Interdisciplinary Journal of Research in Business

Vol. 1, Issue. 6, June 2011(pp.01-09)

AGRICULTURAL MARKETING AND ITS IMPACT IN NORTH EAST INDIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO MANIPUR

Dr. Robita Sorokhaibam

Associate Professor, Commerce Department Manipur University.

Brahmacharimayum Tarunbala Devi

Research Scholar, Commerce Department Manipur University.

INTRODUCTION From the very early stages of development of the human society, exchange has become an indispensable part of human civilization. Even before the introduction of the money economy, there prevailed what economists termed as barter system based on direct exchange of goods for goods. With the introduction of money as the medium of exchange, there came a change in the farming pattern from the self-sufficient village economy to the market economy of production for the market. Trade there was, both in ancient and medieval India as today; international and overseas and that fairly on a large scale. But it was a trade in surplus or speciality which did not affect the basic self sufficiency of the village and its place is being taken by large-scale, local and international commerce, a world wide exchange of commodities, wherein an efficient marketing system becomes the indispensable key to the entire nation (National Planning Committee 1947).Thus, more particularly, after the commercialization of agriculture, agricultural marketing became an essential aspect of human activities. According to Thomson (1951) the study of agricultural marketing comprises all the operations, and the agencies conducting them, involved in the movement of farm-produced foods, raw materials and their derivatives such as textiles, from the farms to the final consumers, and the effect of such operations on farmers , middlemen and consumers. This definition does not include the input side of agriculture. Agriculture marketing system in developing countries including India can be understood to compose of two major sub-system viz, product marketing and input (factor) marketing. The factors in the product marketing sub-system include farmers, village/primary traders, wholesalers, processors, importers, exporters, marketing cooperatives, regulated market committees and retailers. The input sub-system includes input manufacturers, distributors, related associations, importers, exporters and other who make available various farm production inputs to the farmers. National Commission on Agriculture defined agricultural marketing is a process which starts with a decision to produce a saleable farm commodity, and it involves all the aspects of market structure or system, both functional and institutional, based on technical and economic considerations, and includes pre and post harvest operations, assembling, grading, storage, transportation and distribution. An efficient marketing system is an effective agent of change and an important means for raising the income levels of farmers and satisfaction of the consumers. The movement of goods from producers to consumers at the lowest possible cost, consistent with the provision of services desired by the consumers, may be termed as efficient marketing. An efficient marketing system for farm products ensures an increase in the farm production get translated into an increase in the level of income, thereby stimulating the emergence of additional income. Consumers derive the greatest possible satisfaction when goods are available at the least possible cost. Thus, agricultural marketing plays an important role in accelerating the pace of economic development in addition to stimulating production and consumption. AGRICULTURE IN THE NORTH EAST INDIA North East Region of India comprising of the states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam ,Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Nagaland, Sikkim and Tripura representing a distinct agro-climatic zone of the country. The region occupies nearly 8 per cent of total geographical area and supports nearly 3.8 per cent of the countrys population as per the 2001 census. More than 80 per cent of the people in these states are dependent on agriculture and allied activities, but with poor resources base and low economic status with limited investment capacity (Mandal et al, 2005).Since

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independence, continuous efforts have been put forth and in particular during preceding decade several aggressive policy initiatives has been taken up for all round development of these states. Agriculture in North East region is predominated by subsistence farming, where shifting cultivation still remains important. Subsistence agriculture is an uncertain activity and therefore, risky, particularly when survival is at stake, and is the dominant factor not to change the traditional farm practices even in the face of opportunities. The poor farmers are naturally risk averter and prefer to be safe than sorry; they tend to prefer an inferior outcome that is relatively certain to the prospect of a higher average return with a greater degree of risk attached (Thirwall, 1999). However, to cater the economic development, the agriculture sector must be strengthened to play much more active and indispensable role in any overall strategy of economic progress (Todaro &Smith, 2004).Since agriculture sector is dominant in this region, development policy for these states needs to assess with reference to its performance, contribution and role. AGRICULTURE IN MANIPUR Agriculture is the dominant occupation of the people of Manipur. It is not only the main source of livelihood of the overwhelming majority, but also a tradition and a way of life that moulds the socio- economic status of the people. More then half (52.2 percent) of the total working population of the state are directly dependent on agriculture for their livelihood. Of the total working population of 9, 45,213 persons 2, 48,837 persons or 26.3 percent in the valley and 2, 44,498 persons or 25.9 percent in the hills are agricultural workers. In the state is a large section of the population whose primary occupation is not agriculture but pursue agriculture as secondary occupation. This shows that agriculture has been the most important occupation of the people and provides almost the entire food requirement of the people. This sector also provides raw materials for limited agro- based industries. The nature of agriculture in the valley differs from that of the hills due to the differences in physical configuration, climatic pattern, fertility of the soils and differential technological and scientific development. The valley having a stretch of fertile level land, well distributed rainfall, fair communication and marketing system along with easy access to modern technology, favours prosperous agricultural activities. Paddy is the main dominant crop of the valley. It is the main staple food of the people. Economic condition of the people is therefore dependent on the production of paddy from their agricultural fields. In the hills, on the other hand, both shifting cultivation and terrace farming are practiced on the slopes having limited subsistent production. The methods and implements used in agriculture are of primitive types. But of the late, Government has taken up development programmes to increase agricultural production in the hills and valley through innovations and modernization of the agricultural practices. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 1. 2. 3. 4. To analyze the various crops production in Manipur. To study about the consumption of chemical fertilizers. To examine about the Socio-economic factors of the cultivators. To suggest some remedial measures to overcome the problems.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY The study is based on both primary and secondary data. About 120 cultivators representing all the districts in Manipur have been selected on a random basis for the purpose of gathering primary information through the administration of questionnaire to cultivators, personal interview and observations. The secondary data has been gathered from published reports brought out by the Department of Agriculture (Manipur), Apex Marketing Societies (Manipur), Statistical Abstract Manipur, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Govt. of Manipur, Indian Journal of Marketing, Weekly Journal of Rural Development, other books related with agricultural marketing. CLIMATE Manipur enjoy a sub-tropical monsoon climate with hot and wet summer, cold and dry winter, South west monsoon have been characterized the climate of Manipur. The climate of Manipur is controlled by its orography. Besides, location, altitude and topography, direction of the prevailing winds and seasonal rhythm, etc. are the factors controlling the climate of the state. The development of the high pressure over the north-western part of India and low pressure over the Bay of Bengal in the early part of the year makes the state almost dry in the cold season, winter. However, with the gradual change in the heat balance of the sub-continent, when the north-west India becomes an arena of low pressure attracting the moist monsoon winds from the neighbouring seas of the Bay of

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Bengal and Arabian Sea, Manipur receives rainfall with wet and hot climatic conditions during summer. This seasonal reversal pressure system results in the periodic reversal of wind direction and characteristics of the monsoon climate in the region. CROPPING PATTERN IN MANIPUR Manipur is a rainfed area with little cultivable land and minor irrigation projects. The production and productivity of the state is solely dependent on the timely onset of monsoon and pattern of rainfall distribution. The rainfall data was recorded at Meteorological Sub Centre located at Tulihal Airport Imphal. A wide variety of crops sown and reared in Manipur depend upon the seasons and other relevant factors. The region consisted of a number of broad agro- climatic regions and even within single region wide variations in soil composition. Harvest in Manipur is broadly divided into two categories- Rabi and Kharif. The Table 1 shows crop wise achievements during annual plan 2007-08, Anticipated achievements for 2008-09. Table 1 here The State has introduced rice cultivation programme in the year 2007-08 with a achievement area and production of 2, 10,655 ha and 5, 15,965 Mt respectively which is the maximum production of foodgrains. In the year 2007-08 the area and production of wheat has been achieved 2,000Ha and 5,000 Mt. respectively which is the least production among the foodgrains . In case of area and production of potato has also been anticipated achievement of 13,000 Ha and 1, 08,000 Mt respectively against the last year achievement of 12,250 Ha and 1, 02, 000 Mt respectively. During the 11th plan Targeted Gross Area is 3, 55,700 Ha and Net Area is 2, 34,500 Ha.

FERTILIZERS POSITION IN MANIPUR Agriculture, as in the other parts of the country, is the main occupation of the people of Manipur. Fertilizers, therefore play an important role in the livelihood of the farmers of the state. Unlike the other bigger states, Manipur comprises mainly marginal and small farmers operating in both valley and hill districts. Except for urea which is produced at Namrup, Assam, all chemical fertilizers are being brought from outside the state in the North-East region by railways upto Guwahati and then transported to Manipur by road The main chemical fertilizers used in Manipur are Urea (controlled by the state),di-ammonium phosphate (DAP), Single Super Phosphate (SSP) and Muriate of Potash (MOP). The main manufacturers dealing in the Manipur are Brahmaputra Valley Fertilizer Corporation Ltd. (BVFC) at Namrup, Assam and Indian Farmers Fertilizer Co-operative Ltd. (IFFCO) at Guwahati. Table 2 shows consumption of chemical fertilizers in the Manipur. Table 3 here The above Table shows the consumption of chemical fertilizers in the Manipur during the year 2000-2001to 200809. In the year 2000-01 the total consumption of chemical fertilizers is 46.75 tones in this year M. Phos fertilizers is not used by the farmers and is substitute by others fertilizers such as DAP, MOP, S.S.P. Again in the year 2001-02 the total consumption of chemical fertilizers is 46.48 tones, this shows that there is decreasing in the consumption of chemical fertilizers. In the year 2008-09, the total consumption of fertilizers is 27.19 tones which is the least consumption when comparing to the other year. But in the year 2003-04 total consumption of chemical fertilizers is 59.05 tones which is the highest consumption when comparing to the other year. The total consumption of chemical fertilizers is fluctuating from one year to another year due to the reason of natural calamities like floods, drought and land slide. Above all, one of the main reason is also due to close-down of industries,frequent bandh, blockades etc. CASTE-WISE CLASSIFICATION OF CULTIVATORS Manipur is settled by different cognate groups of people, belonging to Tibet-Burma Mongoloids, having different religious ideologies, social, cultural and traditions, historical and political, economic and ethnical groups of people often without influencing each other. Different social groups of people can be easily distinguished by their socioeconomic and cultural life. They are the product of choice, made and the changes worked by men, as a member of

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particular cultural community as manifested in geographical space. They were the confrontation of different major communities like the Meiteis, Brahmins, Christains, Muslims, Schedule Caste, Bengalis, etc. With the advancement of civilization in the society, water-tight classification of castes and linking castes with profession has lost significance. In the sample, the cultivators have been grouped under different castes as under. Table 3 here The sample growers belong to different castes such as Brahmins, Meiteis, Christians, Muslims and SC. It may be noted from the above table that from out of 120 cultivators, 30 cultivators belong to Brahmins and the percentage being 25 percent. 60 cultivators belong to Meiteis and the percentage is 50 percent. 10 cultivators belong to Muslims and the percentage is 8.33 percent. Lastly 5 cultivators belong to SC and the percentage being 4.17 percent. Hence, it is found that majority of the cultivators belong to Meiteis and Brahmins. EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND OF SAMPLE CULTIVATORS Educated farmers are enlightened farmers. Education helps the farmers to adopt modern methods of cultivation which help them to derive the maximum yield. In the sample, it was observe that the farmers having different levels of education. The distribution of the sample members based on their level of education has been presented in table 4. Table 4 here From the above table it may be seen that most of the cultivators in the sample have education upto high school level. Out of 120 sample cultivators, 41.67 percent have education upto high school level. Traditionally Indian farmers are illiterates. But as per to the survey report, it is seen that almost all the cultivators are educated upto a certain level. Coupled with their practical knowledge, the farmers estimate their production and cost. As noted earlier 50 cultivators (41.67%) are having education upto high school, 40 (33.33%) are educated upto higher secondary level. Upto College is only 25 (20.83%) and an insignificant number of cultivators are post- graduates. CLASSIFICATION OF SAMPLE CULTIVATORS BASED ON THE SIZE OF THE FAMILY The size of the family will reflect on the economic status of the farmer. With the urbanization process gaining ground, the conventional joint family system has almost broken down. However, in the sample district, we observe the existence of the joint family even today. As a consequence of the break- down of the joint family system, the agricultural plantations are sub- divided and fragmented. The classification of the cultivators based on a number of family is shown under the following table 5. Table 5 here It is evident from the table that 50 Sample cultivators (41.67%) having a family size in the range of 6-8 members. Indeed, they dominate the scene. This is followed by 30 sample cultivators (25 %) having a family size of 1-4 members. About 22 sample cultivators having a family size of above 8 members. This group belongs to the joint family.

CLASSIFICATION OF SAMPLE CULTIVATORS BASED ON THE TENURIAL STATUS The agricultural cultivation in the sample cultivators is done directly either by the owner with the help of agricultural labourers or they may entrust the work to the tenants. Some of the cultivators who have a small bit of land on which they cultivate crops have also taken the land on lease basis from others. The enactment of Land Tenancy Act has enabled the tenants to become the owners of the land. Many of the landowners who had leased out the land have lost all their land because of this Act. The compensation paid by the government has left these people high and dry. The distribution of sample members based on the tenurial status is presented in the table below.

Interdisciplinary Journal of Research in Business

Vol. 1, Issue. 6, June 2011(pp.01-09)

Table 6 here In the table, the sample cultivators are grouped into two, viz., owner-cultivators and owner-cum-tenants. The ownercultivators are mostly second generation cultivators. Most of the members in this group were tenants earlier and now they have become independent cultivators because of the benefits they derived from the land Tenancy Act. Nearly 100 (83.33%) sample members are owner-cultivators and nearly 20 (16.67%) members are owner-cum-tenants. During field survey it has been observed that majority of the owner-cultivators are having small size holdings. PROBLEM OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCE MARKETING IN MANIPUR Marketing of agricultural produce in Manipur has not been systematically organized. The lions share of the consumers rupee goes to the pockets of innumerable middlemen working in between the producer and the ultimate consumer. The agriculturists of Manipur are generally the persons of small means. Their holdings are small and scattered. As such, they have got very little quantity of agricultural produce available individually as a marketable surplus to be disposed off. Obviously it becomes un economical to carry the small quantity of produce to the assembling markets located at distant places where middlemen operate at different stages. Under the prevailing practice in the state farm produces are collected from the producers in the interior villages and are brought to a central point, which is the assembling centre, by the womenfolk. Sometimes agriculturists sell their produce to the itinerate merchants. From the village markets it is procured by the itinerate merchants and agents of the wholesalers belonging to towns such as Imphal, Singjamei, Thoubal, Kakching, Bishnupur, Moirang, Churachandpur and the like. Manipur is the small state situated at the North Eastern most corner of the country and has two-distinct geographical regions-the valley and hill. Connectivity in the Hill region is very poor and in most part of the region transportation of agricultural products. These being the situation, transportation costs of agricultural commodities in the state are very high. The transport, that gives place utility to a farm product, is one of the main problems in Manipur. As motorable roads do not properly connect most of the production areas, the farmers find it difficult to bring their produce to the primary and terminal markets for sale and thus deprive themselves of remunerative prices. In some interior areas, there is no road at all and even bullock carts as a means of transport for bringing farm products to the assembling centers cannot be used. Consequently, the farmers have to sell their commodities at a lower and uneconomical price to the itinerant traders at their farm itself. Regarding market charges, it seems that the prevailing system in Manipur is different than those prevalent in the unregulated markets in other parts of the country. In Manipur, the sellers have the advantages of not paying any charges. There are about 30 assembling markets and 103 primary markets and no regulated markets in the state. Road transport is the only means of transport for farm products to distant places as there is no rail link in the state. During rainy and few months of postmonsoon season water transport by boat is also used in some places. In the monsoon season due to bad road conditions and tear of landslides, the transport charges are very high. Again the cost of transport by road is not uniform as it varies according to the condition of the roads. Inadequate transport facility causes glut in the producing area and scarcity in consuming centers at times affecting both the producer for receiving in lower price and the consumer due to irregular supply and high retail price. So far there is neither any private nor corporate body to disseminate market information for the benefit of the producers and consumers. As such the farmers who are in the villages have no chance to know the prevailing prices at district and state level markets. The daily prices are also not broadcast through the All India Radio, Imphal. There is a general shortage of storage facilities in both the urban and rural areas of the state. The prevailing systems of storage in the rural and urban areas are quite primitive and they cannot be regarded as satisfactory. There are no warehousing and cold storage facilities. Due to lack of storage facilities, the bulk of the agricultural produce is sold in the village. The itinerate traders and small merchants purchase the produce in village immediately after harvest. They either store it in the shops of the big merchants or sell the produce to the wholesalers or consumers. The big merchants purchase the produce and store it in their own godowns till better price prevail reap the benefits of escalated prices. As the farmers do not have the storage facilities and enough finance to the requirements, they are deprived of their genuine share in the price hike. MEASURES FOR IMPROVEMENT OF AGRICULTURAL MARKETING It is observed in the study that the above mentioned problems give us a clear picture of a defective agricultural marketing system in Manipur. A defective marketing makes the farmer to produce only output. The reason, even if a farmer produces more, because of low price, sale of superior and inferior varieties for the same price, underweighing, high cost of transport and many unfair deductions makes his market costs more and finally he/she

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wont get even a fair return for his produce. In order to have the best advantage in marketing of agricultural produce the following measures should be taken. 1. Co-operative Marketing: In a state like Manipur where the preponderance of small farmers exists, and where the existence of so many problems in respect of agricultural marketing, co-operative marketing would be the only and right solution in this respect Formation of co-operatives not only brings the farmers under an umbrella but it also strengthen them to make effective agricultural marketing for their produce. Co-operative marketing is of great significance in the context of Indian farmers. The objectives of co-operatives are to produce agricultural produce and to distribute agricultural inputs at a reasonable price. It can duly collect agricultural produce from the farmers, grade and standardize them, store them, transport and sell them at a point of time when the price is maximum. Regulated Markets: The next important measure is related to the establishment of regulated markets. The objective of regulated markets is to remove ill market practices, to reduce marketing charges and to ensure fair prices for the farmers. The regulated market is managed by a committee of representatives from the State Government, local bodies, traders, brokers and farmers. They issued licences, fix brokerage rates and ensure use of standard weights. In view of present state of agricultural marketing, regulated markets can be of great help in removing the defects and to save the farmers from the exploitation by the intermediaries and ensure fair prices for their produce. Public Distribution: The public distribution system has a great role to play in the field of agricultural marketing. The objective of public distribution system is to procure produce directly through its outlets at fair price and to distribute throughout the state at fixed price. With the enhancement of its activities ,the marketing of agricultural produce would be more effective and the farmers as well as final consumers would not be deprived of by the presence of too many intermediaries Financial Assistance: Financial assistance is required for meeting operating expenditures relating to agricultural farming, to maintain livelihood and for improving holding capacity of produce to make the best use of marketing opportunities. Among many financial institutions, the co-operative credit society is the best organization to meet financial requirement of the farmers because such an institution is of particular relevance for the farmers with small means. Finance must be linked with marketing arrangements. During the course of providing finance, it should be taken into account that the farmers are selling their produce through co-operative societies. This ensures not only refund of credit but also fair prices for produce. Grading and Standardization: Proper grading and standardization not only improve the quality but also reduce wastage, attract buyers and ensure better prices for agricultural produce. Grading of agricultural produce induces the farmers to grow quality products on the one hand and the buyers find no difficulty in identifying a suitable one for paying right price on the other. Categorisation of agricultural produce into different grades would make testing easy as to its purity. Grading and standardization are, therefore, not only enable the farmers to give guarantee of its quality to buyers but also ensure relatively better prices for their produce

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Storage Facilities: proper storage is an important aspect of agricultural marketing .To carries agricultural produce outside the village, it is necessary to provide adequate storage facilities to hold till better price is not offered. A proper and adequate storage not only enhance the bargaining power of the farmers but it is also ensuring better prices for agricultural produce. Transport facilities: For successful agricultural farming, an essential requirement is the availability of transport which can carry agricultural produce to markets at low cost, easily and speedily. Traditional system of transport is, in fact, has little relevance with present state of agricultural marketing. Diesel operated quick moving transport is, therefore, needed for effective agricultural marketing.

7.

8. Standard Weights: The need for using standard weights throughout the country is a must. Lack of use of standard weights would continue to keep agricultural marketing into an undesirable state of affairs. Despite the

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introduction of metric weights throughout the country since 1962, the use of old system of weights still persists. Its is hopeful that metric system of weights is accepted by all concerned. CONCLUSION Economic development of region is measured by the strength and efficiency of the linkages established in various sectors to operate the production and business cycle. These are backward and forward linkages constituting financial assistance, technology extension services, marketing, transport and communication network for mobility of output in various trade channels. An integration of these linkages forms the economic system of production in any sector in rural economy. Of these linkages marketing is one of the important factors that has direct bearing on the economy predominantly agriculture. Marketing of farm produce, therefore, constitutes the nerves centre of rural economy. The agri-business need to be developed diversifying the agricultural produce marketing system to yield value-added remunerations to the farmers and the end users of the produce. In the interest of public welfare, the government in the marketing system, directly or indirectly, the extent of intervention depends on the objectives of government and to the extent of defects and malpractices prevailing in the system. The state government has taken several steps to improve the conditions of agricultural marketing. The state government should act as a facilitator in marketing. However, the producers should neither depend totally on the government support nor on themselves in the rural marketing at the embryonic stage. A single active development agency needs to be identified to develop awareness on the diversified agricultural activity and to boost the marketing of agro-processed products tremendously. It would be helpful to avoid multi-development agencies functional conflicts. Another prerequisite to organize agri-business effectively is to conduct product specific surveys successfully for ensuring marketability and the type of venture to be set- up. REFERENCES 1. Bagchi, K.K. (2008). Agricultural Development in North-East India-Issues and Options, Delhi, Abijeet publications. 2. Government of Manipur (2009) Draft Annual Plan (2009-10) Proposals by planning Department, Government of Manipur. 3. Government of Manipur (2009). Economic Survey 2008-09, Directorate of Economics and Statistics, Imphal. 4. H.S. Anitha (2000). Agricultural Marketing-A case study of Arecanut Marketing, Jaipur, Deep and Deep Publications. 5. Lalzirliana (2004). Agricultural Marketing in Mizoram, Manipur University, Manipur. 6. Rahman, K.S.(2003).Rural Marketing in India ,Mumbai, Himalaya Publishing House. 7. Reddy K.(2001). Agricultural and Rural Development- A Ghandhian Perspective, New Delhi, Himalaya Publishing House. 8. Singh, Th. (2010). Geography of Manipur, New Delhi, Rajesh Publications. 9. Singh, H (2009). Social Geography of Manipur-A comperative study of Tribal and NonTribal people, New Delhi, Rajesh Publications. 10. Singh, N.(2007). Capital Formation in Agricultural Sector of Manipur, New Delhi, Akansha Publishing House. 11. Thakur, Padmadeo (2006).Growth and Diversification of Agriculture, Delhi, Deep and Deep Publications.

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TABLE 1 Crop wise achievements during annual plan 2007-08, Anticipated achievement for 2008-09 Crops 11th Plan Target 2007- 12 A P A P A P A P A P A P A P A P 240.00 599.00 26.00 52.00 2.20 5.50 30.00 28.50 298.20 685.00 Achievement 2007 -08 210.655 515.965 17.62 32.36 2.00 5.00 25.00 21.35 256.28 574.675 Anticipated Achievement 2008-09 210.99 518.25 20.23 35.37 2.05 5.12 26.00 22.75 259.27 581.49 34.20 26.15 5.15 268.85 13.00 108.00 311.62 231.03 134.88

Rice Maize Wheat Pulses Total foodgrains Oilseeds

36.50 33.60 30.00 25.08 Sugarcane 6.00 4.72 348.00 262.54 Potato 15.00 12.25 127.00 102.00 Gross Area 355.70 306.85 Net Area 234.50 230.04 Cropping Intensity % 151.68 133.39 A= Area in 000 Ha. P= Production in000Mt. Source: Planning Department January 2009, Government of Manipur.

TABLE 2 Consumption of chemical fertilizers in Manipur ( in 000 tones) Year 2000-01 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 -Not available Urea 38.32 38.71 45.68 47.25 34.53 25.35 28.27 28.76 19.14 DAP 4.35 4.55 5.00 5.37 4.19 2.43 6.50 6.24 3.52 MOP 2.22 1.88 2.86 2.32 1.59 1.21 2.18 2.17 2.46 SSP 1.86 1.34 3.16 0.69 2.93 1.60 3.75 3.01 2.07 M.Phos 3.42 0.03 Total 46.75 46.48 56.70 59.05 44.14 30.59 40.70 40.21 27.19

Source: Department of Agriculture, Govt. of Manipur, June 2009. DAP - Di-ammonium Phosphate. MOP- Muriate of Potash. SSP- Single Super Phosphate. M. Phos. - Mushori Phosphate.

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TABLE 3 Caste-wise distribution of the sample cultivators Caste Brahmins Meiteis Christians Muslims SC Total Source: Survey Data. No. of Cultivators 30 60 15 10 5 120 TABLE 4 Education Background of sample Cultivators Educational Level Upto High School Upto Higher Secondary Level Upto College Level Upto University Total Source: Survey Data. No. of Cultivators 50 40 25 5 120 TABLE 5 Distribution of Number of Members in Families Number Range 1-4 4-6 6-8 8 and above Total Source: Survey Data. No. of cultivators 30 18 50 22 120 TABLE 6 Tenurial Status of Sample Cultivators Status Owner cultivators Owner-cum-Tenants Total Source: Survey Data. No. of Sample Cultivators 100 20 120 P.C. 83.33 16.67 100 P.C. 25 15 41.67 18.33 100 P.C 41.67 33.33 20.83 4.17 100 P.C. 25 50 12.5 8.33 4.17 100