STRENGTH OF MATERIALS II

TORSION

Objective: To understand and appreciate the torsion phenomenon

Specific objectives By the end of the lecture you should be able to: Define torsion Describe some applications which make use of torsion Develop formula associated with torsion Solve problems

Pre-requisite Aki Ola : fractions Aki Ola : change of subject Maths I from last semester SOM I : shear stresses and strains

Mini topics Introduction Torsion - What is it? Applications of torsion Assumptions Angle of twist - what is it? Shear Stresses and strains within the shaft Definition of terms
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: Angle of twist (radians

degrees)

Polar second moment of area, J - What is it? Section modulus Torisional rigidity Power transmitted by shafts Summary

Evaluation It is important to note that at the end of the topic you would be examined on how you have understood the text with a set of 10 true or false questions and 1 application question. This would be recorded.

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Introduction Last semester we discussed shearing stresses and strains. Fortunately for us these two phenomena happen (play a part) during torsion. That is to say that during torsion it is shearing stress that helps with the twisting. It would be important to revise the notes on shear stresses. Actually, we would realize that without shear there would virtually be no torsion.

Torsion - What is it? Torsion is the twisting of an object due to an applied torque. In circular sections, the resultant shearing stress is perpendicular to the radius. Another definition from Gere and Timoshenko defines it as: The twisting of a structural member when it is loaded by couples that produce rotation about its longitudinal axis. Couples mentioned here refer to the twisting moments or torques caused by the shear forces.

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Applications of torsion Heavy trucks Heavy trucks that ply our roads need huge torques to be transmitted from the engine to the wheel. This is achieved using the universal joint. Hence the universal joint undergoes torsion at that instant where the gear is pushed to the first and the clutch is released.

Picture of the truck with the universal joint Ships and submarines These also use propeller shafts to move them forward Others: Drive shafts in other machinery Drill rods Torsional pendulums Screw drivers Steering rods

In reality whenever torsion is applied an engineering material (in our case circular shafts) we must bear some few things in mind. 1. Every section of the shaft is in a state of pure shear. This means that no compressive or tensile stresses exist.

2. The moment of resistance is the same everywhere. This means that the value of the moment of resistance is the same across the length of the shaft If the torque is being applied at one end that is positive and becomes fully negative at the receiving end.
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Assumptions To enable us develop formulae to help us solve problems associated with torsion, it is expedient to also keep these assumptions at the back of our minds. Note that without these assumptions the formula developed will not hold. 1. Material (under consideration) must be homogeneous That is to say that the material under consideration must be of uniform properties throughout. 2. Material must be elastic This means that the material under consideration must obey Hookes law Stresses should be proportional to the strains

3. Stresses applied should not exceed the elastic limit or the limit of proportionality same as two because if one crosses the elastic limit he has ventured into the plastic range and that area is out of our range. Some other equations cater for that.

4. Circular sections must remain circular The diameter of the shaft should the same throughout its length

5. Cross sections must remain plane Torsion must occur in only one plane, for example in the x-y plane or the y-z plane 6. Cross section of the material must rotate as if rigid This means that at least one side of the shaft must be rigid and the shaft must behave as a solid, not a gel and certainly not liquid.

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With these behind us we can now determine the angle of twist. Angle of twist - what is it? Angle subtended on the cross section when a point A is gradually shifted to B due to an applied torque. Usually this is considered so small that it will not cause a change in the length of the bar or its radius.

From the diagram, one can see how the shaft behaves like a solid. Due to its solid nature, as torsion is applied at one end of the shaft, say end A, the particles there have less resistance. As one moves along the length of the shaft the resistance to the torsion increases. And so if we place dots showing the resistance to the torsion along the shaft we would see the resistance of the particles right up to the last particle which do not move at all due to full resistance at that point , B. It is important to note that the greater the torque / torsion the greater the angle of twist.

A B O R

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From a simplified diagram of the cross-section of the shaft, assuming we apply torsion to the shaft in the clockwise direction all particles at A will gradually shift to B (thanks to shear). The motion will subtend an angle, which we can determine. Mathematically we know that: The length of an arc = radius So in our case, Length of arc AB = radius (R) angle subtended ( ) (1) angle subtended

From the earlier diagram, one would agree that theta is causing the shearing strain. Where the total shearing strain = length (L) x shearing strain ( ) This means that we can conclude that Length of arc AB = radius ( ) Arc AB = = L = angle subtended ( ) = length (L) x shearing strain ( ) (3) (4) (2)

Shearing strain,

Recall from the definition of modulus of rigidity, G G= = = (5a) (5b)

From (5a), shear strain can be determined as A combination of (5a) and (5b) would yield = ==

(6)

Rewriting (6) = (7)

Deductions from (6) 1. Shear stress is directly proportional to modulus of rigidity and angle of twist. This means that as shear stress increases one should expect that angle of twist should also increase.

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2. Shear stress is inversely proportional to length. This means that the smaller the length of the circular shaft the greater the shear stress and vice versa. 3. Rewriting (7) into this form, = , one would realize that shear stress increases with

increasing radius, from R = 0 to R = Rmax. At Rmax , shear stress is also maximum and is usually written as (7) can further be written as = (8)

Shear Stresses within the shaft Recall we said earlier that the twisting and eventual failure of the shaft is facilitated by shear stresses. It should therefore be possible to determine the shear stress occurring at any point within the shaft. To do that would break the cross-section of the shaft into elements and take one as shown in the diagram below. Then when we have generated expressions for the element we can sum it up for all the elements. In the diagram, our element is shown white.

: shear stress t: thickness = dr r O

Recall that Force set up in each element, Fe = shear stress area

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Shear stress =

(because it is not at the maximum r = Rmax) (approx) (9)

Area of the given element = Therefore, Fe =

Due to the twisting about the axis (axis is the pivot), moment will occur. We can call this moment elemental moment, Me because it is occurring on the element and not on the whole shaft. Moment is also known as torque. So we can find the elemental torque, Te.

Recall Moment / Torque = force x perpendicular distance The force acting is what we have generated in (9) = Fe = The perpendicular distance = r, the radius So Me = Te = Fe Te = Te = Remember that all this while we have working on just one element. To find the total torque for all the elements in the shaft, we sum up the equation for all the elements. To make things easier on ourselves we apply the principle of integration (if you have forgotten, revise get a STROUD!) Total torque, T = a. We need to replace with a term which contains r that will make it integrable. We know = . So substituting this term, we would get

from (8) that it can be rewritten as T= ( T= ( ) )

b. At this particular moment / torque, all the parameters which make up and are therefore taken outside the summation sign. T=( )

are all constant

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This step brings us to an important parameter known as the polar second moment of area, J Therefore T = ( ) (10)

(10) can also be rewritten as (11) One would realize that (11) and (8) can be equated as follows

(12) (12) is what is known as the torsion theory in mathematical form

Definition of terms : Shear stress at any radius, r, (N/m2) R: Maximum radius (equal to Rmax) (m) : Maximum shear stress occurring at Rmax G: modulus of rigidity/shear modulus (GPa) L: Length (m) : Angle of twist (radians) T: torque (Nm) J: polar second moment of area (m4)

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: Angle of twist (radians

degrees)

Radians is the usual unit applied in this context but sometimes to give us a better picture of how much twisting has occurred we convert it to degrees using the following formula. a. Radians to degrees

b. Degrees to radians

Polar second moment of area, J What is it? J is the torsion constant for the section. It is identical to the polar moment of inertia for a round shaft or concentric tube only. It can be determined for other shapes. For solid shafts This is a parameter which must be calculated for before applied in the torsion theory equation. First, we have to derive it. We know that is a constant and therefore has to be taken outside the summation

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By substituting the limits * +

*
Knowing the R and substituting J will become ( )

(13)

(14) For hollow shafts There is an internal and external radius as shown in the diagram below.

In the diagram: r: internal radius R: external radius These two are the limits for calculation Note that maximum shear stress still occurs at R = Rmax Substituting into the J equation * +

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By substituting the limits * ( ( Knowing the R ) ) (15) +

and substituting J will become ( ) (16)

D: external diameter d: internal diameter At this juncture we are almost at the end of the topic. To gain insight it would be expedient to try some few examples. It is recommended that you not only read the examples as a means to learning it but make a conscious effort to work through it with pencil, paper, and calculator, making sure all the values are correct. This method helps you to train your mental faculty to apply what you have learnt when called upon. It is also important to note that hollow bars are more efficient in resisting torsional loads than are solid bars. The shear stresses for a solid circular shaft are at the maximum at the outer boundary of the cross section and zero at the centre. Therefore most of the material in the solid shaft is stressed significantly below the maximum shear stress. If weight reduction weight reduction and savings in material are important then it is advisable to use hollow shafts. What this statement simply means it is that instead of wasting material creating solid shafts and still adding weight, if savings in material and weight reduction is important to you, then you should use hollow materials because they can resist the same amount of shear stress.

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Example 1 What torque, applied to hollow circular shaft of 25cm outside diameter and 17.5cm inside diameter will produce maximum shearing stress of 75MN/m2 in the material? Given data External diameter, D = 25cm = 0.25m Internal diameter, d = 17.5cm = 0.175m Maximum shear stress, = 75MN/m2 Required Torque Calculation and Solution External radius, R = Internal radius, r = = 0.125m = 0.0875m

The torsion theory formula is given by

Terms are defined above and are expected in any assignment The appropriate equation to use would be

The values for the other parameters have been provided but J would have to be calculated For a hollow shaft ( ( ) )

Use of either formula would yield the same result

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Using the radius and substituting the values ( )= ( )=

Therefore substituting values to find torque = 174850.8Nm Therefore the torque required is 174.8kNm

All the parameters can be demanded from questions given so one must practice how to manipulate them.

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Example 3 Research shows that especially in industries where weight is of essence, use of hollow shaft, being of less mass and weight than a solid shaft, can transmit the same amount of torque and power. Aircraft industries take this very serious and this next example is aimed drawing your mind to the reality. A solid circular shaft of 25cm diameter is to be replaced by a hollow shaft; the ratio of the external to internal diameters being 2:1. Find the size of the hollow shaft if the maximum shearing stress is to be the same as for the solid shaft. What % economy in mass with this change effect?

Data given External diameter, D = 25cm = 0.25m For hollow shaft, external diameter: internal diameter = 2:1 This implies that if the internal radius is r then the external radius R = 2r

Required a. Size of hollow shaft, which means dimensions for the internal and external diameters b. % economy the change would effect

Calculation and Solution External radius, R = = 0.125m

The torsion theory formula is given by

For a solid shaft,

Since we know the radius we can substitute the values and calculate for J

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+=

For the hollow shaft: ( )

But we inferred from the question that R = 2r. Therefore substituting (( ( ( So Jsolid shaft = ) ) ) ) factorizing = whilst Jhollow shaft = .

These shafts will experience the same maximum shearing stress (inference from question) and therefore we can determine the dimensions
[ ] [ ]

Note that the r in the hollow shaft which must generate maximum shearing stress = R which from the question = 2r Substituting values and expressions
* + [ ( ) ]

Simplifying

r = 0.02977m a. dimensions of hollow shaft Hence the internal radius, r = 29.77mm; Internal diameter, d = 59.54mm The external radius, R = 2r = 2 (29.77) = 59.54mm; External diameter, D = 119.09mm
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b. % economy in mass % economy in mass =

= 23.8% This means that by using the hollow shaft 23.8% of mass which would have gone waste doing nothing has been saved.

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Section Modulus It is sometimes convenient to rewrite part of the torsion theory formula to obtain the maximum shear stress in the shaft as follows:

From this equation, we can define a parameter known as polar section modulus, Z Z= Substituting this into the equation

Without developing the formula because the basics have already been developed (try it), Z for solid shafts = Z for hollow shafts =
( )

Torsional Rigidity Angle of twist per unit length of shafts is given by the torsion theory as

The GJ is known as torsional rigidity, a property of the material and is calculated as

Remember that angle of twist per unit length means that the length has a value of 1 Therefore = =

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Composite shafts Sometimes shafts are not just made of one material. They can be of different materials and connected differently depending on what torque is needed and hence get work done. Types of connections There are basically two types of connections; series and parallel connections Series connection This is where 2 or more shafts of same or different materials, diameter or basic form are connected in such a way that each carries the same torque. Here composite shaft strength is treated separately applying the torsion theory in turn.

Mathematically,Torsion theory states that

Designating different materials as 1 and 2 Since torque is the same for both materials, it means that

Conditions 1. There are real situations where it is convenient that the angles of twist are equal. This means that The resultant equation by this condition would be

2. Where the material used is said to be the same, it means The resultant equation by this condition would be

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Parallel connection Shafts are said to be connected in parallel if two or more materials are rigidly fixed together such that the applied torque is shared between them and angle of twist is equal in each portion. Mathematically, if torque is shared T = T1 + T2 From the torsion theory

If angle of twist is equal in each portion

Conditions 1. Where the lengths are the same, it would mean that The resultant equation by this condition would be

2. Where the material used is said to be the same, it means The resultant equation by this condition would be

Maximum shearing stresses can be found in each part as follows

( )

( )

It is up to the student to read the question and deduce the conditions from it.
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Power transmitted by shafts Usually shafts in huge trucks are connected from the engine to the drive shafts at the back axles and in small vehicles shafts are used to transmit power from the engine to the front axles to drive them. Power generated, Torque needed or applied can be determined with appropriate equations. If a shaft carries a torque, (Nm) and rotates Joules, Watts) is given by: Power, P = : Angular / rotational speed = Therefore power, P= (18) (rad/s), then the work done per second (Power, P (17)

N: number of revolutions per second (usually given in rev/min so we divide by 60 to convert it to rev/sec)

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Example 2 A ships propeller shaft has external and internal diameters of 25cm and 15cm respectively. What power can be transmitted at 110 rev/min with a maximum shearing stress of 75MN/m 2. What then must be the twist in degrees of a 10m length of the shaft? G = 80GN/m2 Given data External diameter, D = 25cm = 0.25m Internal diameter, d = 15cm = 0.15m Maximum shear stress, = 75MN/m2 = G, Shear modulus = 80GN/m2 = Length, L = 10m N, no. of revolutions = 110 rev/min Required Angle of twist, Calculation and Solution External radius, R = Internal radius, r = = 0.125m = 0.075m N/m2 N/m2

The torsion theory formula is given by

We need the full torsion theory, so we have to use the parameters given to get the others. First we need this part of the equation:

To get the power, we need torque. We need to calculate for J after which we can substitute because the others have been provided ( ( ) )= ( )=
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Therefore substituting values to find torque = 200.3kNm Therefore the torque required is 200.3kNm

a. Power, P = Substituting values P= = = =

Therefore power transmitted =

b. Angle of twist Now to find the angle of twist by employing = 0.075 radians This value we can convert to degrees to give us a better picture using either formula , therefore

Therefore angle of twist,

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Example 4 a. A solid shaft 100mm diameter transmits 75kW at 150 rev/min. Determine the value of the maximum shear stress set up in the shaft and the angle of twist per meter of the shaft length if G = 80GN/m2 b. If the shaft were now bored in order to reduce the weight to produce a tube of 100mm outside diameter and 60mm inside diameter, what torque could be carried if the same maximum shear stress is not to be exceeded? What is the percentage increase in power / weight ratio effected by this modification Given data External diameter, D = 100cm = 0.1m Length, L = 1m Power, P =75kW = W N/m2

G, Shear modulus = 80GN/m2 = N, no. of revolutions = 150 rev/min Required a. Maximum shear stress, b. Angle of twist per meter of shaft Calculation and Solution The torsion theory formula is given by

T and J are unknown that have to be determined. Hence, we need this part of the equation: Substituting values

The value for power, P has been provided so with its equation we can determine the torque, T = =
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therefore

Therefore remember that R = Rewriting the equation

N/m2= Therefore maximum shear stress in the shaft is Angle of twist per meter of shaft

MN/m2 MN/m2.

Converting to degrees

a. Therefore

b. When the shaft is bored, we must note that the polar second moment of area will definitely change. J will become: ( ( ) )= ( )=

The torque carried by the modified shaft will be given by = = Nm = Nm

Let us have a short discussion in order to understand this weight per meter issue Recall that force, F = mass (m) x gravitational constant, (g) this gives us the weight But mass, m =
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Substituting mass into the first formula, Weight = Again, volume, v = Therefore, Weight = Finally Area, A of shaft is given by, A = Therefore substituting everything The weight/meter of the original shaft is given by: Weight / meter = =
( )

and per meter means L = 1 m

The weight/meter of the modified shaft is given by: Weight / meter = = = = Power, P = T Power / weight ratio for original shaft is given by: Power / weight = ( ( ) )

Power / weight ratio for modified shaft is given by: Power / weight =

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Notice that even though the weight of the modified shaft is less than that of the original shaft, the power it can generate is almost 1.4x what the original shaft can generate. The percentage increase in power / weight ratio can be calculated as follows: % increase in power / weight = = 36%

We can also explain it this way that for the same length of shaft material, a hollow shaft generated 36% more power than the solid shaft whilst reducing its weight.

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Example 5 Determine the dimensions of a hollow shaft with a diameter ratio of 3:4 which is to transmit 60kW at 200rev/min. the maximum shear stress in the shaft is limited to 70MN/m 2 and the angle of twist is 3.8o in a length of 4m. For the shaft material, G = 80GN/m2. Data given 2 limiting conditions; that determined by: a. Maximum shear stress = 70MN/m2 b. Angle of twist = 3.8o Please understand that a. and b. will lead to two different answers for the required diameter. The larger shaft however must be chosen as the one for which neither condition will be exceeded. Proof of this statement will be shown. Ratio of internal diameter: external diameter = 3:4 Power transmitted, P = 60kW Number of revolutions, N = 200 rev/min Length = 4m For the shaft material, G = 80GN/m2 Calculation and solution Given the value for power, we can calculate the torque P= T= therefore = =

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Using the maximum shear stress approach: From the torsion theory

But ( ( )

( ) =

) by change of subject

Let us not forget that d: D = 3: 4 which can also be written as

So, going back to the question, we have to factorise ( ( )

) which will become:

Substituting the ratios ( Therefore, ( Rearranging ( ) ) = = )

D= D = 0.06726m = 67.3mm Recall from the ratios that d=0.75D Therefore

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d=

Using the angle of twist approach: From the torsion theory,

From the equation, But Therefore ( ) has been given in degrees and has to be converted to ( )

Let us not forget that the angle of twist

radians before it is used in the calculation. The conversion is done as follows: = radians Substituting ( ( ( ) )= )= ) ) =

factorise ( (

Substituting the ratios ( )

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Therefore, ( ) =

D = 0.07528m = 75.3mm Recall from the ratios that d=0.75D Therefore d=

So we said from the preceding statement that the dimensions with the largest values should be chosen, the dimensions of the shaft should be internal diameter, d = 56.5mm and external diameter, D =75.3mm. In order to prove, the statement let us substitute the values from the two limiting conditions and see which values exceed them. a. d = 56.5mm, D = 75.3mm ( ) ( )

/m2 MN/m2.

Therefore maximum shear stress in the shaft is

= 0.066 radians Converting it to degrees = 0.066 = 3.78

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b. d= 50.5mm, D = 67.3mm ( ) ( )

/m2 MN/m2.

Therefore maximum shear stress in the shaft is

= 0.104 radians Converting it to degrees = 0.104 = 5.958

From the calculations, it is obvious that the values derived from the limiting condition of the shear stress exceed the angle of twist condition given and must be rejected. Hence, the proof.

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Example 6 a. A steel transmission shaft of a Mercedes Benz articulator truck is 570mm long and 50mm external diameter. For part of its length, it is bored to a diameter of 25mm and for the rest to a diameter of 38mm. Find the maximum power that can be transmitted at the speed of 210 rev / min if the shear stress is not to exceed 70MN/m2.

Data given It is important to note and understand that the case of this shaft presented is one of a shaft connected in series because the torque generated would be shared. Length of transmission shaft = 570mm = 0.57m External diameter of shaft, D = 50mm = 0.05m Internal diameter 1, d1 = 25mm = 0.025m Internal diameter 2, d2 = 38mm = 0.038m From the torsion theory,

Note that maximum shear stress and the radius at which the torque would occur will be the same for both shafts. Therefore the allowable torque for a know value of shear stress will depend on J. What we need is the value of J which would be least to gain the maximum power. ( ) ( )

T = 1.3kNm Therefore the maximum power P= therefore

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P=

=28.5kW

b. If the angle of twist in the length of 25mm bore is equal to that in the length of the 38mm bore, find the length bored to the latter diameter. Let L1 and J1 refer respectively to the length and polar second moment of area of the 25mm bore Let L2 and J2 refer respectively to the length and polar second moment of area of the 25mm bore

Mathematically, if torque is shared T = T1 + T2 From the torsion theory

If angle of twist is equal in each portion

Conditions 1. Where the lengths are the same, it would mean that The resultant equation by this condition would be

2. Where the material used is said to be the same, it means The resultant equation by this condition would be

But we choose not to cancel out the Ls, the immediate preceding equation can be rewritten as

) therefore substituting values

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( (

) )

But the total length of shaft = 510mm which implies that

Substituting for

Therefore

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Example 7 a. A circular bar ABC, 3m long is rigidly fixed at its ends A and C. the portion AB is 1.8m long and of 50mm diameter whilst BC is 1.2m long and of 25mm diameter. If a twisting moment of 680Nm is applied at B, determine the values of the resisting moments at A and C and the maximum stresses in each section of the shaft. b. What will be the angle of twist in each portion? Take G = 80GN/m2

Data given
Shaft 1: 50 mm diameter Length: 1.8m

B A C
Shaft 2: 25 mm diameter Torque, T = 680Nm Length: 1.2m

Required a. Values of resisting moments at A and C b. Maximum stress in each portion c. Angle of twist in each portion

Calculation and solution Notes: 1. Shaft is connected in parallel 2. The torque is shared 3. Angle of twist is the same in each portion
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4. Same materials is used for both shafts, therefore G is the same From the torsion theory:

So for the composite shaft, since angle of twist is the same

Since the material used to make both shafts are the same, G1 = G2 Therefore Substituting values
( ( ) )

( (

) )

If the torque is shared it means T = Therefore 680 = ( ) Substituting for Factorizing = , 680 = ( ) )

, 680 = (

= 58.3Nm T

Therefore,

680 - 58.3 = 621.7Nm Therefore torque in shaft 1 = 58.3Nm and torque in shaft 2 = 621.7Nm

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For portion AB, the maximum shear stress is given as

( )

= 25.33 MN/m2 = 19.0 MN/m2

The shafts would have the same angle of twist so we can use any formula
( )

= 0.0228 rad

This is an angle so it would be better to be converting it to degrees 0.0228

Proof that

yields the same results =

( )

= 0.0228 rad

This is an angle so it would be better to be converting it to degrees 0.0228

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Example 8 A hollow low carbon steel shaft is subjected to a torque of 0.25MNm. If the ratio of internal to external diameter is 1:3 and the shear stress due to torque has to be limited to 19.0 MN/m2. Determine the required diameters and the angle of twist per meter length of shaft. Take G = 80GN/m2. Given data
Torque, T = 0.25MNm

Shear stress, Shear modulus,

d = 0.333D

Required a. Internal diameter, d = ? External diameter, D = ? b. Angle of twist per meter length of shaft

Calculation and solution From the torsion theory

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( ( )

))

But

))

( (

( (

) ) ) )

( Substituting given values

) )

( D=
( )

D = 0.264m = 264mm But d = 0.333D Therefore So a. External diameter, D = 264mm Internal diameter, d = 88mm b. Angle of twist per meter length of shaft,
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Remember that now we know d and D and therefore we should be able to calculate for J and hence the angle of twist. ( ) ( = This is an angle so it would be better to be converting it to degrees )=

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Example A solid steel shaft of diameter, d = 60mm and length, L = 4m is to be designed using an allowable shear stress, meter. a. Determine the maximum permissible torque, Tmax that may be applied to the shaft, assuming G = 80GPa b. Determine the angle of twist and an allowable angle of twist per length, , = per

Data given Diameter of shaft, d = 60mm = 0.06m Length, L = 4m Allowable angle of twist per length, = Allowable shear stress, Shear modulus, G = 80GPa = per meter =

Required

Maximum permissible torque, Tmax that may be applied to the shaft Angle of twist

Calculation and solution In this case our usual =

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 Substituting values

If for the design the allowable angle of twist per length is 1o per meter, it implies that it is equal to . This design consideration will give us a different torque other than what the

diameter just gave us. Apply the torsion theory therefore we will get

= 1776Nm

So for the design the maximum permissible torque, Tmax, should be the smaller of the two values calculated which is equal to .

Therefore the angle of twist corresponding to this permissible torque can be determined using the torsion theory given as

The alternative equation given by the torsion theory which involves shear stress and radius will also yield the same results.

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Example A hollow shaft and a solid shaft constructed of the same material have the same length and the same outside radius, r. The inside radius of the hollow shaft is 0.6r. Assuming that both shafts are subjected to the same torque, compare the maximum shear stresses, the angles of rotation, and the weights of the two shafts. Solution It can be inferred from the torsion theory, that the shear stresses are proportional to For the solid shaft, that the maximum shear stresses are

inversely proportional to J, the polar second moment of area. Better still, it can be reasoned out . Therefore, if the torque, T and radii, r are the same

For the hollow shaft ( ( ) ) ( ( ) )

We can therefore write the relationship properly and mathematically as = = 1.15

This means that the ratio of the shear stress in the hollow shaft is approximately 1.15 times that of the solid shaft. % of more shear stress carried by hollow shaft = Also since the lengths are the same and they are made of the same material, from the torsion theory, it can be inferred that the angle of twist for hollow and solid shafts would be in

the same proportions.

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Further, the weights of the shafts are proportional to the cross-sectional areas; hence the weight of the solid shaft is proportional to the weight of the hollow shaft is proportional to % ratio of weight of hollow shaft to solid shaft = ( ) = 64%

This means that the weight of the hollow shaft is only 64% that of the solid shaft. The advantage of using a hollow shaft is obvious. In this example, the hollow shaft carries 15% more shear stress and can take on 15% times more of the angle of twist at 36% less weight. In addition, the relative efficiency of a structure is measured by the strength to weight ratio. In this example we would define it as the allowable load divided by the weight. The allowable torque for the hollow shaft is

= = The allowable torque for the solid shaft is

= =

Weight of the hollow shaft Remember that Let us represent specific gravity with ( ) ( )

Weight of the solid shaft

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Same material so densities and specific gravities are the same ( ) ( )

Denoting the strength to weight ratio of the hollow and solid shafts to be s1 and s2 respectively,

% increase in strength to weight ratio = It is obvious from the above that the hollow shaft has a greater strength to weight ratio. It can also be seen that a hollow shaft of the same length and torque has of 36% more strength than a solid shaft.

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