Hydraulic action refers to the action of flowing water hitting against river bed and banks.

The water surges into cracks and loosens away pieces of rocks and soil. Abrasion is where the river uses its load to constantly scrap and grind against the channels walls and bed, causing the wearing down of the channel walls Attrition is where rock fragments carried by the water knock against each other, causing them to be smoother and rounded in the process Solution is where water in the river reacts chemically with minerals in the rocks and dissolves them to form a solution Traction is the process whereby large boulders are too heavy to be lifted by the water; therefore they bounce and hop along the river bed. Saltation is a process where larger particles such as gravel cannot be suspended in the water all the time; therefore they bounce and hop along the river bed. Suspension is a process whereby fine particles are kept from settling down on the river bed by the turbulent flow of water. Solution takes place when readily soluble rocks are dissolved into the water to form a solution. Deposition occurs when the volume of flow is reduced or the speed is decreased as the river does not have enough energy to continue transporting its load. Deposition of load takes place, the heavier and coarser material will be deposited first, while the lighter materials would be transported throughout the river system. It is most prominent at the lower course as the gradient is gentle and the load carried is at its maximum. The upper course of the river is dominated by vertical erosion whereas deposition is most common in the lower course of the river. In the middle course, the erosive ability of the river increases as the rivers discharge increase and there are fewer obstacles. Transportation occurs throughout the entire river system and the size of the sediments transported in the river decreases from upper to lower course. Vertical Erosion causes the deepening of a river channel which may lead to the formation of a steep-sided valley. Gorges, which are exceptionally deep and narrow valleys, are formed when a river erodes vertically through resistant rocks. They are more commonly found in the upper course of a river and are caused by hydraulic action, abrasion and sometimes solution. A waterfall can be formed when a river flows across a zone of rocks with different resistance. A slight depression forms at the boundaries between the soft and hard rocks. This causes turbulence which increases the rate of erosion. The less resistant rocks erode faster than the resistant rocks. This causes a sudden change on gradient and water plunges downwards, forming a water fall. Force of the plunging water with swirling rocks erodes the river bed forming a plunge pool. A waterfall can also be formed by passing through an area where faulting takes place. Faulting causes land to be uplifted and displacement of rocks where one layer is

higher than the other. This causes the gradient of the river bed to drop suddenly and thus a waterfall is formed. When flooding occurs, the speed of flow is greatly reduced due to the large wetted perimeter. Deposition of the rivers load takes place. The heavier and coarser materials are deposited on the immediate banks of the river, whereas the lighter and finer particles are transported further away before being deposited. Overtime, the accumulation of the deposited materials on the banks will raise it higher than the river bed, forming natural embankments called levees. Also, as layer and layers of alluvium are deposited during floods, the river bank will be raised and the river would flow at a higher elevation. Delta is formed when a river enters the lake or sea; its speed of flow is reduced and deposition of sediments take place. At the rivers mouth, sand is deposited closer to the shore while fine silt and clay are carried further out before being deposited. Overtime, layers of sediment build up and eventually form an extensive platform called a delta. Plants may grow on it to stabilize it. Meanders occur when a river twists and turns, forming hoop-like bend. They are most prominent in the lower course. It may meander in the upper course as the river has little water and low energy. It bends and turns to avoid obstacles and find the easiest route down the slope. In the lower course, the gradient is less steep, thus the speed of flow is slower, and a river begins to meander. Each meander has an outer concave bank and an inner convex bank. As the river flows around a bend, the current is faster and stronger on the concave bank, thus erosion by undercutting takes place. However in the inner convex bank, the current is slower and weaker, thus deposition takes place. As erosion and erosion and deposition takes place on the concave and convex bank respectively, the meander becomes more pronounced and is separated by a narrow neck. Eventually the river cuts through the neck and flows in a straight channel. The meander gets cut off gradually by deposition and is separated from the main river, thus forming an oxbow lake.

River channel management River channelization involves altering the river channel so as to change the way the river flows. Its purposes are usually for flood control, land drainage improvement and creation of new spaces for urbanization or agriculture. It can be carried out on large rivers or small streams. River realignment involves the straightening and shortening the river channel to enhance the speed of flow. It allows water to flow away from an area quickly and accumulated sediments that impede water flow are also flushed away. By moving the channel further away from the levees can protect surrounding area from inundation of flood.

River re-sectioning involves the enlarging of the cross section of a river by deepening or widening the channel to allow it to hold more water. By clearing obstacles from the river bed can deepen the river channel, reducing the likelihood of floods. The surface area can be increased to allow water to flow more efficiently Vegetation plantation uses the roots of the plants to help bind the soil together and stabilize the river bank. Erosion is also reduced as soil is help tightly by the roots. The surface runoff is also reduced to prevent large amounts of water entering the river, encouraging floods. Vegetation Clearance is the clearing of vegetation to improve the speed of flow and stabilize the river banks. Reducing bank stress can prevent the bank from collapsing and entering the channel causing floods. The accumulation of debris in the river can be reduced. Bank protection is the building of artificial embankments such as levees to prevent river bank from collapsing. It can prevent erosion of banks and reduce amount of sediments which may slow down the flow of water and encourage flooding.