Chapter Three: Principles of Metal Forming Theory: Manufacture Engineering Processes

Manufacture Engineering Processes; By Ali M Alsamhan
CHAPTER THREE: Principle of Metal Forming Theory

1

CHAPTER THREE: Principles of Metal Forming Theory

3.1 Experimental stress-strain flow curve.
3.2 Nominal and true stresses and strains.
3.3 Volume constancy phenomena in metal forming processes.
3.4 Plastic tensile instability and necking condition.
3.5 Analytical stress-strain flow curves.
3.6 Yielding criteria.
3.7 Plane strain and plane stress conditions.
3.8 Work and energy method application in metal forming processes.
3.9 Determination of forces/torque required in metal forming processes.
3.10 Illustrated examples.


2
CHAPTER THREE: Principal of Metal Forming Theory

3.1 Experimental Stress-Strain flow curve
Usually, the relationship between stress and strain is obtainable using the experimental uni-axial
tension test, at constant temperature and strain rate (loading speed). The uni-axial compression
planer strain and torsion tests can also be used to obtain the same relationship between stress and
strain.
This relationship is obtained by continuous loading rather than by cyclic loading used in fatigue
test. This type of test is called quasi-static stress-strain flow curve and run under slow strain rate
(nearly 10
-3
/sec). The flow curve of most metals takes either of the three forms (Type I, II or III)
shown in Fig. 3.1
.

Type I is a linear elastic flow curve, type II is an elastic homogeneous plastic flow curve, while
type III is a elastic-plastic flow curve, with discontinuous yielding. Most metallic materials have
flow curves of type II; however, a very common metal like carbon steel has a flow curve of type
III.
The main difference between the stress-strain curve used in mechanical design and the one used in
metal forming is that in the former, the developed stresses result from small elastic strains, while in
the later the stresses developed result from elastic and large plastic strains. Furthermore, strain
hardening is involved with large strains, which always happened in metal forming processes.

c

Type I
c

Type II

Type III
c

Upper yield point
Lower yield point
Ultimate tensile strength
Fracture point
Fig. 3.1 Common experimental engineering stress-strain flow curves for metals.

3
Thread -10
1 (25.4 mm) 2.25(57.15mm)
2(50.8 mm)
Gauge length.
R 1/8 (3.18mm)
1.5(38.1mm)
2(50.8mm)
8 (203.2 mm) Gauge length
9 (228.6 mm)
3(76.2mm)
t
Fig. 3.2 Commonly used tension specimens for metallic materials;
a) reduced-section round with threaded ends.
b) reduced-section flat with vise-grip ends.
(a)

(b)

Power law equations are commonly used to model strain-hardening behavior in analytical stress.
Fig. 3.2 shows the two commonly used tension test specimens, for metallic materials.

3.2 Nominal and true stresses and strains
Engineering stresses and strains are commonly used for small deformations (elastic deformation),
which is commonly used in structural engineering design. True stresses and true strains are
commonly used when large strains are involved like what is happening in metal forming.
Engineering stress and strain are calculated as follows:
o o
o
al no
o
al no
l
l
l
l l
length gauge original
length gauge of extension
e strain g Engineerin
A
P
area tion cross original
load applied
stress g Engineerin
o
o
=
= = =
=
= =
min
min
sec
Eq. 3.1 and 3.2
As the test specimen is loaded, it elongates and contracts along the lateral or traverse direction and
produce lateral strains and forms necking. The true stresses are calculated by dividing the load, P ,
by the current or instantaneous cross-section area, A
c
,at the instant of measuring the load, P, which
gives average stress value (distributed along the neck) and expressed as follows:

4
A P/ = o Eq 3.3
True strain prior to necking, is obtained by referring small incremental change in length to the
instantaneous length, l. The true strain is calculated as follows:
o
l
l
l
l
l
dl
ln
0
= =
}
c Eq 3.4
True strain also called logarithmic strain, incremental strain or natural strain.

True strain is given the symbol while engineering strain is given the symbol of e. The
relationship between true and engineering strains can be drawn as follows:
) 1 ln( ) 1 ln( ) ln( ) 1 ( 1 e e
l
l
e
l
l
l
l
l
l l
e
o o o o
o
+ = + = + = =
= c Eq. 3.5
The advantages of using true strain are given below:
1. True strain has the same numerical value in tension and in compression loadings (with
negative sign in compression), which is not the case for engineering strain. For example,
consider a test specimen the gauge length of which is elongated from 10 to 20 mm or
compressed from 20 to 10 mm, the true and engineering strains for both cases are given as
follows:
) (
2
1
10
20 10
) ( 2
10
10 20
) ( 693 . 0 )
2
1
ln( )
20
10
ln(
) ( 693 . 0 )
10
20
ln( ) ln(
specimen loading n compressio e
specimen loading tension
l
l
e
specimen loading n compressio
specimen loading tension
l
l
C
o
T
C
o
T
=
=
=
= =
= = =
= = =
o
c
c

2. True strain is additive, if done in successive loading. For example, if a specimen had a
gauge length, l
o
,and was elongated to, l
1
,then to, l
2
, the total true strain is given as
follows:
) ln( ln ln
2
1
2 1
2 1 2 1
o o
l
l
l
l
l
l
= + = + =
+
c c c
While engineering strain is given by

5
1
l
2
l
3
l
1 1
l l o +
1 1
l l o +
1 1
l l o +
3 31
l l o +
Fig. 3.3 Parallelepiped of metal before and after deformation.

2 1 2 1
2
2 1
1
1 2
2
1
1
, ,
+ +
= +
= e e e
l
l l
e
l
l l
e
l
l l
e
o
o
o
o

For example, consider the following loading condition;

Incremental loading step Length (mm)
0 50 (Gauge length)
1 55
2 60.5
3 66.55

True and engineering strains are calculated as follows:

total total
e e e e e e
e e e
and
= = = = = + + =
= = = = = = = =
= + + = + + = = =
= = = = = =

331 . 0 50 / ) 50 55 . 66 ( 3 . 0
1 . 0 5 . 60 / 05 . 6 5 . 60 / ) 5 . 60 55 . 66 ( , 1 . 0 55 / 5 . 5 55 / ) 55 5 . 60 ( , 1 . 0 50 / 5
2859 . 0 0953 . 0 0953 . 0 0953 . 0 ) ( 2859 . 0 ) 50 / 55 . 66 ln(
0953 . 0 ) 5 . 60 / 55 . 66 ln( , 0953 . 0 ) 55 / 5 . 60 ln( , 0953 . 0 ) 50 / 55 ln(
3 0 3 2 2 1 1 0
3 2 2 1 1 0
3 2 2 1 1 0 3 0
3 2 2 1 1 0
c c c c
c c c

3.3 Volume constancy phenomena in metal forming processes
Based on experimental evidence it was found for all metals, the volume of material is constant
during plastic deformation, which is not the case for elastic deformation (however this volume is
very small so the change could be neglected). This can be expressed as follows:
0 =
c d
dV
Eq 3.6
Consider a parallepiped of metal which has initial edge lengths of; l
1
, l
2
and l
3
and final length
(after deformation)
3 3 3 2 2 2 1 1 1
, , l l l l l l l l l
final final final
o o o + = + = + =

,( see Fig. 3.3).


6

Since the volume is constant during plastic deformation, then;
3 2 1
3 3 2 2 1 1
3 3 2 2 1 1 3 2 1
. .
) ).( ).( (
1 ) ).( ).( ( . .
l l l
l l l l l l
or l l l l l l l l l
o o o
o o o
+ + +
= + + + = Eq 3.7
Equation 3.7 can be written as follows:
0 0 0 ) 1 ln( ) 1 ln( ) 1 ln(
1 ) 1 ).( 1 ).( 1 ( 1 ) 1 )( 1 )( 1 (
3 2 1 3 2 1
3 2 1
3
3
2
2
1
1
= = + + = + + + + +
= + + + = + + +
c
c c c
o o o
d
dV
e e e
e e e or
l
l
l
l
l
l

Volume constancy can be expressed by:
2 2 1 1
l A l A or l A l A Al
f f o o
= = = Eq 3.8
Hence, true strain can be expressed also as: ) ln( ) ln(
2
1
1
2
2 1
A
A
l
l
= =
c Eq 3.9
The relationship between nominal and true stress can be drawn using volume constancy principles
and given as follows;
) 1 ( .
min min min
e
l
l
A
A
A
A
A
P
A
P
al no
o
c
al no
c
o
al no
c
o
o c
+ = = = = = o o o o Eq 3.10

3.4 Plastic tensile instability and necking conditions
Plastic tensile instability starts after yielding point, just before ultimate load. During this period,
the increase in load is associated with increased strain. At ultimate load, the specimen elongated
without any increase in load. At this point the material starts behave unstable. This deformation is
called Instability condition, under tension load. At this point necking occurs at the weakest points
and the deformation changes from being uniform distribution to local necking. However, the
change in load becomes zero.
0 , , , 0 / = + = = =
c
o
c
o
c
o c
d
d
A
d
dA
d
dP
then A P however d dP Eq 3.11

7
Imperfection area

Diffuse neck
Homogeneous area

P

P

c
o
c
inst
1

o
inst

Slope=
1
inst
d
d o
c
o
=

Fig. 3.4 Graphical plot of necking strain Eq. 3.13.
For volume constancy:
c c c c c c c c d
dl
l
A
d
dA
d
dl
A
d
dA
l
d
dA
l
d
dl
A
d
Al d
d
dV
= = = + = = = 0
) (
0 Eq 3.12
Substituting Eq. 3.12 into Eq.3.12;
) ( ) ; ( , 0 ) ( y instabilit at
d
d
d
l
dl
note
d
dl
l
A
d
d
A o
c
o
c
c
o
c
o
= = = + Eq 3.13
Where; o
u
is the ultimate tensile stress.

This result indicates that instability occurs when the slope of the stress-strain flow curve (rate of
work hardening) is equal to the magnitude of the existing stress (o
u
in current case). Instability
loading condition will lead a necking formation and finally specimen fracture.
In metal forming processes, the maximum deformation can be obtained for ductile metals
subjected to tension loading without failure through the strain at the instability (c
inst
critical true
strain).
The critical true stain, c
inst
at necking can be obtained graphically by plotting c o d d / versus c on
the stress-strain flow curve as shown in Fig. 3.4.


8
3.5 Analytical stress-strain flow curves.
Numerical modeling of strain hardening behavior may be achieved using one of the following
equations:
1.
n
Kc o = Eq. 3.14
2.
m n
K c c o = Eq. 3.15
3.
o
o
n
for m K c c
c
c
c o
s ' + = ) ln ( Eq. 3.16

Where K refers to the strength coefficient, n; the strain hardening exponent, m and m; strain rate
sensitivity indices, and
o
reference strain at which strain rate hardening is negligible [3.2]. Note,
the strain rate can be defined as the instantaneous deformation velocity divided by the
instantaneous length or height of tested specimen ( h v / = c ), while true strain refers to the
instantaneous force divided by the instantaneous area of tested specimen.
The most commonly used analytical model is the power law Eq. 3.13, which do not include the
strain rate (idealized stress-strain flow curve) and called Lidwik-Hollomon equation. Using
equations 3.13 and 3.14, for instability condition;
n
n
K nK k nK
d
d
n n n n
= = = = = =

c
c
c c c o c
c
o
1
1 1
Eq. 3.17
This means that necking occurs when = n [3.3]. From Eq. 3.17, it can be concluded that true
strain at instability is equal to the strain hardening exponent (n). This means that (n) is a measure
of the ability of the metal to undergo plastic deformation without failure.
Table 3.1, shows K and n values for two different metals 1100-O aluminum and 18-8 stainless
steel. It is clear from the table that n value for stainless steel is higher than that of aluminum. This
also means that stainless steel has more ability for elongation (just before instability) than
aluminum has.
Table 3.1 Material properties of 1100-O Aluminum and 18-8 stainless-steel
Property 1100-O Aluminum 18-8 Stainless steel
Yield strength,
y
24 Mpa (3.5 ksi) 275 Mpa (40.1 ksi)
Ultimate strength,
u
48 Mpa (7.0 ksi) 725 Mpa (105.6 ksi)
Elongation 45% 55%
(n or c
ivot
) at necking 0.2 0.51
Therefore, it is important to be able to predict the stress and strain at the on-set of instability, by
adjusting process parameters, to avoid failure.

9
It is worth noting that in metal forming processes the state of stress or loading conditions are more
complex than the tensile loading condition. For example, in tension load testing, yielding takes
place when
yeild
o o =
1
(where o
1
is the stress along loading direction) at which plastic deformation
initiated. However, in metal forming processes the deformation takes place under more complex
state of stresses i.e. 0 , 0
3 2
= = o o . Hence, a criterion is required to predict the yielding under
this complex state of stresses.
Furthermore, it worth noting that under compressive state of stresses, necking phonemina at
instability will not occur, and the limits of deformation are set by fracture.
Hint:
To understand the roles of (n) and (K) values for starin-hardening metal behavior, consider the following cases:
1. Strain-hardening exponent (n) role:
0 ,
0 0 ,
. .
1 2
1 2
> =
A
A
> A > A >
>
c
o
c
o
o c o o
c c
d
d
hence and
and therfore and
e i n deformatio more For

2. Strength coefficient (K) role;
The strength coefficient is considered as a magnification or scale for the strength of a given material. Consider the
following example:

o
c c
2
c
1
o
2
o
1
Slope=do /dc

More slope flow curves

Less slope flow curves

This means, for more deformation the stresses will
increase and the material becomes more stronger,
this is what is called strain-hardening behavior.
As it can be seen from Eq. 3.17; do /dc =K n c
n-1
;
The slope is proportional to the strain hardening
exponent (n).

Example 3.1:
Given two materials A and B,
K
A
=150 and K
B
=150 N/mm
2
or Mpa, n
A
=0.5 and
n
B
=0.25 and for given true strain c=1 for both
cases;
do /dc )
A
=150x0.5x1=75 N/mm
2

do /dc )
B
=150x0.25x1=37.5 N/mm
2
then do /dc )
A
> do /dc )
B
or slope)
A
> slope)
B

Example 3.2 :
Given two materials having the same strain hardening
exponent (n) and subjected to the same deformation
(i.e. same true strain).
K
A
=100 N/mm
2
and K
B
=50 N/mm
2
, n
A
=n
B
=0.5 , and
c
A
= c
B
=1.0. Then the true stress for both cases will
be;
o
A
=100(1)
0.5
=100 N/mm
2
and o
B
=50(1)
0.5
=50
N/mm
2
==> o
A
> o
B
.

Material A ; o
A
=K
A
c
n
Material B ; o
B
=K
B
c
n

o
o
A
o
B

c
A
=c
B

10

3.6 Yielding criteria
Assumptions:
1. Metals are homogeneous, continuous and isotropic.
2. Same yielding strength in tensile and compression loading (i.e. ductile metals).
3. The volume is constant during plastic deformation, V V / A and the sum of the
plastic strain increments is zero i.e. ( 0
3 2 1
= + + c c c d d d )
4. Strain rate and temperature effects are not considered.
Two yielding criteria are commonly used to predict when yielding starts for complex state of
stresses, namely; Von Mises and Tresca criterions.
i) Von Mises criterion states that yielding will occur when the value of the root mean square of the
principal stresses reaches a critical value ,given as
1
2 / 1 2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
] ) ( ) ( ) [( C > + + o o o o o o or Eq. 3.18a
2 / 1
2 1 2
2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
] ) ( ) ( ) [( C C where C = > + + o o o o o o Eq. 3.18b
This equation can be written in general form using normal and shear stresses as follows:
3
2 2 2 2 2 2
) ( 6 ) ( ) ( ) ( C
zx yz xy x z z y y x
> + + + + + t t t o o o o o o Eq. 3.19
These constants can be determined, by considering special cases such as the case of tensile test,
where 0 0
3 2 1
= = = = o o o o and
y
. By substituting these values in equation 3.18b, we obtain;
2
2
2
1
2 2
y
C o o = = Re-substitute in Eq 3.18a and 3.18b to obtain;
y y
C C o o o o o o o o 2 ) 2 ( ] ) ( ) ( ) [(
2 / 1 2 2 / 1
2 1
2 / 1 2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
= = = > + + Eq. 3.18

In metal forming processes, complex state of stress exists i.e. 0 , 0 , 0
3 2 1
= = = o o o and and not the
case of simple tension test. An expression of the effective stresses acting in this case is given as
follows;

11
3 2 1
2 / 1 2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
] ) ( ) ( ) [(
2
1
o o o o o o o o o o o > > > + + = where
y
Eq. 3.19
The associated effective strain and strain rate can be expressed as follows:
2 / 1 2
3
2
2
2
1
)] (
3
2
[ c c c c + + = Eq. 3.20
2 / 1 2
3
2
2
2
1
)] (
3
2
[ c c c c
+ + =
Eq. 3.21
ii) Tresca criterion (also called maximum shear stress criterion)
In Tresca criterion, the effective stress is expressed as follows;
3 2 1 3 1
o o o o o o o o o > > > > where or
y y Min Max
Eq. 3.22
The effective strain is expressed as follows;
3 , 2 , 1 and i where d d
Max
i
= = c c For the three principal directions Eq. 3.23
Hence, the analytical flow stress-strain curve is converted from
n
Kc o = to
n
K ) (c o =
using the effective stress and strain terms.
Example 3.3:
For the following state of loading, specify when yielding condition started, using Von Mises and
Tresca criterions;
a)
2
3 2 1
/ 100 , 15 , 0 , 87 mm N
y
= = = = o o o o .
b)
2
3 2 1
/ 100 , 50 , 0 , 50 mm N
y
= = = = o o o o .
Solution:
Tresca;
a) < = =
y
o o o 87 0 87
min max
No yielding condition exist according Tresca criteria.
b) = = =
y
o o o 100 ) 50 ( 50
min max
Yielding condition exists according to Tresca
criteria.
Von Mises;
a) = = = = = = 72 87 15 ; 15 15 0 ; 87 0 87
1 3 3 2 2 1
o o o o o o

12
y
o o < = + + = 55 . 80 ] ) 72 ( 2 / 1 ) 15 ( 2 / 1 ) 87 ( 2 / 1 [
2 / 1 2 2 2
No yielding condition according to
Von Mises criteria.
b) = = = + = = = 100 50 50 ; 50 50 0 ; 50 0 50
1 3 3 2 2 1
o o o o o o
y
o o < = + + = 6 . 86 ] ) 100 ( 2 / 1 ) 50 ( 2 / 1 ) 50 ( 2 / 1 [
2 / 1 2 2 2
No yielding condition according to
Von Mises criteria.
Note: The Von-Mises criterion is most commonly used in metal forming processes to predict the
initial yielding conditions.

Example 3.4:
Drive the effective stress and strain in simple tension test?
Solution:
Assuming the loading direction is the 1
st
axis, then 0 , 0
3 2 1
= = = o o o .
Using Eq. 3.19
1
2 / 1 2
1
2
1
2
1
2 2
1
) 2 (
2
1
] ) 0 ( ) 0 0 ( ) 0 [(
2
1
o o o o o = = + + =
For circular cross-section tension specimen
3 2 1
; 0 c c c = = , and for volume
constancy
1 3 2 3 2 1 3 1 2 1 3 2 1
2
1
2 2 0 2 2 0 c c c c c c c c c c c c c = = = = = + = + = + +
Using Eq. 3.20
1
2 / 1 2
1
2
1
2
1
2 / 1 2
3
2
2
2
1
)]
4
1
4
1
(
3
2
[ )] (
3
2
[ c c c c c c c c = + + = + + = .

Hence, for the general case; the effective stress and the effective strain will be used for modeling
the material behavior, (i.e.
n n
K K ) (c o c o = = ).


13
Load
3
2
1
c
2
=0

In general, strains can be expresses
using Hook Law:
)) ( (
1
)) ( (
1
)) ( (
1
2 1 3 3
3 1 2 2
3 2 1 1
o o o c
o o o c
o o o c
+ =
+ =
+ =
v
E
v
E
v
E
Eq.3.24
Where E Young Modulus and v
Poissons ratio.
For Plan strain conditions:
) ( 0
2 1 2 2
o o o c + = = v
If v equal to 0.5 then
2 / ) ( 0
2 1 2 2
o o o c + = = Eq.3.25

Fig. 3.5 Plane strain condition in metal working.
3.7 Plane strain and plane stress conditions.
There are two important general cases commonly used in metal forming to analyze the processes;
Plane strain and Plane stress conditions.
In plane strain conditions; all stress components exist (i.e. 0 , 0 , 0
3 2 1
= = = o o o ) and one of the
strains (and the two related shear strains) are equal to zero (i.e. 0 , 0 , 0
3 2 1
= = = c c c ), see Fig. 3.5.

Using plane strain condition, Von Misses effective stresses, volume constancy principle, and
effective strain equation (as shown below), it is possible to simplify the calculations of the
effective strain and stress for different metal forming processes (see Fig. 3.6):


14
Fig. 3.6 Effective stresses and strains for different complex state of stresses of metal forming
processes [3.4].


15
. )] (
3
2
[
0
; ) (
2
1
; ] ) ( ) ( ) [(
2
1
2 / 1 2
3
2
2
2
1
3 2 1
3 1 2
2 / 1 2
1 3
2
3 2
2
2 1
c c c c
c c c
o o o
o o o o o o o o
+ + =
= + +
+ =
> + + =
and
y
Eq. 3.26
In plane stress condition, a biaxial state of stress exists ( 0 , 0
2 1
= = o o ) while the stress in the third
direction (and its associated shear stresses) is equal to zero ( 0
3
= o ), (see Fig. 3.7).

For plane stress condition Eq 3.24 will be reduced to;

)) ( (
1
) (
1
) (
1
2 1 3
1 2 2
2 1 1
o o c
o o c
o o c
+ =
=
=
v
E
v
E
v
E
Eq. 3.27
Plane stress condition exists in sheet metal forming processes, i.e. stretching process.

3.8 Work and energy method application in metal forming processes.
Work of deformation is an important property in metal forming, and usually used to calculate the
required external force and power in metal forming processes. This can be achieved by equating
the work of the external forces and the internal energy of deformation.
The work of the external force can be expressed by simple equation; W=F.l. The incremental form
of this equation can be written as;
dl F dW . = Eq. 3.28
Dividing the incremental equation by volume gives;
o
2
o
2
o
1
o
1
o
3
=0
Fig. 3.7 Plane stress condition.

16
c c c c
2 1
d d
o
o
Fig. 3.8 Work of the deformation.
l
dl
A
F
dV
dW
= Eq. 3.29
This can be rewritten using the effective stress and effective strain as follows;
c o d dw= Eq. 3.30
Where dw; is the incremental work per unit volume. The right side of Eq. 3.30 represents the area
under the flow stress-strain curve, (see Fig. 3.8).
The total work per unit volume can be obtained
by integrating Eq. 3.30 from
1
c to
2
c , (see Fig.
3.8) as shown below;
c o
c
c
d w
}
=
2
1
Eq. 3.31
Then the total work for the entire volume will be;
dV d W
V
c o
c
c
} }
=
2
1
Eq. 3.32a
or
c o
c
c
d V W
}
=
2
1
Eq. 3.32
Also, the work per unit volume (shown in Fig. 3.9); can be approximated by multiplying the mean
yielding stress
m
o , and the total strain along the deformation, as follows
) (
1 2
c c o =
m
w

Eq. 3.33

17

and
Equations 3.32 and 3.33 can be combined as follows;
} }

=
=
2
1 1 2
2
1 1 2
1 1
c
c
c
c
c c
c c
c o
c c
o d K d
n
m
Eq. 3.34
Then the total work can be expressed as follows;
) (
1
1
1
1
2
+ +
+
=
n n
n
K
V W c c Eq. 3.35a
If the initial strain is zero, equation (3.35a) can re-written as follows;
1
1
+
+
=
n
n
K
V W c Eq. 3.35
Note, the total work obtained in equation (3.35) is ideal work, i.e. material is homogeneous and the
friction is neglected. Hence, the total work will be the ideal work plus work due to non-
homogeneity (redundant work) plus the work due to friction, see Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.9 Work of the deformation.
2 1
c c
o
c
w
w

2 1
c c
c
o
m
o

18
Initial work piece Homogeneous deformation Friction+redundant
Force
Force
Fig. 3.10 Work of the deformation (
redundant Friction ogeneous total
W W W
+
+ =
hom
).

Example 3.5
The following data were obtained in a tensile test using circular cross-section speciam having a
wire gaug diameter of 15 mm of mild-steel material and wire gaug length of 50 mm;
P
KN
52.05 51.85 57.43 61.32 64.8 67.59 69.98 72.28 73.77 74.86 76.16 79.35 80.74 80.55 78.95 68.69 58.33
L
mm
51.18 51.59 52.37 53.16 53.92 54.71 55.5 56.29 57.05 57.83 58.62 61.95 68.78 71.12 71.52 72.31 72.64
a) Plot the experimental stress-strain curve in terms of ;
Nominal stress and strain.
True stress and strain.
b) What is the value of K and n ?
c) The plastic work required to streatch the speciamen at maximum load ?
Solution:
a) The nominal stress o
nominal
is calculated through dividing the load (Newton) by the initial cross-
section area using Equation (3.1) (
2 2
7 . 176 ) 15 ( * 4 / * 4 / mm d A
o o
= = = t t ) for each given
data. The nomimal or engineering strain is calculated using Equation (3.2), (
o
o
l
l l
e

= ).
The true stress is calculated by dividing each load value P by the actual or instantaneous
cross-sectional area A at the stage of the test. Since the volume is constant during plastic
deformation (
3
8836 0 . 50 * 7 . 176 . mm L A V
o o o
= = = ), then L A L A L A
o o
/ 8836 8836 = = = .

19
And the true stress will be calculated as
A
P
= o up to the maximum load (80.74 KN). The true
strain or logarithmic strain is calculated from Equation 3.4 ( ). / ln(
o
l l = c ).
Nominal and true stress -strain curves for Example 3.5
0.00
100.00
200.00
300.00
400.00
500.00
600.00
700.00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40
(Engineering / True strains )
( N
o
m
i
n
a
l

/

T
r
u
e

s
t
r
e
s
s
e
s

)
Engineering stress -strain curve
True stress -strain curve

b) The strain hardening exponent n (equal to the true strain at the maximum load (80.74 KN)) is
equal to 0.14.
c) The K value for this material can be calualted from the flow stress-strain equation 3.14
(
n
Kc o = ), and given as follows;
2 14 . 0 2
/ 73 . 827 ) 14 . 0 ( / 56 . 628 mm N K K mm N = = .
d) The plastic work required to streatch the speciamen to the maximum load is calculated from:
) 87 . 4 . 89 . 4871 (
. 031 . 4871890 ) 14 . 0 (
14 . 1
73 . 827
* 8836
1
.
1
. .
14 . 0
KJ m N
mm N
n
K
L A
n
K
V w V W
n
o o
n
=
= =
+
=
+
= = c c

Problems
A Cylinderical specimen is compressed to 1/3 of its height, given the initial height and
diameter as h
o
=20 mm and D
o
=30 mm. Calculate;
a) The final diameter D ?
b) True stress at the end of deformation?
c) Nominal stress at the end of deformation?
d) Total ideal work?

20
The following data were reported from a tension test:
Load (N) 11500 16400 17000 20800 20600
Elongation (mm) 0.5 5.0 15.0 21.5 25.5
The speciamen has a wire gauge length of 50.5 mm and wire gauge diameter of 7 mm.
Determine:
a) The cross-section area at amximum load?
b) The true stress at maximum load?
c) The ultimate tensile strength?
d) The strain hardening exponent n and strength coefficient K ?
e) The ideal plastic work required to stretch the specimen to instability?
Estimate the plastic work necessary to stretch a tensile specimen to instability. The initial cross
section area is 40.8 mm
2
and the initial length is 50.8 mm. The material follows
= 1200
0.35
MPa. Determine the ultimate tensile strength (UTS)?
The following data were reported in a tensile test having rectangular cross-section specimen:

Initial strip length l
o
: 60.0 mm
Initial strip thickness t
o
: 5.0 mm
Initial strip width w
o
: 20.0 mm
The material flow:
n
Kc o =
Determine the following:
i) The cross-section area at maximum load.
ii) The true stress at maximum load.
iii) Effective strain at maximum load.
iv) The ultimate strength.
v) The value of K and n.
vi) The plastic work necessary to stretch the specimen to instability.

The following data were reported from tension test having rectangular cross-sectional area:
Load(N) 11500 16400 17000 20800 20700
Length(mm) l
f
63.0 68.0 75.0 80.0 85.0
Thickness (mm) t
f
4.8 4.6 4.3 4.1

3.9
Width (mm) w
f
19.84 19.18 18.6 18.29

18.1

21

Initial strip length l
o
: 60.0 mm
Initial strip thickness t
o
: 5.0 mm
Initial strip width w
o
: 20.0 mm
The material flow:
n
Kc o =

Determine the following:
vii) The strip width at maximum load.
viii) The true stress at maximum load.
ix) Effective strain at maximum load.
x) The ultimate strength.
xi) The value of K and n.
xii) The plastic work necessary to stretch the specimen to instability.

Load(N) 11500 16400 17000 20800
Length(mm) l
f
61.0 65.5 76.0 82.0
Thickness (mm)
t
f

4.8 4.6 4.3 4.0
Width (mm) w
f
19.8 19.7 19.5 w
f

Chapter Three: Principles of Metal Forming Theory: Manufacture Engineering Processes

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Chapter Three: Principles of Metal Forming Theory: Manufacture Engineering Processes

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Manufacture Engineering Processes; By Ali M Alsamhan

CHAPTER THREE: Principle of Metal Forming Theory

s ' + = ) ln ( Eq. 3.16

You might also like