|k
1
1| |k
1
2|
6
, C
1,2
(k
2
) =
k
2
|k
2
2| |k
2
3|
2
,
C
2,2
(k
2
) =
k
2
|k
2
1| |k
2
3|
2
, C
3,2
(k
2
) =
k
2
|k
2
1| |k
2
2|
6
,
_
_
y
1
x
1
1
_
_
=
_
_
94 6 3 94
100 0 3 100
1 1 1 1
_
_
_
1,1
2,1
3,1
4,1
_
_
(5.63)
with
1,1
= P
1,1
C
1,1
(k
1
) (5.64)
2,1
= Q
1,1
C
1,1
(k
1
) + P
2,1
C
2,1
(k
1
) (5.65)
3,1
= Q
2,1
C
2,1
(k
1
) + P
3,1
C
3,1
(k
1
) (5.66)
4,1
= Q
3,1
C
3,1
(k
1
) (5.67)
for R
1
, and
_
_
y
2
x
2
1
_
_
=
_
_
56 4 1
49
2
100 4 2 100
1 1 1 1
_
_
_
1,2
2,2
3,2
4,2
_
_
(5.68)
with
1,2
= P
1,2
C
1,2
(k
2
) (5.69)
2,2
= Q
1,2
C
1,2
(k
2
) + P
2,2
C
2,2
(k
2
) (5.70)
3,2
= Q
2,2
C
2,2
(k
2
) + P
3,2
C
3,2
(k
2
) (5.71)
4,2
= Q
3,2
C
3,2
(k
2
) (5.72)
for R
2
.
Now, it is necessary to determine the DC solution regions.
Since k
1
= {1, 2, 3} and k
2
= {1, 2, 3}, there are nine possible regions where a DC solution
could exist. These regions result from the hyperplane partition as indicates Figure 5.54.
x
1
x
2
0
1
3 -100 100
-2
4
2 3
4 5 6
7 8 9
100
Figure 5.54: Hyperplane partitions for the example 17.
obtained.
y
1
= 24 3x
2
4x
1
(5.73)
y
2
= 12 +
3
2
x
2
+ 3x
1
(5.74)
These equilibrium equations are recast into the following decomposed form.
_
_
f
1
f
2
_
_
=
_
_
4 1
3 0
_
_
_
_
x
1
y
1
_
_
+
_
_
3 0
3
2
1
_
_
_
_
x
2
y
2
_
_
+
_
_
24
12
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
_
_
(5.75)
The PWL curves of R
1
and R
2
are dened by a set of breakpoint coordinates as follows
1
= {(100, 94) , (0, 6) , (3, 3) , (100, 94)}
for R
1
, and
2
=
_
(100, 56) , (4, 4) , (2, 1) ,
_
100,
49
2
__

1
is given by

1
=
__
218
3
,
100
3
_
,
_
10
3
,
4
3
_
,
_
16
3
,
26
3
_
,
_
325
6
,
178
3
__
And
2
is given by

2
=
_
(100, 56) , (4, 4) , (2, 1) ,
_
100,
49
2
__
The intersections
1

1
that there are three intersections: one occurs in the second segment and two in the third
segment. It means that the k
1
1
= {1, 3}.
The intersections
2

2
there are three intersections that occur in the rst, second and third constitutive segment
of
2
. It means that the k
2
2
= {1, 2, 3}.
For each DC solution region a linear equations system is obtained. The solutions of these
1

1
.
2

2
.
x
1
x
2
0
1
3 -100 100
-2
4
2
4 5
8 9
100
7
6
3
Figure 5.57: DC solution regions for the example 17.
Region x
1
y
1
x
2
y
2
7 4 2 14 3
3 6 0 0 6
6 4 2 2 3
1
and R
2
.
linear systems for the variables {y
1
, x
1
, y
2
, x
2
} are reported in Table 5.7.
Example 18. Find all the operating points for the Schmitt-Trigger circuit shown in
Figure 5.58.
T
2
T
1
1k
1k
11k
8k
1k
3.33V
10V
+
_
+
_
Figure 5.58: Schmitt-Trigger circuit.
This circuit contains two transistors, each one of them is modeled by a controlled current
source in series with a nonlinear element (a pn junction diode) as shown in Figure 5.59.
Collector (C)
Emitter (E)
Base (B)
C
B
E
C
B
E
0.98 i
D
0.98 i
D
i
D
i
D
v
D
v
D
+
_
+
_
Figure 5.59: Simplied Ebers-Moll model of an npn transistor.
The diode i
D
-v
D
curve is approximated by the PWL curve shown in Figure 5.60.
As a rst step to determine the DC solutions for Schmitt-Trigger circuit it is necessary
to replace each transistor by its equivalent model shown in Figure 5.59. After this device
substitution, the PWL network shown in Figure (5.60) is obtained. In this network there
are two nonlinear elements and the variables labeled as v
Dn
and i
Dn
(for n = 1, 2) denote
the voltages and currents in this elements.
v
D1
i
D1
(-,10
-9
)
0
(0.5, +)
(0.325,0)
Figure 5.60: PWL approximation of diode v
D
-i
D
curve for = 1500 and + = 0.014.
0.98 i
D1
i
D1
v
D1
+
_
i
D2
v
D2
+
_
0.98 i
D2
1k
1k
11k
8k
1k
3.33V
+
_
10V
+
_
Figure 5.61: Equivalent PWL network for the Schmitt Trigger after substituting the npn tran-
sistors by its PWL equivalent reported in Figure 5.59.
After applying Kirchho laws, the following circuit equations are achieved
v
D1
= 3.33 1000 (i
D1
+ i
D2
) (5.76)
v
D2
= 4 1392i
D1
1096i
D2
(5.77)
The graphic coordinates for the PWL curve in Figure 5.60 are reported in Table 5.8. This
curve represents the model for the both nonlinear elements included in the circuit shown
in Figure 5.61.
j X
j,1
Y
j,1
X
j,2
Y
j,2
1 -1500 1 10
9
-1500 1 10
9
2 0.325 0 0.325 0
3 0.5 0.014 0.5 0.014
Table 5.8: j-th coordinate for the PWL curve shown in Figure 5.60.
Notice that v
D1
= X
j,1
, i
D1
= Y
j,1
, v
D2
= X
j,2
and i
D2
= Y
j,2
.
From the equations (5.76), (5.77) and the coordinates given in Table 5.8, the intersections

2

2
are obtained in order to identify the DC element regions and therefore the DC
solution regions. This procedure is shown in Figure 5.62.
Figure 5.62:
2

2
intersections showing the DC solution regions.
Notice that there are three intersections
2

2
. The rst occurs between the segment
(1) of
2
and the segment (2) belonging to
2
curve. The second results from the seg-
ment (2) of
2
and segment (2) of
2
and nally the third intersection is related with the
segment (2) of
2
and the segment (1) of
2
. According with the denotation used in the
last examples, k
1
and k
2
are variables that select a specic segment from the PWL curves
v
D1
-i
D1
and v
D2
-i
D2
, respectively. Hence the DC solution regions (k
1
, k
2
) are: (1, 2), (2, 2)
and (2, 1).
Now, From Table 5.8 it can be obtained directly the ID-Model for the PWL elements as
follows:
_
_
i
D1
v
D1
1
_
_
=
_
_
1 10
9
0
1500 0.325
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1,1
Q
1,1
_
_
C
1,1
(k
1
)+
_
_
0 0.014
0.325 0.5
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2,1
Q
2,1
_
_
C
2,1
(k
1
)
(5.78)
for the PWL element dened by the curve v
D1
-i
D1
, and
_
_
i
D2
v
D2
1
_
_
=
_
_
1 10
9
0
1500 0.325
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1,2
Q
1,2
_
_
C
1,2
(k
2
)+
_
_
0 0.014
0.325 0.5
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2,2
Q
2,2
_
_
C
2,2
(k
2
)
(5.79)
for the PWL element dened by the curve v
D2
-i
D2
.
C
1,1
(k
1
) = k
1
|k
1
2| ,
C
2,1
(k
1
) =
k
1
|k
1
1|
2
,
C
1,2
(k
2
) = k
2
|k
2
2| ,
C
2,2
(k
2
) =
k
2
|k
2
1|
2
,
or in the condensed ID-Model form, the n-th PWL curve v
Dn
-i
Dn
(for n = 1, 2) is described
by
_
_
i
Dn
v
Dn
1
_
_
=
_
_
1 10
9
0 0.014
1500 0.325 0.5
1 1 1
_
_
_
1,2
2,2
3,2
_
_
(5.80)
with
1,n
= P
1,n
C
1,j
(k
n
) (5.81)
2,n
= Q
1,n
C
1,j
(k
n
) + P
2,n
C
2,n
(k
n
) (5.82)
3,n
= Q
2,n
C
2,j
(k
n
) (5.83)
The circuit equations (5.76), (5.77) and the ID-Models (5.78), (5.79) constitute a set of
8 equations with the variables {i
D1
, v
D1
, i
D2
, v
D2
, P
k
1
, Q
k
1
, P
k
2
, Q
k
2
}. For each value of k
1
and k
2
a linear system is obtained.
_
_
1 0 0 0 Y
k
1
Y
k
1
+1
0 0
0 1 0 0 X
k
1
X
k
1
+1
0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 Y
k
2
Y
k
2
+1
0 0 0 1 0 0 X
k
2
X
k
2
+1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
1000 1 0 1000 0 0 0 0
0 0 1096 1 1392 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
i
D1
v
D1
i
D2
v
D2
P
k
1
,1
Q
k
1
,1
P
k
2
,2
Q
k
2
,2
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
1
3.33
4
_
_
(5.84)
After solving this equation system for the DC solution regions, the solutions reported in
Table 5.9 are obtained.
(k
1
, k
2
)-Region v
D1
i
D1
v
D2
i
D2
v i
(2,1) 0.362 2.96 10
3
0.1313 0.3 10
12
10 3.26 10
3
(2,2) 0.3409 1.27 10
3
0.3464 1.71 10
3
10 3.38 10
3
(1,2) 0.0147 0.2 10
12
0.3664 3.31 10
3
10 3.77 10
3
Table 5.9: DC solutions for Schmitt-Trigger circuit.
This solutions can be graphically demonstrated by the intersections between the v-i and
v = 10 curves depicted in Figure 5.63. The v-i curve has been ploted by considering as
input port the nodes where the 10V voltage source is connected.
Figure 5.63: v-i PWL curve showing the DC solutions.
More accuracy can be achieved in the DC solutions by considering the diode characteristic
curve approximated by ve segments as shown in Figure 5.64.
v
D
i
D
0
(-0.5,-0.126 x10
-8
)
(0.306,-0.981 x10
-9
)
(0.3375,0.7294 x10
-3
)
(0.366,0.2063 x10
-2
)
(0.3875,0.5178 x10
-2
)
(0.5,0.3854 x10
-1
)
Figure 5.64: A ve-segment PWL approximation of diode curve.
Considering Figure 5.64 and applying DC analysis for the Schmitt Trigger circuit by
a brute force method, (5 5) = 25 regions must be scanning for nding all the operating
points. However, by applying the method for nding the DC element regions, it can be
seen that specically the system must be solved for the regions {(1, 4), (3, 3), (4, 1)}. The
solutions for these regions are reported in Table 5.10.
(k
1
, k
2
)-Region v
D1
i
D1
v
D2
i
D2
(1,4) 0.0221423 0.107 10
8
0.374588 0.0033078
(3,3) 0.348918 0.001263977 0.358597 0.00171710
(4,1) 0.372172 0.002957828 0.117296 0.112 10
8
Table 5.10: Operating points for the Schmitt-Trigger circuit by considering the diode
curve approximated by 5-segments PWL curve.
Notice that 22 regions where discarded for the analysis and therefore it avoided unneces-
sary computations.
Example 19. Consider the two transistor circuit shown in Figure 5.65. This is denoted
as N-Type circuit because the driving point from the voltage source has a N graphical
shape.
T
2
T
1
5k
100k
10V
+
_
2k
60k
3k
50k
Figure 5.65: N-Type curve circuit.
The transistors are modeled by the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 5.59 and the non-
linear elements are described by the i
D
-v
D
PWL curve depicted in Figure 5.60. As a
result of substituting the transistors by their equivalent model, the PWL circuit shown
in Figure 5.66 is obtained.
After applying Kirchho laws, the following circuit equations are achieved
v
D1
= 0.4458 81.22 (i
D2
} 144.6 (i
D1
) (5.85)
v
D2
= 9.36 99836.8 (i
D1
) 3705.64 (i
D2
) (5.86)
The graphic coordinates reported in Table 5.8 are also considered for obtaining the DC
solution regions (
2

2
intersections) and the ID-Model for the two PWL elements in
the circuit. Figure 5.67 shows the DC solution regions.
From Figure 5.67 and it can be seen that that there are three intersections
2

2
. The
rst occurs between the segment (1) of
2
and the segment (2) belonging to
2
curve.
0.98 i
D1
i
D1
v
D1
+
_
i
D2
v
D2
+
_
0.98 i
D2
100k
5k
50k
10V
+
_
3k
60k
2k
Figure 5.66: Resulting N-Type circuit after substituting the npn transistors by their nonlinear
equivalent circuit reported in Figure 5.59.
Figure 5.67:
2

2
intersections showing the DC solution regions.
The second results from the segment (2) of
2
and segment (2) of
2
and nally the third
intersection is related with the segment (2) of
2
and the segment (1) of
2
. As a result,
it can be concluded that the DC solution regions (k
1
, k
2
) for this circuit are: (1, 2), (2, 2)
and (2, 1).
Since the two PWL elements are dened by the PWL curve shown in Figure 5.60, also
the ID-Models for these elements are given by (5.78) and (5.79).
The circuit equations (5.85), (5.86) and the ID-Models (5.78), (5.79) constitute the fol-
lowing equations system.
_
_
1 0 0 0 Y
k
1
Y
k
1
+1
0 0
0 1 0 0 X
k
1
X
k
1
+1
0 0
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0 Y
k
2
Y
k
2
+1
0 0 0 1 0 0 X
k
2
X
k
2
+1
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
144.6 1 81.22 0 0 0 0 0
99836.9 0 3705.64 1 0 0 0 0
_
_
_
_
i
D1
v
D1
i
D2
v
D2
P
k
1
,1
Q
k
1
,1
P
k
2
,2
Q
k
2
,2
_
_
=
_
_
0
0
1
0
0
1
0.4458
9.36
_
_
(5.87)
After solving this equation system for the DC solution regions, the solutions reported in
Table 5.11 are obtained.
Table 5.11: DC solutions for the N-Type circuit.
(k
1
, k
2
)-Region v
D1
i
D1
v
D2
i
D2
v i
(1,2) 0.2484 0.5 10
13
0.3553 2.43 10
3
10 2.392 10
3
(2,2) 0.3254 37.86 10
6
0.3426 1.41 10
3
10 1.559 10
3
(2,1) 0.3346 0.769 10
3
67.41 0.4515 10
10
10 1.025 10
3
This solutions can be graphically demonstrated by the intersections between the v-i and
v = 10 curve depicted in Figure 5.68.
Figure 5.68: v-i PWL curve showing the DC solutions.
Observe that although the third DC solution reported in Table 5.11 from a mathematical
point of view is a valid solution, from a practical point of view, it is not real for a diode
to present a v
D
= 67.41. This absurd solution results because the PWL model used in
the analysis considers the rst segment starting in a v
D
= 1500. More accuracy can be
achieved in the results by setting the PWL segment intervals in accordance with more
realistic known ranges.
So, it is important to point out that the result in region (2, 1) reported in Table 5.11 must
be discarded because it is outside to a real physical diode operation .
Example 20. In this example is presented the so called nine solutions circuit shown in
Figure 5.69. This circuit is composed by two Schmitt-Trigger circuits connected back-to-
back.
+
_
_
+
_
+
10 k
4 k
4 k
30 k
4 k 4 k
30 k
5 k
0.5 k
0.5 k
10.1 k
10.1 k
30 k
30 k
2 V
12 V
+
_
12 V
10 V
+
_
v
1
i
1
+
_
v
2 i
2
i
3 i
4
+
_
v
1
+
_
v
1
Figure 5.69: Nine solutions circuit.
Consider that each transistor included in this circuit is also modeled by the equivalent
circuit shown in Figure 5.59 and the nonlinear elements are described by the i
D
-v
D
PWL
curve depicted in Figure (5.60).
According with [31], the circuit equations for this circuit are given by
(4.36634)v
2
+ (6103.16)i
1
+ (2863.168)i
2
= 12 (5.88)
(5.4)v
1
+ v
3
+ (3580)i
1
+ (6620)i
2
+ (700)i
3
+ (500)i
4
= 22 (5.89)
(4.36634)v
4
+ (6103.168)i
3
+ (2863.168)i
4
= 12 (5.90)
v
1
+ (5.4)v
3
+ (700)i
1
+ (3580)i
3
+ (6620)i
4
= 22 (5.91)
Now, From Table 5.8 the PWL elements are described by the following ID-Model::
_
_
i
n
v
n
1
_
_
=
_
_
1 10
9
0
1500 0.325
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
1,n
Q
1,n
_
_
C
1,n
(k
n
)+
_
_
0 0.014
0.325 0.5
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
2,n
Q
2,n
_
_
C
2,n
(k
n
)
(5.92)
for n = 1, 2, 3, 4.
C
1,n
(k
1
) = k
1
|k
1
2| ,
C
2,n
(k
1
) =
k
1
|k
1
1|
2
,
C
1,n
(k
2
) = k
2
|k
2
2| ,
C
2,n
(k
2
) =
k
2
|k
2
1|
2
,
_
_
i
Dn
v
Dn
1
_
_
=
_
_
1 10
9
0 0.014
1500 0.325 0.5
1 1 1
_
_
_
1,n
2,n
3,n
_
_
(5.93)
with
1,n
= P
1,n
C
1,j
(k
n
) (5.94)
2,n
= Q
1,n
C
1,j
(k
n
) + P
2,n
C
2,n
(k
n
) (5.95)
3,n
= Q
2,n
C
2,j
(k
n
) (5.96)
After solving the equations (5.88)-(5.92), and applying interval analysis for discarding
false DC solutions, the nine operating points reported in Table 5.12 can be computed.
Solution v
1
v
2
v
3
v
4
1 0.332 0.355 0.332 0.355
2 0.334 0.350 0.388 -4.285
3 0.330 0.358 -0.737 0.370
4 0.388 -4.285 0.334 0.350
5 0.382 -3.637 0.382 -3.637
6 0.392 -4.750 -1.139 0.370
7 -0.737 0.370 0.330 0.358
8 -1.139 0.370 0.392 -4.750
9 -0.596 0.370 -0.596 0.370
Table 5.12: DC solutions for the nine-solutions circuit.
Conclusion
A methodology for nding all the operating points in PWL electrical networks was pro-
posed. Interval expressions were derived for validating the solutions of a linearized equi-
librium equation system and identify false DC solutions. Also a procedure based on curve
intersections for identifying the DC element regions was developed. This procedure repre-
sents an important result because it avoids the need of testing all the regions produced by
the combination of element regions. Finally, a methodology for nding all the operating
points in PWL networks based on ID-Model formulation was proposed. Several examples
demonstrate the eciency of this methodology.
Chapter 6
Conclusions and Future Research
This chapter is devoted to point out the main results of this thesis and to propose possible
further research on the subject.
6.1 Conclusions
In this thesis, the problem of nding a model description able to represent all types of one-
dimensional PWL curves is approached. The basic forms of existing explicit and implicit
PWL models do not cover the representation of all types of one-dimensional PWL curves.
A proposal to overcome that problem is presented in this thesis and it consists of the so
called decomposed PWL models.
An important contribution in this thesis is the development of a decomposed and iterative
PWL model. It is denominated as ID-Model and the one and two dimensional cases
of this model are presented. The ID-Model has been applied to the modeling of one
and two dimensional PWL curves. Futhermore, the one-dimensional model has been
applied to the problem of nding multiple operating points. Also , an important research
result achieved in this thesis is the Hyperplane Unbending technique. It is presented
as a mathematical procedure for decomposing multivalued PWL curves into univalued
representations. By this technique, a recast of the explicit and implicit PWL models can
be obtained. The resulting models are denoted as D-Explicit and D-Implicit , respectively.
147
148 CHAPTER 6. CONCLUSIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH
Both models overcome the representation restriction inherent to their basic forms for the
J-innite and multivalued cases. Another contribution in this thesis is the development
of a technique for identifying DC element regions. This technique is an important result
because it avoids the need of scanning over all the hyperplane partition regions in the
task of searching all the operating points. Finally, a methodology based on the ID-
Model for DC analysis is developed. By several numerical examples, the eciency of the
methodology is demonstrated.
6.2 Future research
An interesting proposal for future research in this subject is to expanding the technique
based on curve intersections, by nding a methodology for transforming an arbitrary equi-
librium equation system into a system containing an upper diagonal A matrix.
The problem of nding a suitable matrix transformation technique is not olny a math-
ematical problem. A formal study must be done in order to be able to determine the
relation between the matrix form and the circuit topology.
Appendix A
Resumen
A.1 Introducci on
Un modelo es una representaci on matematica que describe el comportamiento de un
sistema. En la descripci on de sistemas no lineales frecuentemente se utiliza un tipo de
modelado denominado lineal por trozos o bien, piecewise-linear (PWL). Un modelo PWL
aproxima el comportamiento de una funci on nolineal mediante funciones lineales acotadas
en particiones del dominio. Es decir, esta tecnica consiste en aproximar el comportamiento
de una funcion no lineal por medio de segmentos lineales, donde cada segmento puede
ser visto como una ecuaci on de recta. El prop osito de esto es obtener una representaci on
con ecuaciones relativamente sencillas, que nos permita entender al sistema de forma m as
simple.
El comportamiento de una funcion no lineal y = f(x), puede tambien ser expresado por
medio de una curva unidimensional. Desde un punto de vista geometrico, un modelo PWL
para una funci on nolineal y = f(x) puede ser visto como la aproximaci on de la curva no
lineal mediante un conjunto de ecuaciones de recta continuo a lo largo del dominio x.
Lo que frecuentemente motiva el uso de modelos PWL es la simplicidad de su estructura,
que es lineal en cada regi on del dominio. En sistemas, como redes electricas que contienen
elementos no lineales, se suele aproximar el comportamiento de estos elementos mediante
modelos PWL. Esto da origen a las denominadas redes electricas PWL. En estas redes, la
149
150 APPENDIX A. RESUMEN
descripcion del comportamiento de los elementos frecuentemente se proporciona en forma
gr aca por medio de curvas PWL unidimensionales. Para poder an alizar este tipo de
redes, las curvas de los elementos deben modelarse por medio de una representaci on PWL.
En este sentido, hay dos tendencias en la formulaci on de modelos para las curvas PWL
unidimensionales: Una es el Modelo explcito de Chua y Kang que tambien se denomina
Modelo Can onico y la otra es el Modelo Implcito de Van Bokhoven. Ambos modelos son
contribuciones importantes que se pueden aplicar en la descripci on de curvas univaluadas
y cierto tipo de multivaluadas. Sin embargo, la forma b asica de ambos modelos no permite
la representaci on de algunos tipos de curvas PWL unidimensionales. De aqu, surge el
planteamiento de realizar investigaci on con la nalidadad de desarrollar tecnicas o nuevas
representaciones que permitan de forma general, describir cualquier tipo de curva PWL
unidimensional.
A.2 Los Modelos PWL Explcito e Implcito
Una funci on PWL es la aproximaci on de un comportamiento no-lineal utilizando un mapeo
de descripciones lineales por segmentos, donde cada segmento puede ser visto como una
ecuaci on de recta. De este modo, el problema b asico es transformado de una ecuaci on
no lineal a un sistema de ecuaciones lineales. Los dos tipos de modelo m as ampliamente
utilizados son:
El Modelo Explcito cuya estrucura es compacta la cual puede ser evaluada direc-
tamente bajo una relaci on funcional uno a uno.
El Modelo Implcito que incluye variables de estado y por lo tanto para ser evaluado
requiere de un algoritmo que evalue los estados previamente a la obtenci on de un
valor de la funci on.
A.2. LOS MODELOS PWL EXPL
ICITO E IMPL
ICITO 151
A.2.1 Representaci on explcita
Esta representacion fue introducida a principios de los a nos 70s por Chua y Kang y se
caracteriza por tener una forma funcional compacta con el n umero mnimo y necesario de
par ametros.
Una curva PWL unidimensional con L segmentos y puntos de quiebre
1
<
2
< ... <
,
puede ser descrita por la siguiente representaci on explcita:
y = a + bx +
i=1
c
i
|x
i
| , (A.1)
Donde = L 1 y los par ametros a, b, c
i
,
i
R
1
se calculan de la siguiente forma:
b =
_
J
(1)
+ J
()+1
_
2
, (A.2)
c
i
=
_
J
(i+1)
J
(i)
_
2
, i = 1, 2, ..., (A.3)
a = f (0)
i=1
c
i
|
i
| (A.4)
y J
(i)
denota la pendiente del i-th segmento en la curva PWL.
A.2.2 Representaci on Implcita
La otra aproximaci on es la representaci on implcita, propuesta en el a no de 1981 por
W.M.G. Van Bokhoven. Esta representaci on se basa en expresiones de una red resistiva
lineal con k puertos y usando diodos ideales. Una curva PWL unidimensional con L
segmentos y ( = L 1) puntos de quiebre
1
<
2
< ... <
, puede ser descrita por

la siguiente representaci on implcita:
y = Ax +Bu + f, (A.5)
j = Cx +Du +g, (A.6)
Donde las variables de estado: u y j, satisfacen la condici on del Problema Lineal Com-
plementario.
u
T
j = 0, u 0, j 0. (A.7)
Los parametros A, B, f, C, D y g de este modelo se pueden determinar por medio de las
siguientes expresiones:
A = J
(L)
, (A.8)
B =
_
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_ _
J
(3)
J
(2)
_

_
J
(L)
J
()
_
_
, (A.9)
f =
i=1
_
J
(i+1)
J
(i)
_
i
, (A.10)
C =
_
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_ _
J
(3)
J
(2)
_

_
J
(L)
J
()
_
_
T
, (A.11)
D =
_
_
_
J
(2)
J
(1)
_
0 0 0
0
_
J
(3)
J
(2)
_
0 0
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
.
0 0 0
_
J
(L)
J
()
_
_
_
, (A.12)
g =
_
_
J
(1)
J
(2)
_
1
_
J
(2)
J
(3)
_
2

_
J
()
J
(L)
_
_
T
(A.13)
A.2. LOS MODELOS PWL EXPL
ICITO E IMPL
ICITO 153
A.2.3 Representaci on de Curvas PWL Unidimensionales
La aplicaci on de los Modelos Explicito e Implicito para la descripci on de curvas PWL
unidimensionales presenta algunas restricciones en su aplicion:
El Modelo Explcito es una estructura matem atica con relaci on uno a uno entre
las variables dependiente e independiente. Esto limita su aplicacion unicamente a
funciones de tipo univaluadas.
Los par ametros tanto del Modelo Implcito como del Explcito estan directamente
relacionados con el c alculo de pendientes de cada uno de los segmentos en la curva
PWL. Esto impide su aplicaci on para la representaci on de curvas en las que al menos
alguno de los segmentos tenga pendiente innita pues existir a indeterminaci on de
par ametros.
En ambos modelos el primer y ultimo segmento en la curva PWL debe estar denido
por intervalos abiertos. Esto impide su aplicacion en curvas cerradas.
Debido a la condici on de continuidad entre segmentos que se mantiene en ambas ex-
presiones matem aticas (explcita o implcita), las curvas PWL discontinuas tampoco
pueden ser descritas por ninguno de estos modelos.
La Figura A.1 muestra una clasicaci on general de los diferentes tipos de curva PWL en
una dimensi on. Los tipos de curva encerrados por medio de las lineas continuas y gruesas
indican el rango de aplicaci on tanto del Modelo Explcito como del Implcito. Aquellos
bloques unidos en el diagrama por medio de lineas tenues y discontinuas indican los tipos
de curva que no pueden ser descritos por el Modelo Explcito o Implcito.
En el diagrama de la Figura A.1 se puede apreciar que los Modelos Explcito e Implcito
no son capaces de describir varios tipos de curvas PWL unidimensionales. Esto muestra
la necesidad de poder contar con una representaci on general o bien la generaci on de una
tecnica que permita extender el rango de aplicaci on de los modelos existentes.
Tipos de curvas PWL unidimensionales
Univaluadas Multivaluadas
Continuas Discontinuas
Pendiente
finita
Pendiente
infinita
Pendiente
finita
Pendiente
infinita
Abierta
Continuas Discontinuas
Pendiente
finita
Pendiente
infinita
Cerrada Abierta Cerrada
Pendiente
finita
Pendiente
infinita
Modelo
explcito
Modelo
implcito
Figure A.1: Tipos de curvas PWL en una dimensi on.
A.3 El Modelo PWL Iterativo-Descompuesto en una
Dimensi on
Considere que la curva PWL unidimensional de la Figura A.2 es caracterizada por L
segmentos y (L + 1) coordenadas: {(X
1
, Y
1
), (X
2
, Y
2
), ..., (X
L
, Y
L
), (X
L+1
, Y
L+1
)}.
x
y
0
k=1
k=2
k=3
k=L-2
k=L-1
k=L
(X
1
,Y
1
)
(X
2
,Y
2
)
(X
3
,Y
3
)
(X
L-2
,Y
L-2
)
(X
L-1
,Y
L-1
)
(X
L
,Y
L
)
(X
L+1
,Y
L+1
)
Figure A.2: Una curva PWL unidimensional descrita por coordenadas.
Se asigna un par ametro k que hace un recorrido desde (X
1
, Y
1
) hasta (X
L+1
, Y
L+1
). Este
par ametro esta relacionado con cada uno de los segmentos en la curva PWL y toma los
A.3. EL MODELO PWL ITERATIVO-DESCOMPUESTO EN UNA DIMENSI
ON 155
valores: k = 1, 2, ..., L.
El Modelo PWL Iterativo-Descompuesto para esta curva sera:
_
_
y
x
1
_
_
=
L
=1
_
_
Y
Y
+1
X
X
+1
1 1
_
_
_
_
P
_
C
(k) (A.14)
Donde C
(k) es el coeciente de activac on denido por:

C
(k) =
1
!(L )!
1
=0
|k |
L
=1
|k ( + )| (A.15)
Para = 1...(L 1), y
C
(k) =
1
L!
1
=0
|k | (A.16)
Para = L.
El intervalo en el cual una recta existe dentro del dominio de la curva PWL es delimitado
por las variables de frontera:

Q
n
(x),

Q
n
(y),

P
n
(x) y

P
n
(y), que se determinan por medio
de las siguientes expresiones:
Q
n
(x) = |X
n
| Q
n
(x) =
x X
n
sgn(X
n
)
(A.17)
Q
n
(y) = |Y
n
| Q
n
(y) =
y Y
n
sgn(Y
n
)
(A.18)
P
n
(x) = |X
n
| P
n
(x) =
x + X
n+1
sgn(X
n
)
(A.19)
P
n
(y) = |Y
n
| P
n
(y) =
y + Y
n+1
sgn(Y
n
)
(A.20)
Donde la funci on signo sgn() se dene como:
sgn() =

||
(A.21)
Y las condiciones de frontera para el Modelo Iterativo-Descompuesto en una dimensi on
estan dadas por:
Q
n
(x),

P
n
(x),

Q
n
(y),

P
n
(y) 0 (A.22)
A.3.1 Forma Condensada del Modelo Iterativo-Descompuesto
en una Dimensi on
El Modelo Iterativo-Descompuesto describe una curva PWL unidimensional como una
suma de sistemas lineales independientes. Observe que para asegurar la contibuidad entre
segmentos la coordenada nal de un k-th segmento debe repetirse coma la coordenada de
inicio del (k + 1)-th segmento.
La forma condensada del Modelo Iterativo-Descompuesto puede obtenerse si todas las
coordenadas son agrupadas en una sola matriz y los coecientes de activacion se asignan
adecuadamente. El Modelo Iterativo-descompuesto es denido a continuaci on:
_
_
y
x
1
_
_
=
_
_
Y
1
Y
2
Y
L+1
X
1
X
2
X
L+1
1 1 1
_
_
_
2
.
.
.
L+1
_
_
(A.23)
Con los coecientes :
1
= P
1
C
1
(k) (A.24)
= Q
1
C
1
(k) + P
(k) , ( = 2, 3, , L) (A.25)
L+1
= Q
L
C
L
(k) (A.26)
A.4. EL MODELO PWL ITERATIVO-DESCOMPUESTOEN DOS DIMENSIONES157
A.4 El Modelo PWL Iterativo-Descompuesto
en Dos Dimensiones
La Figura A.3 muestra una supercie PWL en dos dimensiones caracterizada por planos
de fontera y ( + 1) vertices.
y=f (x,z)
x z
(2)
V
1
V
2
V
3
V
4
V
-1
V
V
+1
V
+2
(1)
(1 )
()
Figure A.3: Supercie PWL en dos dimensiones caracterizada por vertices.
La descripci on Iterativa-Descompuesta para esta supercie PWL esta denida por la
expresi on siguiente:
_
_
y
x
z
1
_
_
=
i=1
_
_
Y
1i
Y
2i
Y
3i
X
1i
X
2i
X
3i
Z
1i
Z
2i
Z
3i
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
P
i
Q
i
S
i
_
_
C
i
(k) (A.27)
Para i = 1, 2, ..., .
Bajo la condicion de frontera:
P
i
(x, z), Q
i
(x, z), S
i
(x, z) 0 (A.28)
y los coecientes de activacion C
i
(k) denidos por:
C
i
(k) =
1
i!( i)!
i1
=0
|k |
i
=1
|k (i + )| (A.29)
Para i = 1...( 1), y
C
i
(k) =
1
!
i1
=0
|k | (A.30)
Para i = .
A.5 Desdoblamiento de hiperplanos
El desboblamiento de hiperplanos es denido como un procedimiento matematico de nat-
uraleza geometrica. Este procedimiento, permite descompoder una curva PWL unidimen-
sional multivaluada en dos curvas univaluadas relacionadas entre si por una variable de
mapeo .
Sea y = f(x) la curva PWL unidimensional multivaluada de la Figura A.4 caracterizada
por las coordenadas: {a
1
, a
2
, , a
L+1
}.
x
y
h
2
h
1
h
L-1
h
L-2
y=f (x)
0
(2)
(1)
(3)
(L-2)
(L-1)
(L)
a
1
a
2
a
3
a
4
a
L-1
a
L
a
L+1
Figure A.4: Curva PWL unidimensional multivaluada
La curva descrita en la Figura A.4 puede ser descompuesta en dos curvas univaluadas
y = f() y x = f() como se illustra en la Figura A.5.
Sea a
j
= (X
j
, Y
j
) la j-th coordenada de y = f(x) (para j = 1, 2, ..., L + 1).
A.5. DESDOBLAMIENTO DE HIPERPLANOS 159
x
y
h
2 h
1
h
L-1
h
L-2
H
1
H
2
H
L-1
H
L-2
H
L-1
H
L-2
H
2
H
1
L2
L1
y=f (x)
y=f ()
x=f ()
(2)
(1)
(3)
(L-1)
(L-2)
(L)
Figure A.5: Desdoblamiento de hiperplanos para la curva PWL unidimensional multivaluada
de la Figura A.4
La j-th coordenada, (
j
, Y
j
) de la curva PWL y = f() y (
j
, X
j
) de la curva x = f(),
puede obtenerse mediante el calculo de
j
con las expresiones siguientes:
1
= |X
1
| (A.31)
j
= |X
j
X
j1
| +
j1
(A.32)
Para j = 2, ..., L + 1.
O bien mediante
1
= |X
1
| (A.33)
j
=
_
(X
j
X
j1
)
2
+ (Y
j
Y
j1
)
2
+
j1
(A.34)
Para j = 2, ..., L + 1.
para el caso de curvas multivaluadas con pendiente innita.
A.5.1 El Modelo Explcito Descompuesto
Duespues de aplicar el desdoblamiento de hiperplanos al Modelo Explcito, este puede ser
reformulado como el Modelo Explcito Descompuesto denido por:
_
_
y
x
_
_
=
_
_
a
y
a
x
_
_
+
_
_
b
y
b
x
_
_
+
L1
n=1
_
_
c
yn
c
xn
_
_
|
n
| (A.35)
Donde los terminos de valor absoluto incluyen las ecuaciones de hiperplano
H
n
:
n
= 0 (A.36)
Los coecientes: {a
y
, b
y
, c
yn
} y {a
x
, b
x
, c
xn
} son los par ametros de la forma can onica de
Chua y Kang para las funciones y = f() y x = f(), respectivamente.
A.5.2 El Modelo Implcito Descompuesto
Duespues de aplicar el desdoblamiento de hiperplanos al Modelo Implcito, este puede ser
reformulado como el Modelo Implcito Descompuesto denido por:
y = A
y
+B
y
p + f
y
(A.37)
q = C
y
+D
y
p +g
y
(A.38)
p 0, q 0, p
T
q = 0 (A.39)
y
x = A
x
+B
x
r + f
x
(A.40)
s = C
x
+D
x
r +g
x
(A.41)
r 0, s 0, r
T
s = 0 (A.42)
Donde las dimensiones de p, q, r, s, B
y
, B
x
, C
y
, C
x
, D
y
, D
x
, g
y
y g
x
dependen del
n umero de variables de estado requerido para describir las curvas univaluadas resultantes
ilustradas en la Figura A.6.
A.6. PROCEDIMIENTO PARADETERMNAR REGIONES-SOLUCI
ONDE ELEMENTO 161

x
y
h
2
h
1
h
L-1 h
L-2
Hy
1
Hy
2
Hy
L-1
Hy
L-2
Hx
L-1
Hx
L-2
Hx
2
Hx
1
p
1
=q
1
y=f (x)
y=f (, p)
x=f (,r)
p
2
=q
2
p
L- 1
=q
L-1
p
L-2
=q
L-2
r
1
=s
1
r
2
=s
2
r
L- 2
=s
L-2
r
L- 1
=s
L-1
Figure A.6: Asignaci on de variables de estado en las curvas univaluadas que resultan despues
de aplicar el desdoblamiento de hiperplanos a una curva PWL multivaluada
Los hiperplanos en la Figura A.6 se denen por:
Hy
n
: q
n
C
yn
D
yn
p
n
g
yn
pn=qn=0
= 0 (A.43)
Hx
n
: s
n
C
xn
D
xn
r
n
g
xn
rn=sn=0
= 0 (A.44)
A.6 Procedimiento para determnar regiones-soluci on
de elemento
En esta secci on, se resume el procedimiento para determinar las regiones de elemento que
participan en la generaci on de puntos de operaci on para una red electrica PWL, como la
mostrada en la Figura A.7. Esta Figura muestra una red que que puede incluir: resistores
o conductancias, fuentes controladas o independientes de voltaje, fuentes controladas o
independientes de corriente y N elementos PWL.
x
1
y
1
+
_
R
1
x
2
y
2
+
R
2
x
N
y
N
+
_
R
N
x
n
y
n
R
n
.
.
.
2N- Port
_
+
_
.
.
.
Figure A.7: A nonlinear network containing N-PWL elements.
Los elementos PWL R
1
, R
2
, ..., R
n
, ..., R
N
y sus voltajes y corrientes de puerto son de-
notados por x
n
y y
n
(para n = 1...N).
El procedimiento para determinar las regiones-soluci on de elemento, es decir, las regiones
de elemento que participan en la generaci on de un punto de operaci on, se resume en los
siguientes pasos :
1. Se obtiene un sistema de ecuaciones de equilibrio para el circuito mostrado en la
Figura A.7. El sistema se obtiene mediante la aplicaci on de leyes de Kichho y tiene
la forma: F(x, y) = 0 descrita a continuaci on:
F(x, y) = A
1
1
+A
2
2
+ ... +A
N
N
+ = 0 (A.45)
Donde
F(x, y) =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
f
1
f
2
.
.
.
f
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
, A
n
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
n
A
11 n
A
12
n
A
21 n
A
22
.
.
.
.
.
.
n
A
N1 n
A
N2
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
,
n
=
_
_
_
x
n
y
n
_
_
_
, =
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
n
1
n
2
.
.
.
n
N
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
Para n = 1...N
2. Los elementos no lineales R
n
son descritos mediante curvas PWL compuestas por L
n
A.6. PROCEDIMIENTO PARADETERMNAR REGIONES-SOLUCI
ONDE ELEMENTO 163

segmentos. Estas curvas estan denidas por un conjunto
n
de coordenadas como
a continuacion se muestra.
n
= {(
n
X
1
,
n
Y
1
), (
n
X
2
,
n
Y
2
), ..., (
n
X
Ln+1
,
n
Y
Ln+1
)} (A.46)
Es importante aclarar que habr a tantos conjuntos
n
como elementos PWL existan
en la red (n = 1...N).
3. Las coordenadas del n-esimo
n
conjunto son evaluadas en (A.45). De aqu resul-
tan (N 1) conjuntos de curvas midicadas o sistemas de ecuaciones. Las curvas
modicadas estan denidas por:

m
=
_
(
m

X
1
,
m

Y
1
), (
m

X
2
,
m

Y
2
), ..., (
m

X
Lm+1
,
m

Y
Lm+1
)
_
(A.47)
Para m = 1, 2, ..., (N 1).
Cada uno de los elementos del conjunto
m
se obtienen mediante la sustituci on
de las coordenadas
n
en F(x, y) = 0 y resolviendo para el resto de las
n
-variables.
Se deben considerar dos casos de an alisis;
Caso N = 2.
Para este caso, la sustituci on de los elementos del conjunto
n
producir a un
sistema consistente. Es decir, que siempre habra la misma cantidad de vari-
ables que de ecuaciones. Por tanto, el calculo de
m
de
n
puede obtenerse
directamente.
Caso N > 2.
Para este caso, la sustituci on de
n
en (A.45) siempre conducir a a un sistema
inconsistente. Es decir, la cantidad de variables supera a la cantidad de ecua-
ciones. Para una red con N elementos PWL, la soluci on de este problema se
recomienda mediante la sustituci on de (N 2) elementos PWL por sus equiv-
alentes iterativos de Norton o Thevenin. Los dos restantes elementos se toman
como pivote y considerando las coodenadas de las curvas PWL de los elementos
pivote, se pueden determinar sus regiones-solucion.
4. Finalmente, las intersecciones
m

m
indican las regiones-soluci on para cada uno
de los elementos PWL.
A.7 Metodologa de DC Basada en el Modelo Iterativo-
Descompuesto
Para una red electrica PWL que contiene N elementos PWL descritos por Modelos
Iterativos-Descompuestos, la siguiente metodologa puede aplicarse para obtener todos
los puntos de operaci on.
1. Aplicar leyes de Kirchho para obtener un sistema de equilibrio de la forma:
F(x, y) = 0 .
2. Describir cada uno de los n-esimos elementos PWL (para n = 1, 2, ..., N) mediante
el Modelo Iterativo-Descompuesto.
_
_
_
_
_
_
y
n
x
n
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
Ln
=1
_
_
_
_
_
_
Y
,n
Y
(+1),n
X
,n
X
(+1),n
1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
P
,n
Q
,n
_
_
_
C
,n
(k
n
) (A.48)
en la forma entensa, o
_
_
_
_
_
_
y
n
x
n
1
_
_
_
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
_
_
_
Y
1,n
Y
2,n
Y
Ln+1,n
X
2,n
X
2,n
X
Ln+1,n
1 1 1
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
1,n
2,n
.
.
.
Ln+1,n
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
_
(A.49)
en la forma condensada.
A.8. CONCLUSIONS 165
3. Determine las regiones-soluci on de elementos. Esto signica determinar los valores
de k
n
involucrados en la ocurrencia de puntos de operaci on.
4. Utilizar los valores: {k
1
, k
2
, , k
N
}, en el analisis iterativo de soluciones para
obtener las soluciones en DC.
5. Si es necesario, aplicar expresiones de prueba de intervalo a las variables {x
n
, y
n
}
para validar las soluciones obtenidas en el paso anterior.
A.8 Conclusions
En esta tesis se abordo el problema de encontrar un modelo PWL que permita la rep-
resentaci on de cualquier tipo de curva PWL en una dimensi on. Mediante un estudio
se demostro que la forma base de los modelos de PWL explcitos e implcitos no puede
representar todo tipo de curva PWL. Como una soluci on para resolver este problema, se
propuso el uso de Modelos PWL descompuestos.
Una contribuci on importante en esta tesis es el desarrollo del Modelo Iterativo-Descompuesto
PWL. Este modelo se aplic o ecientemente en el modelado de curvas PWL en una y dos
dimensiones. Ademas, el modelo en una dimensi on se aplic o tambien al problema de
encontrar m ultiples puntos de operacion (MPO) en una red electrica PWL. Para realizar
el calculo de MPO se desarroll o una metodologa de analisis en DC compatible con el
Modelo Iterativo-Descompuesto.
Un resultado de la investigaci on importante logrado en esta tesis es la tecnica del des-
doblamiento de hiperplanos la cual se present o como un procedimiento matem atico que
permite descomponer una curva PWL multivaluada en dos representaciones de univalu-
adas que se relacionan por medio de una variable de mapeo. Mediante la aplicaci on de
esta teccnica, la forma descompuesta de los Modelos PWL Explcitos e Implcitos puede
obtenerse. Los modelos resultantes se denotaron como D-Explcito y D-Implcito, respec-
tivamente. Ambos modelos superan las restricciones inherententes en su forma base para
la representaci on de curvas PWL con pendiente innita y multivaluadas.
Otra contribuci on en esta tesis es el desarrollo de una tecnica para identicar las regiones-
solucion de los elementos PWL en una red electrica PWL. Este es un resultado importante
ya que evita la necesidad de examinar todas las regiones de partici on de hiperplano para
la b usqueda de puntos de operaci on .
A.9 Investigaci on Futura
Una interesante propuesta de investigaci on a futuro, consiste en el desarrollo de una
tecnica de transformacion matricial que permita modicar el sistema de ecuaciones de
equilibrio de un red electrica PWL cualquiera, a la forma matricial diagonal superior.
Esto aseguraria el poder detectar sin ninguna limitante las regiones-soluci on de elemento
y determinar de forma directa los puntos de operaci on en DC.
Este no es unicamente un trabajo matem atico ya que se requiere llevar a cabo un estudio
formal que permita establecer la relacion que existe entre la forma matricial y la topologa
circuital de la red electrica.
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Decomposed Piecewise-Linear

, can be represented by the expression

, can be represented by the expression

state variables are needed. Being the number of breakpoints.

Then, the above equation is factored by the Y coordinates as follows

, puede ser descrita por

(k) es el coeciente de activac on denido por:

ONDE ELEMENTO 161

ONDE ELEMENTO 163

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