PJK Projek

Name: Jeannie Hor Wee Fern Class: 2W Topic: The Fundamentals Of Nutriens Teacher: Mr. Low

Acknowledgement
I would like to thank my mother, Justine Leong Soh Eam and my father, Hor Han Keng for the moral support until I was able to complete this assignment. Not forgetting my spots teacher, Mr Low who gave me enough valuable guidance. I would also like to thank Madam Chia for giving me the opportunity to do this project. Last but not least, I would like to thank Charmaine Yeo Shern-Li and Leow Tjun Wei who gave me enough information to complete this project.

Content
Contents Acknowledgement Content Introduction Water Carbohydrates Protein Fats Electrolysis -Sodium -Potassium -Chloride 7.Vitamins *A,E,D,K (Fat soluble) *B,B complex (Water soluble) 8.Minerals -Calcium, phosphorous, magnesium, iron,zinc,iodine,copper 9.Reference 5 6-7 8 9-12 2 3 4 Pages 1

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Introduction
A nutrient is a chemical that an organism needs to live and grow or a substance used in an organism's metabolism which must be taken in from its environment. Nutrients are the substances that enrich the body. They are used to build and repair tissues, regulate body processes and converted to and used as energy.

Methods for nutrient intake vary, with animals and protists consuming foods that are digested by an internal digestive system, but most plantsingest nutrients directly from the soil through their roots or from the atmosphere. Organic nutrients include carbohydrates, fats, proteins (or their building blocks, amino acids), andvitamins. Inorganic chemical compounds such as dietary minerals, water, and oxygen may also be considered nutrients. A nutrient is said to be "essential" if it must be obtained from an external source, ether because the organism cannot synthesized it or produces insufficient quantities. Nutrients needed in very small amounts are micronutrients and those that are needed in larger quantities are called macronutrients. The effects of nutrients are dosedependent and shortages are called deficiencies. See healthy diet for more information on the role of nutrients in human nutrition.

Water
Water is a chemical substance with the chemical formula H2O. Its molecule contains one oxygen and two hydrogen atoms

connected by covalent bonds. Water is a liquid at ambient conditions, but it often co-exists on Earth with its solid state,ice, and gaseous state, water vapor or steam. Water covers 70.9% of the Earth's surface, and is vital for all known forms of life. On Earth, it is found mostly in oceans and other large water bodies, with 1.6% of water below ground in aquifers and 0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of solid and liquid water particles suspended in air), and precipitation. Oceans hold 97% of surface water, glaciers and polar ice caps 2.4%, and other land surface water such as rivers, lakes and ponds 0.6%. A very small amount of the Earth's water is contained within biological bodies and manufactured products. Water on Earth moves continually through a cycle of evaporation or transpiration(evapotranspiration), preci pitation, and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Over land, evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation over land. Clean drinking water is essential to humans and other lifeforms. Access to safe drinking water has improved steadily and substantially over the last decades in almost every part of the world. There is a clear correlation between access to safe water and GDP per capita. However, some observers have estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based vulnerability. A recent report (November 2009) suggests that by 2030, in some developing regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%.Water plays an important role in the world economy, as it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances and facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of freshwater is consumed by agriculture.

Carbohydrates
A carbohydrate is an organic compound which has the empirical formula Cm(H2O)n; that is, consists only of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1 (as in water). Carbohydrates can be viewed ashydrates of carbon, hence their name. Structurally however, it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. The term is most common in biochemistry, where it is a synonym of saccharide. The carbohydrates (saccharides) are divided into four chemical groupings:monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. In general, the monosaccharides and disaccharides, which are smaller (lowermolecular weight) carbohydrates, are commonly referred to as sugars. The wordsaccharide comes from the Greek word (skkharon), meaning "sugar". While the scientific nomenclature of carbohydrates is complex, the names of the monosaccharides and disaccharides very often end in the suffix -ose. For example, blood sugar is the monosaccharide glucose, table sugar is the disaccharide sucrose, and milk sugar is the disaccharide lactose (see illustration). Carbohydrates perform numerous roles in living things. Polysaccharides serve for the storage of energy (e.g., starch and glycogen) and as structural components (e.g., cellulose in plants and chitin in arthropods). The 5-carbon monosaccharide ribose is an important component ofcoenzymes (e.g., ATP, FAD, and NAD) and the backbone of the genetic molecule known as RNA. The related deoxyribose is a component of DNA. Saccharides and their derivatives include many other important biomolecules that play key roles in the immune system, fertilization, preventing pathogenesis, blood clotting, and development.

In food science and in many informal contexts, the term carbohydrate often means any food that is particularly rich in the complex carbohydrate starch (such as cereals, bread and pasta) or simple carbohydrates, such as sugar (found in candy, jams and desserts).

Protiens
This article is about a class of molecules. For protein as a nutrient, see Protein (nutrient). For other uses, see Protein (disambiguation).
Proteins (also known as polypeptides) are organic compounds made of amino acids arranged in a linear chain and folded into a globular form. The amino acids in a polymer are joined together by the peptide bonds between the carboxyl and amino groups of adjacent amino acidresidues. The sequence of amino acids in a protein is defined by the sequence of a gene, which is encoded in the genetic code. In general, the genetic code specifies 20 standard amino acids; however, in certain organisms the genetic code can include selenocysteineand in certain archaeapyrrolysine. Shortly after or even during synthesis, the residues in a protein are often chemically modified by post-translational modification, which alters the physical and chemical properties, folding, stability, activity, and ultimately, the function of the proteins. Proteins can also work together to achieve a particular function, and they often associate to form stable complexes. One of the most distinguishing features of polypeptides is their ability to fold into a globular state, or "structure". The extent to which proteins fold into a defined structure varies widely. Data supports that some protein structures fold into a highly rigid structure with small fluctuations and are therefore considered to be single structure. Other proteins have been shown to undergo large rearrangements from one conformation to another. This conformational change is often associated with a signaling event. Thus, the structure of a protein serves as a medium through

which to regulate either the function of a protein or activity of an enzyme. Not all proteins requiring a folding process in order to function as some function in an unfolded state. Like other biological macromolecules such as polysaccharides and nucleic acids, proteins are essential parts of organisms and participate in virtually every process within cells. Many proteins are enzymes that catalyze biochemical reactions and are vital to metabolism. Proteins also have structural or mechanical functions, such as actin and myosin in muscle and the proteins in the cytoskeleton, which form a system of scaffolding that maintains cell shape. Other proteins are important in cell signaling, immune responses, cell adhesion, and the cell cycle. Proteins are also necessary in animals' diets, since animals cannot synthesize all the amino acids they need and must obtain essential amino acids from food. Through the process of digestion, animals break down ingested protein into free amino acids that are then used in metabolism. Proteins were first described by the Dutch chemist Gerhardus Johannes Mulder and named by the Swedish chemist Jns Jakob Berzelius in 1838. Early nutritional scientists such as the German Carl von Voit believed that protein was the most important nutrient for maintaining the structure of the body, because it was generally believed that "flesh makes flesh." The central role of proteins as enzymes in living organisms was however not fully appreciated until 1926, when James B. Sumner showed that the enzyme urease was in fact a protein. The first protein to be sequenced was insulin, by Frederick Sanger, who won the Nobel Prize for this achievement in 1958. The first protein structures to be solved were hemoglobin and myoglobin, by Max Perutz and Sir John Cowdery Kendrew, respectively, in 1958. The three-dimensional structures of both proteins were first determined by x-ray diffraction analysis; Perutz and Kendrew shared the 1962 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for these discoveries. Proteins may be purified from other cellular components using a variety of techniques such asultracentrifugation, precipitation, electrophoresis,

and chromatography; the advent of genetic engineering has made possible a number of methods to facilitate purification. Methods commonly used to study protein structure and function include immunohistochemistry, site-directed mutagenesis, nuclear magnetic resonance and mass spectrometry.

Fats
Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water. Chemically, fats are generally triesters of glycerol and fatty acids. Fats may be either solid or liquidat room temperature, depending on their structure and composition. Although the words "oils", "fats", and "lipids" are all used to refer to fats, "oils" is usually used to refer to fats that are liquids at normal room temperature, while "fats" is usually used to refer to fats that are solids at normal room temperature. "Lipids" is used to refer to both liquid and solid fats, along with other related substances. The word "oil" is also used for any substance that does not mix with water and has a greasy feel, such as petroleum (or crude oil), heating oil, and essential oils, regardless of its chemical structure. Fats form a category of lipid, distinguished from other lipids by their chemical structure and physical properties. This category of molecules is important for many forms of life, serving both structural and metabolic functions. They are an important part of the diet of most heterotrophs (including humans). Fats or lipids

are broken down in the body by enzymes called lipases produced in the pancreas. Examples of edible animal fats are lard, fish oil, and butter or ghee. They are obtained from fats in the milk and meat, as well as from under the skin, of an animal. Examples of edible plant fats include peanut, soya bean, sunflower, sesame, coconut, olive, and vegetable oils. Margarine and vegetable shortening, which can be derived from the above oils, are used mainly for baking. These examples of fats can be categorized intosaturated fats and unsaturated fats.

Electrolysis
Electrolytes are molecules that release ions in water. The electrolytes of greatest importance to cellular functions release sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca++), magnesium (Mg++), chloride (Cl-), sulfate (SO4--), phosphate (PO4---), bicarbonate (HCO3), and hydrogen (H+) ions. This electrolyte balance is maintained within our body as long as our total electrolyte intake equals the total electrolyte lost. Electrolytes are primarily obtained from food, but can also be found in drinking water and other beverages and as the by-product of the bodys metabolism. The body loses electrolytes through sweat, urine and feces - the greatest output is the result of kidney function in producing urine.

Sodium
Sodium, the main component of most table salts, is needed for conduction of nerve impulses, proper stomach function, heart contractions, beating of the heart, maintaining proper water balance and blood pH, controlling fluid volume in the circulatory system. However, as little as one gram of sodium is all that is needed and that amounts to about teaspoon. Many of us consume many more times than needed because sodium is so prevalent that it is found in nearly all food items. The excessive intake of sodium can cause edema, high blood pressure, liver and kidney disease, potassium deficiency and heart disease when not balanced with K+. Sodium deficiency is very rare because of the great accessibility of the element, but it can cause confusion, low blood sugar, dehydration, heart palpitations, fatigue and weakness.

Potassium
Potassium benefits the nervous system and is required by the heart for maintaining regular heart rhythm. It can help prevent stroke, maintains blood pressure homeostasis, helps transmit electrochemical impulses, aids in proper muscle contraction, and helps keep water balance within the body. (K+ can be found mainly in fish, fruit, apricot, avocados, bananas, dates, figs, dried fruit, brown rice, dates, garlic, nuts, potatoes, raisin, legumes, wheat bran, yams, vegetables and whole grains.)

Chloride
Chlorine in the body exists in the form of chloride, an essential electrolyte mineral. It is best known as the other half of sodiumchloride or table salt. It makes up about 0.15% of body weight (around 115 g for an average adult) and is found mainly in the fluid surrounding cells, alongside sodium. A small percentage of about 15% of chloride in the body is located

inside cells, with the highest amounts in red blood cells. Chloride is also present in very small amounts in bones. Most of our chloride intake is from table salt. It is easily absorbed by the intestines. It is eliminated through the kidneys in a finely tuned mechanism that regulates acid-base balance by either removing or retaining chloride.

Vitamins
Vitamins are essential nutrients your body needs in small amounts for various roles in the human body. Vitamins are divided into two groups: water-soluble (B-complex and C) and fat-soluble (A, D, E and K). Unlike water-soluble vitamins that need regular replacement in the body, fat-soluble vitamins are stored in the liver and fatty tissues, and are eliminated much more slowly than water-soluble vitamins.

A, E, D, K (Fat Soluble) Fat-soluble vitamins are stored for long periods, they generally pose a greater risk for toxicity than water-soluble vitamins when consumed in excess. Eating a normal, well-balanced diet will not lead to toxicity in otherwise healthy individuals. However, taking vitamin supplements that contain mega doses of vitamins A, D, E and K may lead to toxicity.

Vitamin A Vitamin A, also called retinol, has many functions in the body. In addition to helping the eyes adjust to light changes, vitamin A plays an important role in bone growth, tooth development, reproduction, cell division and gene expression. Also, the skin, eyes and mucous membranes of the mouth, nose, throat and lungs depend on vitamin A to remain moist. The best way to ensure your body gets enough vitamin A is to eat a variety of foods. Vitamin A is supplied primarily by certain foods of animal origin like dairy products, fish and liver. Some foods of plant origin contain beta-carotene, an antioxidant that the body converts to vitamin A. Beta-carotene, or provitamin A, comes from fruits and vegetables. Carrots, pumpkin, winter squash, dark green leafy vegetables and apricots are rich sources of betacarotene. Vitamin E Vitamin E acts as an antioxidant, protecting vitamins A and C, red blood cells and essential fatty acids from destruction. Research from a decade ago suggested that taking antioxidant supplements, vitamin E in particular, might help prevent heart disease and cancer. However, newer findings indicate that people who take antioxidant supplements are not better protected against heart disease and cancer than non-supplement users. On the other hand, there are many studies that show a link between regularly eating antioxidant-rich fruits and vegetables and a lower risk for heart disease, cancer and several other diseases.

Vitamin D Vitamin D plays a critical role in the bodys use of calcium and phosphorous. It increases the amount of calcium absorbed from the small intestine and helps form and maintain bones. Children especially need adequate amounts of vitamin D to develop strong bones and healthy teeth. The primary food sources of vitamin D are milk and other dairy products fortified with vitamin D. Vitamin D is also found in oily fish (e.g., herring, salmon and sardines) as well as in cod liver oil. In addition to the vitamin D provided by food, we obtain vitamin D through our skin which makes vitamin D in response to sunlight. Vitamin K Naturally produced by the bacteria in the intestines, vitamin K plays an essential role in normal blood clotting and helps promote bone health. Good food sources of vitamin K are green vegetables such as turnip greens, spinach, cauliflower, cabbage and broccoli, and certain vegetables oils including soybean oil, cottonseed oil, canola oil and olive oil. Animal foods, in general, contain limited amounts of vitamin K.

B, B Complex (Water Soluble) Water-soluble vitamins dissolve in water and are not stored; they are eliminated in urine. We need a continuous supply of them in our diets. The water-soluble vitamins are the B-complex group and vitamin B. Water-soluble vitamins are easily destroyed or washed out during food storage or preparation. Proper storage and preparation of food can minimize vitamin loss. To reduce vitamin loss, refrigerate fresh produce, keep milk and grains away from strong light, and use the cooking water from vegetables to prepare soups. Vitamin B-Complex Eight of the water-soluble vitamins are known as the B-complex group: thiamin (vitamin B1), riboflavin (vitamin B2), niacin, vitamin B6, folate, vitamin B12, biotin and pantothenic acid. These vitamins are widely distributed in foods. Their influence is felt in many parts of the body. They function as coenzymes that help the body obtain energy from food. They also are important for normal appetite, good vision, healthy skin, healthy nervous system and red blood cell formation. Thiamin (Vitamin B 1 ) Thiamin functions as the coenzyme thiamin pyrophosphate (TPP) in the metabolism of carbohydrate and in conduction of nerve impulses. Thiamin deficiency causes beri-beri, which is frequently seen in parts of the world where polished (white) rice or unenriched white flour are predominantly eaten. There are three basic expressions of beriberi: childhood, wet, and dry. Childhood beriberi stunts growth in infants and children. Wet beriberi is the classic form, with swelling due to fluid retention ( edema ) in the lower limbs that spreads to the upper body, affecting the heart and

leading to heart failure. Dry beriberi affects peripheral nerves, initially causing tingling or burning sensations in the lower limbs and progressing to nerve degeneration, muscle wasting , and weight loss. Thiamine-deficiency disease in North America commonly occurs in people with heavy alcohol consumption and is called Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. It is caused by poor food intake and by decreased absorption and increased excretion caused by alcohol consumption. Riboflavin (Vitamin B 2 ) Riboflavin is stable when heated in ordinary cooking, unless the food is exposed to ultraviolet radiation (sunlight). To prevent riboflavin breakdown, riboflavin-rich foods such as milk, milk products, and cereals are packaged in opaque containers. Riboflavin is a component of two coenzymesflavin mononucleotide (FMN) and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) that act as hydrogen carriers when carbohydrates and fats are used to produce energy. It is helpful in maintaining good vision and healthy hair, skin and nails, and it is necessary for normal cell growth. Riboflavin deficiency causes a condition known as ariboflavinosis, which is marked by cheilosis (cracks at the corners of the mouth), oily scaling of the skin, and a red, sore tongue. In addition, cataracts may occur more frequently with riboflavin deficiency. A deficiency of this nutrient is usually a part of multinutrient deficiency and does not occur in isolation. In North America, it is mostly observed in alcoholics, elderly persons with low income or depression , and people with poor eating habits, particularly those who consume highly refined and fast foods and those who do not consume milk and milk products.

Niacin (Vitamin B 3 )

Niacin exists in two forms, nicotinic acid and nicotinamide. Both forms are readily absorbed from the stomach and the small intestine. Niacin is stored in small amounts in the liver and transported to tissues, where it is converted to coenzyme forms. Any excess is excreted in urine. Niacin is one of the most stable of the B vitamins. It is resistant to heat and light, and to both acid and alkali environments. The human body is capable of converting the amino acid tryptophan to niacin when needed. However, when both tryptophan and niacin are deficient, tryptophan is used for protein synthesis. Pantothenic Acid (Vitamin B 5 ) Pantothenic acid is stable in moist heat. It is destroyed by vinegar (acid), baking soda (alkali), and dry heat. Significant losses occur during the processing and refining of foods. Pantothenic acid is released from coenzyme A in food in the small intestine. After absorption, it is transported to tissues, where coenzyme A is resynthesized. Coenzyme A is essential for the formation of energy as adenosine triphosphate (ATP) from carbohydrate, protein, alcohol, and fat . Coenzyme A is also important in the synthesis of fatty acids , cholesterol, steroids , and the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, which is essential for transmission of nerve impulses to muscles. Dietary deficiency occurs in conjunction with other B-vitamin deficiencies. In studies, experimentally induced deficiency in humans has resulted in headache, fatigue , impaired muscle coordination, abdominal cramps, and vomiting.

Biotin (Vitamin B 8 )

Biotin is the most stable of B vitamins. It is commonly found in two forms: the free vitamin and the protein-bound coenzyme form called biocytin. Biotin is absorbed in the small intestine, and it requires digestion by enzyme biotinidase, which is present in the small intestine. Biotin is synthesized by bacteria in the large intestine, but its absorption is questionable. Biotincontaining coenzymes participate in key reactions that produce energy from carbohydrate and synthesize fatty acids and protein. Avidin is a protein in raw egg white, which can bind to the biotin in the stomach and decrease its absorption. Therefore, consumption of raw whites is of concern due to the risk of becoming biotin deficient. Cooking the egg white, however, destroys avidin. Deficiency may develop in infants born with a genetic defect that results in reduced levels of biotinidase. In the past, biotin deficiency was observed in infants fed biotin-deficient formula, so it is now added to infant formulas and other baby foods.

Vitamin B 6 Vitamin B 6 is present in three forms: pyridoxal, pyridoxine, and pyridoxamine. All forms can be converted to the active vitamin-B 6 coenzyme in the body. Pyridoxal phosphate (PLP) is the predominant biologically active form. Vitamin B 6 is not stable in heat or in alkaline conditions, so cooking and food processing reduce its content in food. Both coenzyme and free forms are absorbed in the small intestine and transported to the liver, where they are phosphorylated and released into circulation, bound to albumin for transport to tissues. Vitamin B 6 is stored in the muscle and only excreted in urine when intake is excessive. PLP participates in amino acid synthesis and the interconversion of some amino acids. It catalyzes a step in the synthesis of hemoglobin , which is needed to transport oxygen in blood. PLP

helps maintain blood glucose levels by facilitating the release of glucose from liver and muscle glycogen . It also plays a role in the synthesis of many neurotransmitters important for brain function. This has led some physicians to prescribe megadoses of B 6 to patients with psychological problems such as depression and mood swings, and to some women for premenstrual syndrome (PMS). It is unclear, however, whether this therapy is effective. PLP participates in the conversion of the amino acid tryptophan to niacin and helps avoid niacin deficiency. Pyridoxine affects immune function, as it is essential for the formation of a type of white blood cell. Populations at risk of vitamin-B 6 deficiency include alcoholics and elderly persons who consume an inadequate diet. Individuals taking medication to treat Parkinson's disease or tuberculosis may take extra vitamin B 6 with physician supervision. Carpal tunnel syndrome, a nerve disorder of the wrist, has also been treated with large daily doses of B 6 . However, data on its effectiveness are conflicting. Folic Acid, Folate, Folacin (Vitamin B 9 ) Folacin or folate, as it is usually called, is the form of vitamin B 9 naturally present in foods, whereas folic acid is the synthetic form added to fortified foods and supplements. Both forms are absorbed in the small intestine and stored in the liver. The folic acid form, however, is more efficiently absorbed and available to the body. When consumed in excess of needs, both forms are excreted in urine and easily destroyed by heat, oxidation, and light. All forms of this vitamin are readily converted to the coenzyme form called tetrahydrofolate (THFA), which plays a key role in transferring single-carbon methyl units during the synthesis of DNA and RNA , and in interconversions of amino acids. Folate also

plays an important role in the synthesis of neurotransmitters. Meeting folate needs can improve mood and mental functions. Folate deficiency is one of the most common vitamin deficiencies. Early symptoms are nonspecific and include tiredness, irritability, and loss of appetite. Severe folate deficiency leads to macrocytic anemia , a condition in which cells in the bone marrow cannot divide normally and red blood cells remain in a large immature form called macrocytes. Large immature cells also appear along the length of the gastrointestinal tract, resulting in abdominal pain and diarrhea. Pregnancy is a time of rapid cell multiplication and DNA synthesis, which increases the need for folate. Folate deficiency may lead to neural tube defects such as spina bifida (failure of the spine to close properly during the first month of pregnancy) and anencephaly (closure of the neural tube during fetal development , resulting in part of the cranium not being formed). Seventy percent of these defects could be avoided by adequate folate status before conception, and it is recommended that all women of childbearing age consume at least 400 micrograms (g) of folic acid each day from fortified foods and supplements. Other groups at risk of deficiency include elderly persons and persons suffering from alcohol abuse or taking certain prescription drugs .

Vitamin B 12 Vitamin B 12 is found in its free-vitamin form, called cyanocobalamin, and in two active coenzyme forms. Absorption of vitamin B 12 requires the presence of intrinsic factor, a protein synthesized by acid-producing cells of the stomach. The vitamin is absorbed in the terminal portion of the small intestine called the ileum. Most of body's supply of vitamin B 12 is stored in the liver. Vitamin B 12 is efficiently conserved in the body, since most of it is secreted into bile and reabsorbed. This explains the slow

development (about two years) of deficiency in people with reduced intake or absorption. Vitamin B 12 is stable when heated and slowly loses its activity when exposed to light, oxygen, and acid or alkaline environments. Vitamin B 12 coenzymes help recycle folate coenzymes involved in the synthesis of DNA and RNA, and in the normal formation of red blood cells. Vitamin B 12 prevents degeneration of the myelin sheaths that cover nerves and help maintain normal electrical conductivity through the nerves. Vitamin-B 12 deficiency results in pernicious anemia, which is caused by a genetic problem in the production of intrinsic factor. When this occurs, folate function is impaired, leading to macrocytic anemia due to interference in normal DNA synthesis. Unlike folate deficiency, the anemia caused by vitamin-B 12 deficiency is accompanied by symptoms of nerve degeneration, which if left untreated can result in paralysis and death.

Minerals
The term micro-nutrients are often applied to the minerals as they are only needed in small amounts in the human body. At least eighteen minerals are of importance in general human nutrition. Plants and animals do not synthesize minerals - thus the term inorganic elements is applied to the minerals. Most minerals have functional roles as important co-enzymes in the body similar to the role played by the vitamins. The absorption of minerals from food results in their becoming a component of the structure of the body they thus form parts of the cellular structure, they have functions in enzymes, they play roles in hormone interactions, they play a role in the muscles, they form a part of blood and are major components of the skeletal system of the body. All essential minerals in the body can be divided into two groups - those called the macro minerals or the bulk minerals, and those known as the micro minerals or the trace minerals. The main difference between the two being that the macro minerals are needed in higher amounts than are the micro minerals or trace minerals. The minerals calcium - in teeth and bones, magnesium - in enzyme reactions, and phosphorus - in

teeth, bones - form the macro mineral group. While metals like zinc - co-factor in enzymes, iron - in hemoglobin and enzymes, copper in enzymes, manganese - in enzymes, chromium - in insulin function, selenium - co-factor, iodine - in a process involving thyroxin hormone, potassium - tissues and enzymes, and boron - in bones form the micro mineral group. Different parts of the human body and various tissues serve as storage areas for different minerals. Some of the minerals are stored or used in muscular and skeletal tissues; some are used together with the vitamins as components of the bodys numerous enzyme systems. To maintain the optimal and proper composition of bones, blood and other tissues, the human body utilizes minerals and vitamins in various functions - for example they act as regulators and structural as vital components in the human body. Normal cellular function is dependent on the presence of specific minerals and vitamins. Human mental and physical well being is also dependent on the presence of optimal amounts of certain minerals in the body at set levels. Some very important biological reactions in the human body are started by minerals. The process of metabolization of vitamins in the body cannot take place without the aid of certain minerals. A state of deficiency in an essential mineral or a trace element insufficiency is much more likely to affect a person than is a state of vitamin deficiency. Individuals on a low calorie diet, patients on certain types of medications like diuretics, the elderly and women in a term of pregnancy are at an increased risk of suffering from such mineral insufficiencies. A mineral deficiency is also likely to affect vegetarians and people living on crops in areas where the soil is deficient in certain minerals. The content of essential vitamins in most foods is roughly similar in amounts everywhere in the world; the same cannot be said for mineral and trace element content of foods eaten in different parts of the world. Minerals and trace elements may be scare in some regions and abundant in others due to differing geologic conditions. As an example, soils in parts of China and New Zealand are very poor in

selenium while the soil of South Dakota is very rich in this element. Consequently, a person may live in some areas, consuming what seems to be an ideal balanced diet and still develop some form of mineral deficiencies or trace element deficiency - such a situation may only be rectified by a change in diet or via supplementation of the missing trace element. The theory that there is a greater risk for certain types of cancer and heart disease in individuals who suffer from sub-optimal levels of certain minerals in the body or a deficiency in some trace element like selenium is being increasingly supported by evidence garnered from various clinical studies done on human subjects. Factors different from soil mineral depletion can lead to sub-optimal intake of certain minerals and trace elements. Among these diverse factors, examples include the over processing of food stuffs, the effects of acid rain on soil and the excessive refining of food products.

Calcium
The human body utilizes the mineral calcium as one of the main structural building compound to form various hard organic systems. Calcium imparts hardness and strength to the skeletal system and the teeth and almost ninety nine percent of the human body's total three pounds of calcium is in the skeleton and the dentition - calcium also functions in synapse communication in the neurons of the brain. The bones and the teeth can be said to be reservoirs of the mineral calcium, and the mineral in the bones and teeth is not permanently entrenched - it can be transported to other areas or lost in the urine during a disorder or with increasing age. Calcium is almost constantly being exchanged between the bones and the body fluids or even the soft tissues where the remaining calcium is stored and utilized in various biochemical processes. As a relatively constant blood level of calcium is maintained and regulated by homeostatic processes in the body, there is a distinct danger in the event of insufficient dietary intake of calcium, the amount lost through excretion and loss from the bones may not be replenished - this will inevitably give rise to a deficiency in the mineral. The importance of the remaining one percent of calcium outside the skeletal system cannot be ignored. Calcium is very important to maintain the strength and integrity of all the intracellular membranes and its presence is vital to many important enzyme reactions such as those involved in clotting of blood and many other physiological reactions. Calcium takes part in all neuron to neuron communication through the synapses in the nervous system, it also actively regulates the level of the excitability of the peripheral nerves and muscles so that low calcium levels will inevitably increase the irritability felt in the nerves. Calcium is also vital for normal muscular contraction and relaxation, and is important in regulating the rhythm of the heart and other muscular systems.

Due to its great importance both in forming organic structures and its role in physiological reactions calcium is naturally of vital importance for the growth and development of an individual. The importance of calcium is underlined by the fact that during the final trimester of pregnancy, about 200 and 300 mg of calcium is deposited daily in the skeleton of a developing human fetus - all of this calcium is sourced from the mother. As a child is nursed, calcium is again sourced from the mother via the breast milk which has a calcium content from about 250 to 500 mg of calcium - the growing child receives about this much calcium from his or her mother though breast feeding. Pregnant or lactating women will suffer from a loss of calcium if the amount of calcium lost in the milk or in supplying the fetus is not equaled by the amount supplied through the diet - most of the calcium going to the milk of to the developing child will then be coming out of her bones, the health of both the mother and child will be affected and skeletal system of both mother and child will be weakened. Therefore, it is vitally essential that pregnant or lactating women consume sufficient calcium in the daily diet. Low levels of calcium in the body can come about only in cases of severe deficiencies, as the human body tends to maintain a fairly constant blood level of the mineral calcium. Convulsions and muscle spasms might start to affect the person if the deficiency is really bad. The term calcium "balance" is used by researchers to measure any person's calcium status. Calcium intake in its totality is computed against the total amount of calcium excreted or lost through the urine, the feces and perspiration. The calcium balance in the body of a person will be zero if the total amount of the mineral excreted is equal or even to the amount ingested via dietary sources. The calcium balance will be negative if more calcium is excreted in the urine than is consumed in the diet and so on. The calcium balance is positive if more calcium is consumed in total than is excreted in total.

Phosphorous
Human bones are rigid and strong due to the presence of phosphorus and calcium; these two minerals form much of the strong structural framework or skeletal system in the human body. Approximately eighty five per cent of the human bodys phosphorous is held in the skeletal tissues. The remaining phosphorous is found in various bodily fluids and in almost every cell of the body taking part in metabolism and important enzymatic reactions of all types. Phosphorous is required by almost every single metabolic process in the human body, it plays the main role in all biochemical energy production as part of ATP, and this includes the production of energy in the muscles. The mineral is also involved in the biochemical reactions governing the metabolism of carbohydrates, fatty acids as well as in protein metabolism, it forms an essential component of the blood chemistry, it is involved in nervous tissue metabolism, in the transport of fatty acids in the body as well as taking part in numerous enzyme system reactions. A dangerous demineralization of the bones is induced by a deficiency of phosphorus; a deficiency during development also causes the formation of defective bones in children and teenagers. There is a direct correlation between vitamin D and phosphorous, as the vitamin regulates the absorption of phosphorus from the food, this mineral is also involved in the intake of calcium; therefore a vitamin D deficiency can cause a deficiency of phosphorus as well. Several disease states also cause a deficiency of phosphorus, these include pathologies such as alcoholism, problems related to malabsorption, problems related to diabetic ketoacidosis as well

as sepsis and renal defects. Disorders like hyperthyroidism, osteoporosis due to disuse and hyperparathyroidism can also cause a phosphorous deficiency. A depletion of the mineral phosphorous can also be induced by long term intravenous glucose therapy and the constant use of antacids. All cells in the body require phosphorus and this element is an essential mineral for the normal functioning of the human body. Almost all the phosphorus in the human body is found as one of the chemical forms of phosphorous called phosphate - PO4-ions. The human skeletal system contains approximately 85% of the body's total phosphorus with the rest involved in different biochemical functions in the human body. The skeletal system contains phosphorus in the form of a calcium phosphate salt called hydroxyapatite - this form of the mineral is the major structural component of all bones. A type of combination lipid and phosphorous molecule called phospholipids - such as phosphatidylcholine - is one of the major structural components of all cell membranes in the living world. In the human body, almost all the energy production reactions and energy storage pathways are dependent on the phosphorylation of compounds - the main compounds involved are adenosine triphosphate - or ATP, and the compound called creatine phosphate in muscles. Phosphorous also takes part in the formation and structure of the nucleic acids -DNA and RNA), these nucleic acids are responsible for the storage and transmission of genetic information and make up the genes and chromosomes in the human body, nucleic acids can be described as long chains of phosphate containing molecules. The activation of a large number of molecules such as enzymes, hormones and many of the molecules involved in cell signaling depend on phosphorylation reactions. The maintenance of a normal acidbase balance (pH) in the body is also largely dependent on phosphorus and this mineral has a role as one of the body's most vital physiological buffers. Oxygen delivery to cells and tissues is also regulated by the actions of the phosphorus containing

molecule 2, 3-diphosphoglycerate-2, 3-DPG, which binds to hemoglobin in red blood cells during oxygen transport processes in the blood.

Magnesium
Magnesium is the fourth most abundant mineral in the human body and is essential to good health. In our bones we have around 50% of total body magnesium but in our blood we have only 1% of magnesium. It's a small part but very important for people's health. Magnesium is needed for more than 300 biochemical reactions in the body. Magnesium helps people in many ways - regulate blood sugar level, keeps the heart rhythm and immune system and keeps bones strong. There is one really interesting role of magnesium - to manage disorders such as hypertension, disease, and diabetes. Sometimes we called the magnesium "macromineral," which means that our food must provide us with hundreds of milligrams of magnesium every day. Inside us we have magnesium not only in our bones but in the muscles (25%), and in other cell types and body fluids. But we can't make magnesium in our body, we

provide it through food and water. Magnesium is sometimes regarded as a "smoothie" mineral, since it has the ability to relax our muscles. Our nerves also depend up on magnesium to avoid becoming overexcited. Functions of magnesium are really important for us. There are functions like: bone function, nerve and muscle relaxation and others. About two thirds of all magnesium in our body is found in our bones. Researchers have discovered that bone magnesium has two very different roles to play in our health - to give the physical structure of the bone and to stay on the surface of the bone. This surface magnesium doesn't appear to be involved in the bone's structure, but instead acts as a storage site for magnesium which the body can draw upon in times of poor dietary supply. Magnesium regulates the body's nerve and muscle tone. In many nerve cells, magnesium serves as a chemical gate blocker - as long as there is enough magnesium around, calcium can't rush into the nerve cell and activate the nerve. The nerve is kept relaxed. If our diet provides us with too little magnesium, this gate blocking can fail and the nerve cell can become over activated. So, the nerve cells message to the muscles to activate them and muscles become over activated, too. This thing explain how magnesium deficiency can trigger muscle tension, muscle spasms, muscle cramps, and muscle fatigue. Many chemical reactions in the body are provoked by enzymes. They are special proteins that help trigger chemical reactions. Over 300 different enzymes in the body require magnesium in order to function. That is the other important magnesium function - to involve in the metabolism of proteins, carbohydrates, and fats. It helps genes function properly.

The metabolic role of magnesium is so diverse that it is difficult to find a body system that is not affected by magnesium deficiency. Our cardiovascular system, nervous system, muscles, kidneys, hormone-secreting glands, liver and brain all rely on magnesium for their metabolic function.

Iron
Iron is a mineral essential for life. It is present in every living cell and is necessary for the production of hemoglobin (primary component of red blood cells), myoglobin (major protein of muscle cells), and certain enzymes. Iron, along with calcium, are the two major deficiencies of American women (one of the reasons due to menstruation and bleeding), and this deficiency can cause weakness, inability to concentrate, the susceptibility to infection, impaired performance, and in general, ill health. Other people at risk of iron deficiency include dieters, vegetarians and athletes. Calcium and copper must be present for iron to function

properly, and ascorbic acid (vitamin c) enhances absorption. Iron is necessary for proper metabolization of B vitamins. Iron helps the blood and muscles deliver oxygen, thus energy, to every body cell, and it removes carbon dioxide from them. Iron is important to many immune system functions, and the body self monitors and regulates the absorption and use of iron for varying needs. Benefits include a strong immune system, provision of energy, and mental sharpness.

Zinc
Zinc is an essential trace element for humans, animals and plants. It is vital for many biological functions and plays a crucial role in more than 300 enzymes in the human body. The adult body contains about 2-3 grams of zinc. Zinc is found in all parts of the body: it is in organs, tissues, bones, fluids and cells. Muscles and bones contain most of the bodys zinc (90%). Particularly high concentrations of zinc are in the prostate gland and semen. Zinc is especially important during pregnancy, for the growing fetus whose cells are rapidly dividing. Zinc also helps to avoid congenital abnormalities and pre-term delivery. Zinc is vital in activating growth - height, weight and bone development - in infants, children and teenagers. Zinc plays a vital role in fertility. In males, zinc protects the prostate gland from infection (prostates) and ultimately from enlargement (prostatic hypertrophy). Zinc helps maintain sperm count and mobility and normal levels of serum testosterone. In females, zinc can help treat menstrual problems and alleviate symptoms associated with premenstrual syndrome (PMS). Among all the vitamins and minerals, zinc shows the strongest effect on our all-important immune system. Zinc plays a unique role in the T-cells. Low zinc levels lead to reduced and weakened T-cells which are not able to recognize and fight off certain infections. An increase of the zinc level has proven effective in fighting pneumonia and diarrhea and other infections. Zinc can also reduce the duration and severity of a common cold. Zinc activates areas of the brain that receive and process information from taste and smell sensors. Levels of zinc in plasma and zincs effect on other nutrients, like copper and manganese,

influence appetite and taste preference. Zinc is also used in the treatment of anorexia. Zinc accelerates the renewal of the skin cells. Zinc creams are used for babies to soothe diaper rash and to heal cuts and wounds. Zinc has also proven effective in treating acne, a problem that affects especially adolescents, and zinc has been reported to have a positive effect on psoriasis and neurodermitis. Zinc is also used as an anti-inflammatory agent and can help sooth the skin tissue, particularly in cases of poison ivy, sunburn, blisters and certain gum diseases. Zinc is important for healthy hair. Insufficient zinc levels may result in loss of hair, hair that looks thin and dull and that goes grey early. There are also a number of shampoos which contain zinc to help prevent dandruff. High concentrations of zinc are found in the retina. With age the retinal zinc declines which seems to play a role in the development of age-related macular degeneration (AMD), which leads to partial or complete loss of vision. Zinc may also protect from night blindness and prevent the development of cataracts. Everyone needs zinc. Children need zinc to grow, adults need zinc for health. Growing infants, children and adolescents, pregnant women and lactating mothers, athletes, vegetarians and the elderly often require more zinc. We get zinc primarily from our food. The major sources of zinc are (red) meat meat, poultry, fish and seafood, whole cereals and dairy products. Zinc is most available to the body from meat. The bioavailability of plantbased foods is generally lower due to dietary fibre and phytic acid which inhibit the absorption of zinc.

A balanced diet is the best way to provide your body with zinc. A zinc supplement or a daily multi-vitamin/multi-mineral supplement may be taken if your nutritional intake is insufficient.

Iodine
The thyroid hormones regulate the body's metabolic rate and promote growth and development throughout the body, including the brain. If there isn't enough thyroid hormone circulating in the blood, the brain sends a chemical message to the thyroid gland, which then releases a measured dose of these hormones. If a person's diet is too low in iodine, the brain keeps sending chemical messages to the thyroid in vain. In an attempt to make more thyroid hormone, the gland gets larger and larger. This overgrowth of the thyroid gland is called a goitre. Iodine is found in seawater, so any type of seafood is a rich source of this element, particularly seaweed (e.g kelp). Despite coming from the ocean, sea salt is not a good source of iodine. Iodised salt is perhaps the most common source of iodine in the Western diet and can provide enough iodine to avoid low thyroid activity. Since an adult only requires around one teaspoonful of iodine over a lifetime, eating fish once a week is enough to fulfil the average iodine requirement. Some vegetables also contain iodine, but only if they are grown in iodine-rich soils. Certain regions of Australia, such as Tasmania and the Australian Capital Territory, have low levels of iodine in the soil.

Copper
Copper is one of a relatively small group of metallic elements which are essential to human health. These elements, along with amino and fatty acids as well as vitamins, are required for normal metabolic processes. However, as the body cannot synthesise copper, the human diet must supply regular amounts for absorption. The adult body contains between 1.4 and 2.1mg of copper per kilogramme of body weight. Hence a healthy human weighing 60 kilogrammes contains approximately a tenth of one gramme of copper. However, this small amount is essential to the overall human well-being. Copper combines with certain proteins to produce enzymes that act as catalysts to help a number of body functions. Some help provide energy required by biochemical reactions. Others are involved in the transformation of melanin for pigmentation of the skin and still others help to form cross-links in collagen and elastin and thereby maintain and repair connective tissues. This is especially important for the heart and arteries. Research suggests that copper deficiency is one factor leading to an increased risk of developing coronary heart disease. Until recently, it was generally believed that most people consumed adequate quantities of copper. However, modern research has shown that this is not the case. In the United Kingdom and the United States for example, many typical meals have been analysed for their metals content. According to recent surveys, only 25% of the US population consume the amount of copper a day estimated to be adequate by the US Food and Nutrition Board of the National Academy of Sciences. Typical diets in the US provide only about half of this amount and some diets in mainly industrialised countries contain less than 40% of the recommended dietary allowance. In the United Kingdom, it is now recommended that the daily intake should range from 0.4mg/day

for 1-3 year old children to 1.2mg/day for adults. In addition, more recent studies are suggesting that there are serious doubts concerning the adequacy of diets containing less than lmg copper/day for adults. The World Health Organization (WHO) and the Food and Agricultural Administration (FAA) are likely to suggest that the population mean intake of copper should not exceed 12mg/day for adult males and 10mg/day for adult females. These are regarded as the lowest intakes likely to produce the slightest biochemical evidence of undesirable effects in all but a small number of members of a population. Sufferers from Indian childhood cirrhosis or hereditary diseases such as Wilsons Disease retain excessive amounts of copper in the body and suffer from liver damage, often with fatal consequences. The symptoms of acute copper poisoning include nausea, vomiting and abdominal and muscle pain. Excess body copper can be removed by means of specific chelating agents or by the consumption of high levels of zinc. Some foods are especially rich in copper. These include most nuts (especially brazils and cashews), seeds (especially poppy and sunflower), chickpeas, liver and oysters. Natural foods such as cereals, meat and fish generally contain sufficient copper to provide up to 50% of the required copper intake in a balanced diet. In addition, a further part of the daily intake in the United Kingdom may be obtained from drinking water transmitted through copper pipes. However in most areas, the copper content of water is not sufficient to provide the balance of the required normal daily intake of this element. In addition, it should be appreciated that some water filters are claimed to remove metals including the essential element copper from drinking water.

Our daily diet must provide specific trace amounts of copper for a number of reasons in order to maintain human health. Plants and animals also require copper to maintain healthy growth which

then benefits humans through the food chain. Copper is readily available in a range of foods and normal balanced diets should provide adequate daily amounts of copper without the need for additional supplements. However, it should be appreciated that changes in eating habits and the introduction of limited medically controlled diets may result in inadequate intakes of copper.

Reference
To complete this project, I have sourced many websites as my references. I used the Pendidikan Jasmani form 2 textbook for some informations. Besides that, I also gained information from wikipedia and other websites to collect information. I made great use of the internet and the books provided.