Unit 4 Particle Physics Geiger and Marsden carried out experiments to investigate the structure of the atom.

In the experiment alpha particles were scattered by thin films of metals such as gold. The experiment led to the conclusion that the atom had a positively charged nucleus of diameter approximately 10-15m and containing most of the mass of the atom. Most of the alpha particles went straight through leading to the conclusion that the atom was mostly vacuum. Some were scattered at large angles, concluding that the mass was highly concentrated. Very few or little were deflected back or at a small angle, concluding that the concentrated mass was positively charged. In a bubble chamber there is a magnetic field that can be determined by Flemings left hand rule. An electron will travel in the opposite direction to the current flow and the force will be at right angles to the current flow. As an electron in a magnetic field a force that is at right angles to its motion, as it is charged, . Therefore . The bigger the radius the greater the speed the charged

particle is travelling at. In a cyclotron this is used to provide a centripetal force that is used to make the particles travel in circular motion. An alternating potential difference is used to accelerate particles by providing them with energy between the two Ds, every semicircle the polarity of the Ds need to change. The frequency of a cyclotron decreases due to the relativistic effect because the closer to the speed of light the particle gets, its mass increases more. In CERN free protons following a circular path at speeds close to the speed of light release x-rays due to the fact that they are accelerating as their velocity is changing. The path or charged particles in the bubble chamber is a spiral as they continue to loose energy as they ionise other particles within its path. Conservation laws of momentum, mass-energy, charge, strangeness, baryon and lepton number must be kept constant. In a particle accelerator, such as a cyclotron, particles or electrons are accelerated using a high frequency alternating voltage, the strength of the magnetic field determines how fast the particles can be accelerated up to. can be used to show how fast the particles travel, this is derived from . In a linear accelerator the particles travel in constant velocity whilst in the cylinders as there is no electric field within the cylinders, the length of the cylinders also gradually an increase as the velocity increases along the accelerators, to ensure the time within each cylinder remains the same. From the De Broglie wavelength we can calculate how much energy or what wavelength a photon or particle will give out or appear to be using the equation constant, 6.63x10-34. And c is the speed of light. and . . . Where h is Plancks

The K.E. of an electron in terms of its momentum is

The momentum of an electron in a magnetic field can be derived using As Pion compositions: Kaon compositions: A Baryon is a sub-atomic particle made of 3 quarks, a meson is a sub-atomic article made of 2 quarks. For antiparticles ensure that the accent is obviously shown. In a bubble chamber image, neutral particles do not produce tracks, but they can be simulated to be produced by the sudden disappearance of a line or a v where they decay into charged particles. A fundamental particle is a particle which has no internal structure and cannot be split any further. When electrons jump from energy levels/states they produce emission spectra with distinctive patterns that are the same for particles of the same element. Certain values of energy are absorbed and released in the process, producing an emission spectra. The smaller the frequency is the smaller the energy absorbed. E=hf. For a particle to diffract into a wave, the gap used must be similar or smaller than the de Broglie wavelength of the particle. When electrons are fired at hydrogen targets, they show that the proton is not uniform as there is space and that a proton is made up of quarks. The K.E. of a colliding particle can increase the mass of the system, but mass-energy is conserved.

Electric and Magnetic fields If a small solenoid was connected to a digital voltmeter and places inside a larger solenoid and the larger solenoid was connected to a battery, the reading on the voltmeter would briefly be high then fall back to 0. When the battery is disconnected the same will occur but the reading will be negative of the previous. If an alternating supply is connected instead of the battery, the voltage will read a continuous alternation from negative to positive. An emf will be induced across the wings of an aircraft when it is flying horizontally in a region where there is a vertical component of the earths magnetic field. Total magnetic flux, is the product of flux density and area. If a wire is moved towards a magnet, the emf induced gradually increases as the magnetic flux density increases the closer to the magnet. Therefore to maintain a steady emf, the speed of the wire should decelerate at a rate that is proportional to the increase of magnetic flux density. Lenzs law states that the direction of an induced emf is such to oppose the change creating it. And the emf induced is calculated as , where the negative sign shows that the according to lenzs law the induced emf opposes the change creating it. Where a bar magnet is dropped down a copper tube, induction occurs above and below the magnet in the tube causing a current to flow that creates a magnetic field which is the opposite

of the magnet below, repelling, slowing the magnet down and the same above, attracting the magnet upwards, slowing the magnet down. When a aluminium washer is placed on a solenoid and a d.c. is switched on in the solenoid the washer jumps as there is a magnetic field being produced by the solenoid which cuts the washer, causing an emf to be induced in the washer that is such that the current is in the opposite direction to the current of the solenoid, such that there is a magnetic force that is opposite to the magnetic force of the solenoid causing it to jump. As there is no change in magnetic flux, there is no emf induced, therefore the magnetic force is no longer there and the washer falls back down. Capacitance is the amount of charge stored per volt applied. The energy stored in a capacitor can be found by the equations. The amount of charge that is stored by a capacitor is the product of its capacitance and voltage supplied. When starting a car engine a transformer is used called the ignition coil, where a low volt battery is connected to a switch and a solenoid of few turns, and a solenoid with many turns is placed beside it. The switch is turned on for a short period of time and a magnetic flux is induced by a change in voltage, the magnetic flux induces an emf in the solenoid with many turns, the greater the number of turns, the greater the flux linkage. Flux linkage calculated , units of weber. Charge is stored in a capacitor is area under current time graph. For discharge and charge of a capacitor, 37% is the time constant and . As well as . For and induced emf due to movement and cutting magnetic fields, . If a metal rod is falling, it is falling parallel to the vertical component of the earth, therefore no flux from the vertical component is cut. However if the metal rod were thrown from a point, then there would be flux cut. Calculating power output use, When dipole molecules enter a capacitor, they have forces acting on them that are such so that they align to balance out the potential difference, such that the negative sign will have a force acting on it that is towards the positive side of the plate as it is being repelled by the negative side and attracted by the positive side. The field strength of a capacitor or between two charged plates can be found using, . A microphone uses a the concept of a capacitor to transfer signals, by replacing a plate with a movable diaphragm, sound will be able to affect the capacitance of the circuit, resulting in a change in voltage, causing a current to run through the capacitor as V=IR and R is constant. In a mass spectrometer charged plates are used to provide each sample with the same energy. Since energy is half mass velocity squared, the velocity of each particle differs, the same applies with the force. Past the plates the ions have a constant velocity, because there is no force between fields and detector. For particles in a mass spectrometer g is negligible due to vacuum and in a vacuum there are no frictional forces. . The area under a volt, charge graph is the energy stored in a capacitor.

In a uniform electric field, two charged spheres of the different mass are prevented from falling under gravity by the electric field, they stop at the same height, when the plates are moved closer together, X and Y both move upwards with the same acceleration as the charges and masses are such that the acceleration is the same. In a DC motor, the coils rotate due to Flemings left hand rule, state the direction of rotation and indicate the direction of the force on the coil, a split ring commutator ensures that the current is always travelling the same way on the respective side of the magnet by switching the current direction. When the motor is first turned on the current is large because the change of flux linkage cut is large, inducing the emf shown. As the emf increases with speed, because Lenzs law state that the direction of an emf is such to oppose the change, charge, creating it, the current decreases as the voltage opposes it. A capacitor charges and discharges over a certain period of this, unique to the system. For a decay/charge graph show t, t1/2 and the other values. A charging graph on the same axis is on the negative side and the current in the opposite direction. Electric field lines show where the differences are equal. The energy of a particle accelerated by an electric field is such that . Particles that are accelerated in an electric field is such that the particle may travel further or less, and then not emerge horizontal, or collide with other particles. If an alternating current is always positive, it would be a direct current as the current always travels in the same direction. By placing a capacitor in the circuit the voltage remains constant as the capacitor charges up from the supply and doesnt discharge. By if the p.d. is still differing it is most likely due to the fact that the capacitor is charging and discharging exponentially through the circuit, from the supplied energy, use a larger capacitor to form a stable p.d.

Further Mechanics When a body is orbiting a planet, the body is not travelling at constant velocity as the body is accelerating towards the planet which is a resultant force that is its weight which is part of the gravitational field strength of the body. As there is a resultant force on the body it isnt in equilibrium as the centripetal force is opposite and equal to the weight. Free fall is the state in which no reaction force acts on a body and only gravity is present. A satellite remains at a constant height as the velocity of the satellite is at right angles to the resultant force, which in turn is called the centripetal force. Impulse is the change of momentum, which is the same as the product of force and the change of time. In a closed system there is no external force present, this is required for conservation of linear momentum. Work done is the product of force exerted and distance Power is the product of force exerted and velocity. Angular velocity is the speed of rotation, this can be calculated from The rotational velocity at the edge of the movement can be calculated from Centripetal force can be calculated using .

For a Ferris wheel rotating, the motor driving the wheel could either provide energy to the system or not. If the wheel is equally loaded then the motor wouldnt need to provide GPE as the passenger on the other side would be losing GPE. If the wheel is unequally loaded then there is not passenger on the other side to lose GPE. Linear is the product of velocity and mass of the moving object. Newton's third law states from observation that to every action there is an equal but opposite reaction force of the same type. Where an object on a system is in circular motion has constant speed, the vertical forces on the object must be equal and opposite so that there is no tangential force on the object on the system. Newtons second law states that the rate of change of momentum is proportional to the resultant force acting on it. This statement can lead to the equation from using the equations , and impulse. When there are no external forces acting on the system. The principle of conservation of linear momentum is that the total momentum in a system is constant, provided that no external force acts on the system. When jumping, it is a good idea to bend ones knees as it increases the time taken, since Assumptions that can be made in an experiment; No external force eg. Friction or drag. For a momentum collision experiment with two trolleys; I. The masses of each trolley must be measured using a digital balance II. Set up two light gates to measure the initial and final velocity of both trolleys III. Affix cards to both trolleys, of known length, to calculate the speed with the time taken. IV. The forces during collision should be equal but opposite due to Newtons third law. V. As a result the momentum of one trolley would increase at the same rate as the momentum of the other VI. Therefore the total momentum of both trolleys must remain constant. When wind turbines collect energy the angle at which the wind blows determines how much power is generated and that energy is lost due to heat and sound transfer. The area under a force time graph is its change in momentum. In Newtons cradle, when checking if momentum is conserved, measure the height that the ball reaches, then use this and gravity to calculate the initial speed of the ball and calculate if momentum is conserved. Show that mu=mv. The collisions are inelastic in the newtons cradle, as all KE isnt fully transferred from one ball to the next but instead into other forms such as internal energy in a ball or as a heat or sound. This is proven as the middle balls begin to move and shortly after the balls come to a rest. Across a capacitor voltage and current are proportional. Micro bacteria move using the principal of conservation of momentum, when ejecting slime from their bodies, the momentum of the slime must equal the momentum of the bacteria, the bacterial therefore moves in the opposite direction to the slime.

When a high energy proton collides with a stationary proton the angle isnt 90, as the mass of the incoming proton is greater than the mass of the resting proton and it is a relativistic interaction as the proton is moving at speeds close to the speed of light.

Basic Physics Giga = 109 A free body diagram representing the forces acting on a charged sphere in a system of two charged identically charged spheres both connected to a string with tension. Longitudinal waves where the vibrations are parallel to the energy transfer. Energy efficiency is what energy is successfully transferred into a useful energy. The process by which electrons are released from a heated filament is known as thermionic fission. A diagram that shows that the momentum is conserved shows that the vectors add up to the initial/final vector. (right angled triangle, showing initial and final momenta) Prove that it must be right angles use K.E. in terms of momentum