Industrial Engineering Services

Industrial Engineering related Services of the following kind can be offered : Process Analysis Work Study Incentive Schemes Plant Layout Improveme nt

Process Analysis
The purpose of Process analysis is to provide information about the overall business processes, especially production processes, and get more insight about them. This information can be an important input to Method Studies and other Projects. Benefits of Process Analysis are: gaining understandance of the overall business process indentify its components and their interrelationships Procedure: During a Process Analysis the complete Production process will be analyzed and broken into its logical sub processes (work breakdown structure). The interrelationships between the sub processes will be indicated. The sub processes themselves will be subdivided again into jobs that can examined during a Method Study. All this information will be documented in a proper manner. The inputs to a Process Analysis will be observations from business process and information from existing documentation

The outputs from a Process Analysis will be A map of all relevant business processes indicating relationships Process flow charts - organigrams Description of the business processes and a listing of jobs performed at any sub process

Work Study
A Work Study will consist of the following two main components Method Study Time Study - Work Measurement

Method Study
The systematic recording and critical examination of ways of doing things in order to make improvements is known as Method Study.The purpose of a Method Study is: Analyze methods of Work Gain insight in how work is performed Document methods of work - create Work Instructions Improve Methods of Work or detect potential for improvements Enable planning by providing Data Disable possible hazards and dangers to safety Provide information for Time Studies, development for equipment, wage calculation and incentive Schemes. The benefits from a Method Study will be: Better understanding of work performed Improved operator performance More safety less risks from hazards for health and assets Procedure: For a Method Study the following will be done: A specific job will be chosen to be examined. The current performance of the job is observed, facts are recorded and documented. Important features are taken into consideration: ... Activities performed ... Operators involved ... Equipment and tools used ... Materials processed or moved The job is then examined and its components are challenged on their feasibility and necessity (purpose, place, sequence, method). After this alternative methods are developed, documented and the most suitable will be selected, becoming the base for the new Work Instructions. Operators will be trained on those new Work Instructions.

 Control procedures to measure the performance, as well as preventing drifting back to previous methods of work will also be introduced. The required inputs for a Method Study are: Information about the role of the job in the overall business process All the relevant information on the job to be studied. The Type and number of operators involved, their skills The Facilities, Equipment and Tools to be used fro the jobs The Materials to be processed or consumed The Activities undertaken to perform the job, their sequence. Objectives for the method study, these can be: ... Increase operator performance ... Improve safety, decrease hazards and fatigue ... Develop methods for other equipment. The outputs of a Method Study will be. Work Instructions Systematic Method description involving, operators, equipment, materials and procedures. These can be of a graphical or narrative nature. flow charts. recommendations for improvement.

Time Study
Work Measurement is the application of techniques designes to establish the time for a qualified Worker to carry out a task at a defined rate of working. Time Study is a form of Work Measurement. The purpose of Time Study is to: Establish Standard Times Rate Operator performance Gain information to calculate overall production capabilities and Data for capacity planning. Establish the total Work content of finished goods. The benefits from a Time Study will be: Knowledge about Standard Times to be expected Ability to estimate total Work content Operators can be appraised on factual grounds Some labour regulation might require Standard Times on the basis of solving Labor disputes. The procedure for a Time Study will be: A job is selected The method description derived from a method study of this spefic job is used to break up the job into units that can be measured more easily. The total job as well as the smaller tasks are rated and measured several times

with a stop watch. Average (standard times) are established. The inputs required for a Time Study are: Documented results of a method study for the job to be measured Observations of the job to be studied Time readings for the job to be measured from the Stop Watch. The outputs from a Time Study will be: Standard times for the Job that has been measured Completed Time Study Sheet with ratings and times knowledge about the work content for specific Products and processes.

Incentive Schemes
Incentive Schemes serve the purpose of motivating workers to perform better. Based on a Time Study an incentive scheme can be developed.

Plant Layout Improvement

Based on Method Study and Process Analysis, recommendations on how to improve plant layout can be made.

Implementation of Lean Manufacturing

What is lean manufacturing?
Lean manufacturing is a Business philosophy that continuously shortens the time between customer order and shipment by eliminating everything that increases the cost and time. Benefits of lean manufacturing are:

Productivity improvement Total Manufacturing time saved Less equipment utilization (machine time, wear and tear) Less scrap - material cost saved Low inventory levels stock holding cost saved Quality improvement Plant space saved more efficient layout Better labor utilization Safety of operations

Principles of lean manufacturing are:

To create continuous flow with direct link between suppliers and customers To use takt-times and pull-systems to manage the workflow To reduce batch sizes and inventories To eliminate waste To cross-train workers in order to deal with inherent variability Selective use of automation To instill a Continuous Improvement competence

Kwaliteg can help assist you with the implementation of a system that applies the principles of lean manufacturing. The implementation of lean manufacturing techniques requires that all the wastes are identified and eliminated from the System. Anything that does not add value to the product can be defined as waste. Lean manufacturing aims to eliminate waste. There are different types of waste:

Waste of inventory (space and time) Waste of Time (manufacturing time)

Waste of Materials (Scrap) Waste of Equipment (machine time) Waste of plant space and movement of materials and objects Waste of Labor (unnecessary actions) Waste of capital (idle times of resources)

Lean manufacturing is not only a project or program. It is way of thinking. The implementation of lean manufacturing will comprehend the following stages:

Data collection stage Data analysis and development of solution Stage Implementation Stage

During the Data collection stage the following activities relating to lean manufacturing are performed:

Time studies and Motion studies Establishment or review of Process Flow charts Investigating Product families Bottle necks and problem areas

Data Collection comprehends information gathered on the current state of facilities and operations. The output will be document describing all the important facts on the current state of the facilities and operations that are relevant for lean manufacturing. During the Data analysis Stage the following activities relating to lean manufacturing are performed:

Establishment of a Capacity plan Determination of the current state of the Value Stream Map Value Stream Map Future state Micro and Macro Levels Determining the Work Balance Design of a Layout proposal Preparation of a Project Implementation plan

This stage will have three documents as output:

Evaluation Document comprehending analysis and calculation Design Document proposing a solution leading to a Project implementation plan

During the Implementation Stage the following activities relating to lean manufacturing are performed:

Execution of the project implementation plan. Design and manufacture of special tools and material handling equipment Outsourcing of Capex (if needed) Training of relevant staff

Kwaliteg can provide you with lean manufacturing consultants that have the relevant expertise in the field. They will perform an initial analysis, a detailed analysis and develop a solution for your organization. Assistance in the implementation and maintenance of the proposed lean manufacturing system can also be given. Additionally Kwaliteg could provide required engineering solutions as well.

Involvement of Kwaliteg will decrease over time. while the involvement of the Customer organization will increase.

Quality Management and ISO 9000:2000 Consulting

Developing ISO 9000:2000 compliant Quality Management Systems
B.1. ISO 9000:2000 Consulting: assistance in developing and implementing an ISO 9000:2000 compliant Quality Management System B.2. Assistance in Registration and Certification. B.3. Training related to ISO 9000:2000 and Quality Management Systems

ISO 9000:2000 Consulting

Concerning ISO 9000:2000 Consulting the following tasks will have to be performed. B.1.1. Mapping of the Company (Organization s) Management Processes B.1.2. Analysis of current Processes and Procedures B.1.3. Documentati on of Processes and Procedures B.1.4. Review of Processes and Procedures B.1.5. Redesign of current Processes and Procedures B.1.6. Design of new Processes and Procedures B.1.7. Induction of

new or improved Processes

ISO 9000 Consulting The Purpose of ISO 9000 Consulting is to assist an organization in developing and implementing an ISO 9000:2000 compliant Quality Management System to Create, document and improve the Quality Management System of an Organization. Before a organization decides to become ISO 9000:2000 certified, the following should be taken into consideration Is it feasible to implement a QMS according to ISO 9000:2000? What will be the benefits from such an implementation? What will be the Costs and efforts for Implementing and Maintaining a Quality Management System, complying with the ISO 9001:2000 requirements? Benefits from implementing an ISO 9000:2000 compliant Quality Management System Higher Customer Confidence (some Clients might only give business to ISO 9000:2000 certified organizations) Confidence that Products will meet Customer Expectations Less Cost from scrapping and reworking Products Procedure: For successful ISO 9000:2000 consulting the following tasks have to be performed: - Mapping of the Company (Organizations) Management Processes - Analysis of current Processes and Procedures - Documentation of Processes and Procedures - Review of Processes and Procedures - Redesign of current Processes and Procedures - Design of new Processes and Procedures - Induction of new or improved Processes See a Project Plan for the implementation of an ISO 9001:2000 compliant Quality Management System here. Process Mapping The Purpose of Process Mapping is to gain knowledge about company processes and demonstrating their interrelationship. Documentation of those facts Inputs:

Information about organizational structure, company processes and their interrelationships Existing documentation Procedure Gather information about overall business processes and their interrelationships Define who is actually responsible for a process (process owner) and who is cooperating in its performance Document these facts on a process map: draw coordinates (functional columns) fit in process steps, management processes, support processes, core business processes. Outputs: Process map Short description of processes Organigram, management organizational structure, functional organizational structure Possibly job descriptions Analysis of current Processes and Procedures The Purpose of Analyzing current Processes and Procedures to gain knowledge about processes and procedures performed by the organisation. Inputs: Data about current processes and procedures To perform an Analyzis of current Processes and Procedures the following Procedure is followed: Select a process or procedure to be analyzed Examine what operators, equipment, material and information is involved in a process or procedure. Interview operators performing a process or procedure Observe operators and operational units performing a process or procedure. Interview supervisors + managers about processes and procedures. Record all important facts that have been discovered Outputs: Detailed information about processes and procedures Process flow charts Work instructions Documentation of Processes and Procedures The Purpose of this task is: To document all relevant information about Procedures, Processes, Policies, Forms, Systems, Records etc. To have information ready for retrieval. To record any changes Inputs:

Results from Analysis, Reviews and Changes Procedure: Write or change Documents and store them. Outputs: Company Manual Policy Statements Descriptions of Processes and Procedures Work Instructions Flow Charts Review of Processes and Procedures The Purpose of reviewing Processes and Procedures: To verify whether current or established Procedures, company processes and other Parts of the Quality Management System are compliant with ISO 9000:2000 requirements Inputs: Existing and newly established Documents Procedure: Analyze the documents and determine their compliance Record any noncompliance or lacks. Outputs: Confirmation whether a document is compliant or not. Recommendations for changes and improvements. Redesign of current Processes and Procedures The Purpose of Redesigning current Processes and Procedure is to transfigurate existing non-compliant Documents of Processes and Procedures into ISO 9000:2000 compliant documents of Processes and Procedures. Inputs: Existing documents ISO 9000:2000 requirements and relating information Procedure: Detect non compliances in existing documentation of the organization and change these so that they comply with ISO 9001:2000 requirements. Outputs: ISO 9000:2000 compliant documents Design of new Processes and Procedures The Purpose of designing new Processes and Procedures is to design of new procedures and processes that are necessary to get the Quality Management System ISO 9000:2000 compliant. This is necessary when there are still certain elements missing completely Inputs:

 ISO 9000:2000 requirements Information about other processes Information on what is lacking Procedure: Detect gaps in the Quality Management System Develop processes and procedures to fill them Outputs: New processes and procedures required for ISO 9000:2000 compliance Induction of new or improved Processes The Purpose of Inducing new or improved Processes is to make the members of the organisation work in accordance with the documented Quality Management System so that the organization is really compliant with the ISO 9000:2000 standard requirements. Inputs: The Quality Manual and other documented processes and procedures relating to the Quality Management System. Procedure: The Personnel is trained and instructed in the compliant Procedures. Later it is verified if they continue working to the compliant Procedures. Outputs: A Quality Management System working according to the ISO 9001:2000 requirements. Assistance in Registration and Certification. The Process of Registration and Certification related to ISO 9000:2000 will need to be administered. We will of course assist here to make the whole Project a success. ISO 9000:2000 related Training The Purpose of ISO 9000:2000 Training is to equip the staff of an organization with the necessary knowledge to perform within an ISO 9000:2000 compliant Quality Management System.

What is Work Study?

Work Study is the systemeatic examination of the methods of carrying out activities such as to improve the effective use of resources and to set up standards of performance for the activities carried out.

Work Study

Components of Work Study Another definition of Work Study could be: A generic term for those techniques, particularly method study and work measurement, which are used in the examination of human work in all its contexts, and which lead systematically to to the investigation of all the factors which affect the efficiency and economy of the situation being reviewed, in order to effect improvement' This has to do with Productivity Improvement, but also improvement of Quality and Safety.

What is Method Study?

Method Study is the systematic recording and critical examination of ways of doing things in order to make improvements.

Method Study Flow Chart

Process of a Method Study

What is Time Study?

Also called Work Measurement.
Time Study or Work Measurement is the appliocation of techniques designes to establish the time for a qualified Worker to carry out a task at a defined rate of working.

What is Workstation Design?

A Work Station is the place where one or more operators perform there job. At the work station operators have to find there Equipment and there Materials. Work Stations should be designed in a form that the Operators can perform their work in an efficient manner. Work Station Design aims for designing a Work Station in the most suitable form. The Work performed, materials, equipment Operator movements and anatomical measurements (ergonomical design) should be taken into consideration.

What is productivity?
Productivity is the relationship between output and input. It should be viewed as value adding in addition to optimizing. It is a total concept that addresses the key elements of competition, i.e. innovation, cost, quality and delivery. Therefore, an increase in productivity can be achieved by enhancing the value-added content of products/services, or by decreasing the unit cost of production, or a combination of both.

What is ergonomics?
A possible definition of ergonomics could be as follows:
Ergonomics is the science (and art) of fitting the work environment to the employee. By improving the match between the work environment and the employee, you can expect improved employee comfort, reduced chances for occupational injuries, improved productivity, and improved employee job satisfaction. Ergonomics is concerned with reduction of one or more of the following risk factors: Awkward Posture: If a job task looks uncomfortable, it probably is and this increases the chances for injury. Whenever possible, strive to arrange the work environment or work processes to allow employees to work from comfortable,

neutral posture. Excessive bending, reaching, awkward neck, back, and arm positions should be eliminated. High Repetition: Repetition can be controlled by using equipment to reduce repetition, allowing employees to rotate tasks, assuring adequate staffing, and ensuring employees take regular breaks away from highly repetitive tasks. Excessive Force: The need to exert excessive force should be controlled through use of proper equipment, assuring equipment is operating properly, and getting adequate help when needed. Contact Stresses: Contact with sharp, abrupt edges whether from a fixed piece of furniture or from a tool should be avoided. Vibration: Vibration can be reduced at the source through tool or equipment selection or by padding the body against vibration, e.g. padded gloves. Extreme Temperatures: Work place ambient temperature should be controlled whenever possible. We can see an ergonomic engineer would be concerned with issues of health and safety. The goal of ergonomics is to design jobs to fit people. Something is ergonomically design, if its optimized to fit people.This means taking account of differences such as size, strength and ability to handle information for a wide range of users. Then the tasks, the workplace and tools are designed around these differences. The benefits are improved efficiency, quality and job satisfaction. The costs of failure include increased error rates and physical fatigue - or worse. The Science of ergonomics draws contributions from a couple of other sciences like Engineering, medical sciences, biomechanics, mathematics and behavioural sciences.

Relationship between ergonomics and other sciences.

What is Industrial Engineering?

Definition of Industrial Engineering - The Work of an Industrial Engineer
The field of engineering is subdivided in several major disciplines like mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, civil engineering, electronical engineering, chemical engineering, metallurgical engineering, and also industrial engineering. Certainly this disciplines can also be subdivided further. Industrial Engineering integrates knowledge and skills from several fields of science: From the Technical Sciences, Economic Sciences as well as Human Science - all these can also be supported with skills in Information Sciences. The Industrial Engineer comprehends knowledge in those sciences in order to increase the productivity of processes, achieve quality products and assures Labour safety.

What Industrial Engineers do

So what do industrial engineers do to increase productivity and assure quality? An Industrial Engineer can perform several activities to fulfil its task: Processes and Procedures of manufacturing or service activites can be examined through Process Analysis He can Use Work Study comprehending Method Study and Time Study. Method Study is the Study of How a job is performed examining and recording the activities, operators, equipment and materials involved in the process. Time Study records and rates the times of jobs being performed. The mentioned activities are also called operations Management. Furthermore can Industrial Engineering involve inventory management to make a manufacturing process more feasible and efficient. Industrial Engineers are also involved in design activities for Products, Equipment, Plants an Workstations. Here ergonomics and motion economy play a role. Last but not least is the Industrial Engineer playing an important role in developing Quality Management Systems (as they i.e. should comply with the ISO 9000 Standards). Here they often have job titles like Quality Engineer or Quality Manager.

KAIZEN
KAIZEN is a Japanese word meaning gradual and orderly, continuous improvement. Adopting KAIZEN involves the creation of a culture of sustained continuous improvement focusing on eliminating waste in all systems and processes of an organization. There are two essential elements that make up KAIZEN :

improvement/change for the better; and ongoing/continuity.

A system/culture that lacks either of these is not true KAIZEN. Thus, maintaining existing ways of working (good though they may be) lacks the essential 'improvement' element, though it ensures continuity. Similarly, 'breakthrough' improvement, not backed up by effective ongoing improvement, lacks the element of continuity. KAIZEN should contain both elements. KAIZEN is not consistent with the saying "If it ain't broke, don't fix it". KAIZEN achieves its effects by working through people. All are expected to be involved. Managers, for example, are expected to spend about half their time on improving what they - and those for whom they are responsible - do.

Traditionally, a Japanese Samurai carried seven tools into battle. After World War II the Japanese adopted 'quality' as a philosophy for economic recovery and, in line with this traditional approach, sought seven tools to accomplish the economic rejuvenation. The seven tools chosen were:

Histograms Cause and Effect Diagrams Check Sheets Pareto Diagrams Graphs Control Charts Scatter Diagrams

These tools were largely developed as aids within the process of statistical quality control. All personnel are trained to use them - and the resulting charts and diagrams are displayed prominently. KAIZEN recognises that improvements can be small or large. Many small improvements can make a big change - so KAIZEN works at a detailed level. The principles/approach behind KAIZEN are : 1. Discard conventional fixed ideas. 2. Think of how to do it, not why it cannot be done. 3. Do not make excuses. Start by questioning current practices. 4. Do not seek perfection. Do it right away even if it will only achieve 50% of target. 5. If you make a mistake, correct it right away. 6. Throw wisdom at a problem, not money. 7. Ask 'WHY?" five times and seek root causes. 8. Seek the wisdom of ten people rather than the knowledge of one. 9. Don't ask workers to leave their brains at the factory gate. KAIZEN is thus a (relatively) low cost, simple, team-based approach. Team are trained in the techniques and tools of KAIZEN. They then brainstorm improvement ideas and vote on them for priority action. They then create an action/implementation plan which is submitted to management for approval. Assuming it is approved, the team then sets about implementation (with professional help if appropriate). The team then meets weekly to review progress, identify/overcome barriers, celebrate successes, and document the resulting changed processes.

See : http://www.kaizen-institute.com/ See : Ishikawa, K. (1982). Guide to Quality Control, Quality Resources, White Plains NY

BALANCED SCORECARD
The Balanced Scorecard is a conceptual framework for translating an organization's vision and mission into a set of performance indicators set around four perspectives:

Financial, Customer, Internal Business Processes, and Learning and Growth.

Thus, the scorecard provides an enterprise view of an organization's overall performance by integrating financial measures with other key performance indicators. The Learning & Growth perspective is a measure of potential future performance - it directs attention to the basis of all future success - the organization's people and infrastructure. Adequate investment in these areas is critical to all long term success. The Internal perspective focuses attention on the performance of the key internal processes which drive the business. Obviously, the nature of the processes are dependent on the nature of the organisation - the scorecard is not a 'fully-cooked' solution, it must be tempered and tailored to meet the specific circumstances of each organisation. In order to translate effective internal processes into organisational success, customers/clients must be happy with the service they receive. The Customer perspective considers the business through the eyes of the customers, measuring and reflecting upon customer satisfaction.

Finally, the Financial perspective measures the results that the organisation delivers its stakeholders. Together, these four perspectives provide a balanced view of the present and future performance of the business. The aim of this measurement process is to direct, and help manage, change in support of longer-term strategy - and to manage, rather than simply measure, performance. The concept was introduced by Professor Robert Kaplan and Dr. David Norton in 1992, and has since been adopted by a wide range of organisations around the globe. It is well-represented in the business press, having been the subject of a best-selling book (see below) and numerable articles in prestigious journals. If used properly, the Balanced Scorecard becomes a catalyst for change. The performance measurement is not an end in itself - nor should the measurement be reified; it simply serves to illustrate, to diagnose, to aid analysis. 'Accuracy' is therefore not essential - but confidence in the measures as true indicators is. The Scorecard must become integrated into the strategic planning of the organisation - as a tool for identifying pressure points, conflicting interests, objective setting, prioritisation, planning and budgeting. It offers managers a balanced view of their organisation upon which they can make strong decisions and upon which they can base real change. see http://www.rens.com/viewpoint/papers/scorecard.html see The Balanced Scorecard Institute http://www.balancedscorecard.org/ see The Balanced Scorecard Robert S. Kaplan and David P. Norton Harvard Business School Press 1996

TOTAL PRODUCTIVE MAINTENANCE

Total productive maintenance (TPM) is the systematic execution of maintenance by all employees through small group activities. The dual goals of TPM are zero breakdowns and zero defects; this obviously improves equipment efficiency rates and reduces costs. It also minimises inventory costs associated with spare parts. It is claimed that most companies can realise a 15-25 percent increase in equipment operation rates within three years of adopting TPM. Labour productivity also generally increases by a significant margin, sometimes as high as 40-50 percent. The Japanese imported preventive maintenance (PM) from the United States in the 1950s and it remained well established until the 1970s. This consisted mainly of time-based maintenance featuring periodic servicing and overhaul. During the 1980s PM was steadily replaced by predictive maintenance, or condition-based maintenance (see RELIABILITY-CENTRED MAINTENANCE). TPM is often defined as productive maintenance involving total participation - a kind of marriage between PM and TQM. Many organisations misconstrue this to imply that only shop floor staff need be involved. However, TPM should be implemented on a company-wide basis. TPM aims to establish good maintenance practice through the pursuit of "the five goals of TPM" : (1) Improve equipment effectiveness: examine the effectiveness of facilities by identifying and examining all losses which occur - downtime losses, speed losses and defect losses. (2) Achieve autonomous maintenance: allow the people who operate equipment to take responsibility for, at least some, of the maintenance tasks. This can be at :

the repair level (where staff carry out instructions as a response to a problem); the prevention level (where staff take pro-active action to prevent foreseen problems); and the improvement level (where staff not only take corrective action but also propose improvements to prevent recurrence).

(3) Plan maintenance: have a systematic approach to all maintenance activities. This involves the identification of the nature and level of preventive

maintenance required for each piece of equipment, the creation of standards for condition-based maintenance, and the setting of respective responsibilities for operating and maintenance staff. The respective roles of "operating" and "maintenance" staff are seen as being distinct. Maintenance staff are seen as developing preventive actions and general breakdown services, whereas operating staff take on the "ownership" of the facilities and their general care. Maintenance staff typically move to a more facilitating and supporting role where they are responsible for the training of operators, problem diagnosis, and devising and assessing maintenance practice. (4) Train all staff in relevant maintenance skills: the defined responsibilities of operating and maintenance staff require that each has all the necessary skills to carry out these roles. TPM places a heavy emphasis on appropriate and continuous training. (5) Achieve early equipment management: the aim is to move towards zero maintenance through "maintenance prevention" (MP). MP involves considering failure causes and the maintainability of equipment during its design stage, its manufacture, its installation, and its commissioning. As part of the overall process, TPM attempts to track all potential maintenance problems back to their root cause so that they can be eliminated at the earliest point in the overall design, manufacture and deployment process. TPM works to eliminate losses :

Downtime from breakdown and changeover times Speed losses (when equipment fails to operate at its optimum speed) Idling and minor stoppages due to the abnormal operation of sensors, blockage of work on chutes, etc. Process defects due to scrap and quality defects to be repaired Reduced yield in the period from machine start-up to stable production. Nakajima, S. (1988). Introduction to Total Productive Maintenance. Cambridge, MA: Productivity Press

See

WORK MEASUREMENT
Work measurement is the process of establishing the time that a given task would take when performed by a qualified worker working at a defined level of performance. There are various ways in which work may be measured and a variety of techniques have been established. The basic procedure, irrespective of the particular measurement technique being used, consists of three stages ;

an analysis phase in which the job is divided into convenient, discrete components, commonly known as elements; a measurement phase in which the specific measurement technique is used to establish the time required (by a qualified worker working at a defined level of performance) to complete each element of work; a synthesis phase in which the various elemental times are added, together with appropriate allowances (see below), to construct the standard time for the complete job.

The techniques used to measure work can be classified into those that rely on direct observation of the work, and those that do not. For example, some techniques, such as predetermined motion-time systems and the use of synthetic or standard data can provide times from simulation or even visualisation of the work. However, the data on which such techniques are based were almost certainly based on earlier observation of actual work. Rating Direct observation techniques (such as time study and analytical estimating) include a process for converting observed times to times for the "qualified worker working at a defined level of performance." The commonest of these processes is known as rating. This involves the observer (after appropriate training) making an assessment of the worker's rate of working relative to the observer's concept of the rate corresponding to standard rating. This assessment is based on the factors involved in the work - such as effort, dexterity, speed of movement, and consistency. The assessment is made on a rating scale, of which there are three

or four in common usage. Thus on the 0-100 scale, the observer makes a judgement of the worker's rate of working as a percentage of the standard rate of working (100). The rating is then used (in a process known as "extension" in time study) to convert the observed time to the basic time using the simple formula: Basic time = observed time x observed rating/standard rating Rating is regarded by many as a controversial area of measurement since it is a subjective assessment. Where different observers rate differently, the resulting basic times are not comparable. However, practised rating practitioners are remarkably consistent. It is important that those undertaking the rating are properly trained, and that this training is regularly updated (to maintain a common perception of standard rating) through rating 'clinics'. Allowances When carrying out work over a complete shift or working day, workers obviously suffer from the fatigue imposed both by the work undertaken and the conditions under which they are working. The normal practice is to make an addition to the basic time (commonly referred to as an "allowance") to allow the worker to recover from this fatigue and to attend to personal needs. The amount of the allowance depends on the nature of the work and the working environment, and is often assessed using an agreed set of guidelines and scales. It is usual to allow some of the recovery period inherent in these allowances to be taken away from the workplace (and it is essential in adverse working conditions). Thus, work design should include the design of an effective workrest regime. The addition of allowances should never be used to compensate for an unsafe or unhealthy working environment. One minority school of thought suggests that relaxation allowances are unnecessary. With work which involves, say, the carrying of heavy weights, this school suggests that the observer automatically adjusts the concept of standard rating to allow for the weight. Thus, if the standard rate of performance for walking on level ground carrying no weight is equivalent to four miles per hour, then an observer rating a worker walking while carrying a weight will not expect the equivalent rate. Thus, it is argued that the weight has been allowed for in the adjustment of standard rating and any relaxation allowance is simply a duplication of this adjustment.

In many jobs there are small amounts of work that may occur irregularly and inconsistently. It is often not economic to measure such infrequent work and an additional allowance is added to cover such work and similar irregular delays. This allowance is known as a contingency allowance and is assessed either by observation, by analysis of historical records (for such items as tool sharpening or replacement), or by experience. The end result is a standard time which includes the time the work "should" take (when carried out by a qualified worker) plus additional allocations in the form of allowances, where appropriate, to cover relaxation time, contingency time and, perhaps, unoccupied time which increases the overall work cycle (such as waiting for a machine to finish a processing cycle). Choosing a measurement technique The choice of a suitable measurement technique depends on a number of factors including:

the purpose of the measurement; the level of detail required; the time available for the measurement; the existence of available predetermined data; and the cost of measurement.

To some extent there is a trade off between some of these factors. For example, techniques which derive times quickly may provide less detail and be less suitable for some purposes, such as the establishment of individual performance levels on short-cycle work. The advantage of structured and systematic work measurement is that it gives a common currency for the evaluation and comparison of all types of work. The results obtained from work measurement are commonly used as the basis of the planning and scheduling of work, manpower planning, work balancing in team working, costing, labour performance measurement, and financial incentives. They are less commonly used as the basis of product design, methods comparison, work sequencing, and workplace design.