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Medical ethics is a system of moral principles that apply values and judgments to the practice of medicine. As a scholarly discipline, medical ethics encompasses its practical application in clinical settings as well as work on its history, philosophy, theology, and sociology. History Historically, Western medical ethics may be traced to guidelines on the duty of physicians in antiquity, such as the Hippocratic Oath, and early rabbinic and Christianteachings. In the medieval and early modern period, the field is indebted to Muslim medicine such as Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi (who wrote the Conduct of a Physician, the first book dedicated to medical ethics) and Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi (known as Rhazes in the West), Jewish thinkers such as Maimonides, Roman Catholicscholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, and the case-oriented analysis (casuistry) of Catholic moral theology. These intellectual traditions continue inCatholic, Islamic and Jewish medical ethics. By the 18th and 19th centuries, medical ethics emerged as a more selfconscious discourse. For instance, authors such as Thomas Percival wrote about "medical jurisprudence" and reportedly coined the phrase "medical ethics." Percival's guidelines related to physician consultations have been criticized as being excessively protective of the home physician's reputation. Jeffrey Berlant is one such critic who considers Percival's codes of physician consultations as being an early example of the anticompetitive, "guild"-like nature of the physician community. [1][2] In 1847, the American Medical Association adopted its first code of ethics, with this

being based in large part upon Percival's work [3]. While the secularized field borrowed largely from Catholic medical ethics, in the 20th century a distinctivelyliberal Protestant approach was articulated by thinkers such as Joseph Fletcher. In the 1960s and 1970s, building upon liberal theory and procedural justice, much of the discourse of medical ethics went through a dramatic shift and largely reconfigured itself into bioethics.[3] Since the 1970s, the growing influence of ethics in contemporary medicine can be seen in the increasing use of Institutional Review Boards to evaluate experiments on human subjects, the establishment of hospital ethics committees, the expansion of the role of clinician ethicists, and the integration of ethics into many medical school curricula. [4] 3. Futility of Treatment Treatment should be consistent with the patients(clinically realistic) goals. Assess each case individually so as to determine whether treatment would be beneficial. Avoid interventions that would not benefit the patient and/or prolong suffering. Physicians role as an educator helps clarify issues.

8. Justice
Distribute resources and treatment in an equitable manner. Be fair and lawful. Use objective decision-making processes, not emotional or subjective ones.

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9. Non-Abandonment Physicians have a duty to uphold the principle of fidelitynot to abandon the patient after establishing a therapeutic relationship. A physician may voluntarily terminate care of a patient after the patient/proxy has been informed and provided with a reasonable amount of time to make other arrangements. The physician may be asked to help with such alternative arrangements. When there is conflict between a patient/proxy and physician concerning a course of treatment, guidance may be obtained through an ethics committee, ombudsman, and/or Department of Health.

Dignity - the patient (and the person treating the patient) have the right to be treated with dignity. Truthfulness and honesty - the concept of informed consent has increased in importance since the historical events of the Doctors' Trial of the Nuremberg trials and Tuskegee Syphilis Study. Values such as these do not give answers as to how to handle a particular situation, but provide a useful framework for understanding conflicts. When moral values are in conflict, the result may be an ethical dilemma or crisis. Sometimes, no good solution to a dilemma in medical ethics exists, and occasionally, the values of the medical community (i.e., the hospital

Values in medical ethics Six of the values that commonly apply to medical ethics discussions are: Autonomy - the patient has the right to refuse or choose their treatment. (Voluntas aegroti suprema lex.) Beneficence - a practitioner should act in the best interest of the patient. (Salus aegroti suprema lex.)

and its staff) conflict with the values of the individual patient, family, or larger non-medical community. Conflicts can also arise between health care providers, or among family members. Some argue for example, that the principles of autonomy and beneficence clash when patients refuseblood transfusions, considering them life-saving; and truth-telling was not emphasized to a large extent before the HIV era. Autonomy The principle of autonomy recognizes the rights of individuals to self-

Non-maleficence - "first, do no harm" (primum non nocere). Justice - concerns the distribution of scarce health resources, and the decision of who gets what treatment (fairness and equality).

determination. This is rooted in society's respect for individuals' ability to make informed decisions about personal matters. Autonomy has become more important as social values have shifted to define medical quality in terms of outcomes that are important to the patient rather than medical professionals. The increasing importance of autonomy can be seen as a

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social reaction to a "paternalistic" tradition within healthcare.[citation

needed]

choose an early death if that is what they truly want. In such cases, psychiatrists should be a part of protecting that right. [6] Beneficence The term beneficence refers to actions that promote the wellbeing of others. In the medical context, this means taking actions that serve the best interests of patients. However, uncertainty surrounds the precise definition of which practices do in fact help patients. James Childress and Tom Beauchamp in Principle of Biomedical Ethics (1978) identify beneficence as one of the core values of health care ethics. Some scholars, such as Edmund Pellegrino, argue that beneficence is the only fundamental principle of medical ethics. They argue that healing should be the sole purpose of medicine, and that endeavors like cosmetic surgery, contraception and euthanasia fall beyond its purview. Non-Maleficence Main article: Primum non nocere The concept of non-maleficence is embodied by the phrase, "first, do no harm," or the Latin, primum non nocere. Many consider that should be the main or primary consideration (hence primum): that it is more important not to harm your patient, than to do them good. This is partly because enthusiastic practitioners are prone to using treatments that they believe will do good, without first having evaluated them adequately to ensure they do no (or only acceptable levels of) harm. Much harm has been done to patients as a result. It is not only more important to do no harm than to do

Some have questioned whether the backlash against historically

excessive paternalism in favor of patient autonomy has inhibited the proper use of soft paternalism to the detriment of outcomes for some patients.[5]Respect for autonomy is the basis for informed consent and advance directives. Autonomy is a general indicator of health. Many diseases are characterised by loss of autonomy, in various manners. This makes autonomy an indicator for both personal well-being, and for the well-being of the profession. This has implications for the consideration of medical ethics: "is the aim of health care to do good, and benefit from it?"; or "is the aim of health care to do good to others, and have them, and society, benefit from this?". (Ethics by definition - tries to find a beneficial balance between the activities of the individual and its effects on a collective.) By considering autonomy as a gauge parameter for (self) health care, the medical and ethical perspective both benefit from the implied reference to health. Psychiatrists are often asked to evaluate a patient's capacity for making lifeand-death decisions at the end of life. Persons with a psychiatric condition such as delirium or clinical depression may not have the capacity to make end-of-life decisions. Therefore, for these persons, a request to refuse treatment may be ignored. Unless there is a clear advance directive to the contrary, persons who lack mental capacity are generally treated according to their best interests. On the other hand, persons who have the mental capacity to make end-of-life decisions have the right to refuse treatment and

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good; it is also important to know how likely it is that your treatment will harm a patient. So a physician should go further than not prescribing medications they know to be harmful - he or she should not prescribe medications (or otherwise treat the patient) unless s/he knows that the treatment is unlikely to be harmful; or at the very least, that patient understands the risks and benefits, and that the likely benefits outweigh the likely risks. In practice, however, many treatments carry some risk of harm. In some circumstances, e.g. in desperate situations where the outcome without treatment will be grave, risky treatments that stand a high chance of harming the patient will be justified, as the risk of not treating is also very likely to do harm. So the principle ofnon-maleficence is not absolute, and balances against the principle of beneficence(doing good), as the effects of the two principles together often give rise to a double effect (further described in next section). Depending on the cultural consensus conditioning (expressed by its religious, political and legal social system) the legal definition of nonmaleficence differs. Violation of non-maleficence is the subject of medical malpractice litigation. Regulations therefore differ over time, per nation. Double effect Main article: Principle of double effect

Double effect refers to two types of consequences which may be produced by a single action,[7] and in medical ethics it is usually regarded as the combined effect of beneficence and non-maleficence.[8] A commonly cited example of this phenomenon is the use of morphine or otheranalgesic in the dying patient.[9] Such use of morphine can have the beneficial effect of easing the pain and suffering of the patient, while simultaneously having the maleficent effect of hastening the demise of the patient through suppression of the respiratory system. Conflicts between autonomy and beneficence/non-maleficence Autonomy can come into conflict with beneficence when patients disagree with recommendations that health care professionals believe are in the patient's best interest. When the patient's interests conflict with the patient's welfare, different societies settle the conflict in a wide range of manners. Western medicine generally defers to the wishes of a mentally competent patient to make his own decisions, even in cases where the medical team believes that he is not acting in his own best interests. However, many other societies prioritize beneficence over autonomy. Examples include when a patient does not want a treatment because of, for example, religious or cultural views. In the case of euthanasia, the patient, or relatives of a patient, may want to end the life of the patient. Also, the patient may want an unnecessary treatment, as can be the case in hypochondria or with cosmetic surgery; here, the practitioner may be required to balance the desires of the patient for medically unnecessary potential risks against the patient's informed autonomy in the issue. A

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doctor may want to prefer autonomy because refusal to please the patient's will would harm the doctor-patient relationship. Individuals' capacity for informed decision making may come into question during resolution of conflicts between autonomy and beneficence. The role of surrogate medical decision makers is an extension of the principle of autonomy. On the other hand, autonomy and beneficence/non-maleficence may also overlap. For example, a breach of patients' autonomy may cause decreased confidence for medical services in the population and subsequently less willingness to seek help, which in turn may cause inability to perform beneficence. The principles of autonomy and beneficence/non-maleficence may also be expanded to include effects on the relatives of patients or even the medical practitioners, the overall population and economic issues when making medical decisions. Euthanasia Main article: Euthanasia Some American physicians interpret the non-maleficence principle to exclude the practice of euthanasia, though not all concur. Probably the most extreme example in recent history of the violation of the non-maleficence dictum was Dr. Jack Kevorkian, who was convicted of second-degree homicide in Michigan in 1998 after demonstrating active euthanasia on the TV news show 60 Minutes.

In some countries, euthanasia is accepted as standard medical practice. Legal regulations assign this to the medical profession. In such nations, the aim is to alleviate the suffering of patients from diseases known to be incurable by the methods known in that culture. In that sense, the "Primum no Nocere" is based on the realisation that the inability of the medical expert to offer help, creates a known great and ongoing suffering in the patient. "Not acting" in those cases is believed to be more damaging than actively relieving the suffering of the patient. Evidently the ability to offer help depends on the limitation of what the practitioner can do. These limitations are characteristic for each different form of healing, and the legal system of the specific culture. The aim to "not do harm" is still the same. It gives the medical practitioner a responsibility to help the patient, in the intentional and active relief of suffering, in those cases where no cure can be offered. Informed consent Main article: Informed consent Informed consent in ethics usually refers to the idea that a person must be fully informed about and understand the potential benefits and risks of their choice of treatment. An uninformed person is at risk of mistakenly making a choice not reflective of his or her values or wishes. It does not specifically mean the process of obtaining consent, nor the specific legal requirements, which vary from place to place, for capacity to consent. Patients can elect to make their own medical decisions, or can delegate decision-making

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authority to another party. If the patient is incapacitated, laws around the world designate different processes for obtaining informed consent, typically by having a person appointed by the patient or their next of kin make decisions for them. The value of informed consent is closely related to the values of autonomy and truth telling.

Traditionally, medical ethics has viewed the duty of confidentiality as a relatively non-negotiable tenet of medical practice. More recently, critics like Jacob Appel have argued for a more nuanced approach to the duty that acknowledges the need for flexibility in many cases.[12] Criticisms of orthodox medical ethics

A correlate to "informed consent" is the concept of informed refusal. It has been argued that mainstream medical ethics is biased by the Confidentiality Main article: Confidentiality Confidentiality is commonly applied to conversations between doctors and patients. This concept is commonly known as patient-physician privilege. Legal protections prevent physicians from revealing their discussions with patients, even under oath in court. Confidentiality is mandated in America by HIPAA laws, specifically the Privacy Rule, and various state laws, some more rigorous than HIPAA. However, numerous exceptions to the rules have been carved out over the years. For example, many states require physicians to report gunshot wounds to the police and impaired drivers to the Department of Motor Vehicles. Confidentiality is also challenged in cases involving the diagnosis of a sexually transmitted disease in a patient who refuses to reveal the diagnosis to a spouse, and in the termination of a pregnancy in an underage patient, without the knowledge of the patient's parents. Many states in the U.S. have laws governing parental notification in underage abortion.[10][11] Many so-called "ethical conflicts" in medical ethics are traceable back to a lack ofcommunication. Communication breakdowns between patients and their healthcare team, between family members, or between members of the medical community, can all lead to disagreements and strong feelings. Routine regulatory professional bodies or the courts of law are valid social recourses. Importance of communication assumption of a framework in which individuals are not simply free to contract with one another to provide whatever medical treatment is demanded, subject to the ability to pay. Because a high proportion of medical care is typically provided via the welfare state, and because there are legal restrictions on what treatment may be provided and by whom, an automatic divergence may exist between the wishes of patients and the preferences of medical practitioners and other parties. Tassano [13] has questioned the idea that Beneficence might in some cases have priority over Autonomy. He argues that violations of Autonomy more often reflect the interests of the state or of the supplier group than those of the patient.

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These breakdowns should be remedied, and many apparently insurmountable "ethics" problems can be solved with open lines of communication.
[citation needed]

the world their presence is considered mandatory in order to provide balance. With respect to the expected composition of such bodies in the USA, Europe and Australia, the following applies [4]. U.S. recommendations suggest that Research and Ethical Boards (REBs) should have five or more members, including at least one scientist, one nonscientist and one person not affiliated with the institution. The REB should include people knowledgeable in the law and standards of practice and professional conduct. Special memberships are advocated for handicapped

Control and resolution To ensure that appropriate ethical values are being applied within hospitals, effectivehospital accreditation requires that ethical considerations are taken into account, for example with respect to physician integrity, conflicts of interest, research ethics andorgan transplantation ethics. Guidelines There are various ethical guidelines. For example, the Declaration of Helsinki is regarded as authoritative in human research ethics.
[14]

or disabled concerns, if required by the protocol under review. The European Forum for Good Clinical Practice (EFGCP) suggests that REBs include two practicing physicians who share experience in biomedical research and are independent from the institution where the research is conducted; one lay person; one lawyer; and one paramedical professional, e.g. nurse or pharmacist. They recommend that a quorum include both sexes from a wide age range and reflect the cultural make-up of the local community. The 1996 Australian Health Ethics Committee recommendations were entitled, "Membership Generally of Institutional

In the United Kingdom, General Medical Council provides clear overall modern guidance in the form of its 'Good Medical Practice' statement. Other organisations, such as the Medical Protection Society and a number of university departments, are often consulted by British doctors regarding issues relating to ethics. Ethics committees Often, simple communication is not enough to resolve a conflict, and a hospital ethics committee must convene to decide a complex matter. These bodies are composed primarily of health care professionals, but may also include philosophers, lay people, and clergy - indeed, in many parts of

Ethics Committees". They suggest a chairperson be preferably someone not employed or otherwise connected with the institution. Members should include a person with knowledge and experience in professional care, counselling or treatment of humans; a minister of religion or equivalent, e.g. Aboriginal elder; a layman; a laywoman; a lawyer and, in the case of a hospital-based ethics committee, a nurse.

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The assignment of philosophers or religious clerics will reflect the importance attached by the society to the basic values involved. An example from Sweden withTorbjrn Tnnsj on a couple of such committees indicates secular trends gaining influence. Medical ethics in an online world Increasingly, medical researchers are researching activities in online environments such as discussion boards and bulletin boards, and there is concern that the requirements of informed consent and privacy are not as stringently applied as they should be, although some guidelines do exist. [15] One issue that has arisen, however, is the disclosure of information. While researchers wish to quote from the original source in order to argue a point, this can have repercussions. The quotations and other information about the site can be used to identify the site, and researchers have reported cases where members of the site, bloggers and others have used this information as 'clues' in a game in an attempt to identify the site.[16] Some researchers have employed various methods of "heavy disguise," [16] including discussing a different condition from that under study, [17][18]or even setting up bogus sites (called 'Maryut sites') to ensure that the researched site is not discovered.
[19]

example, and reconciling these beliefs with the tenets of Western medicine can be difficult. Truth-telling Some cultures do not place a great emphasis on informing the patient of the diagnosis, especially when cancer is the diagnosis. American culture rarely used truth-telling especially in medical cases, up until the 1970s. In American medicine, the principle of informed consent now takes precedence over other ethical values, and patients are usually at least asked whether they want to know the diagnosis. Online business practices The delivery of diagnosis online leads patients to believe that doctors in some parts of the country are at the direct service of drug companies. Finding diagnosis as convenient as what drug still has patent rights on it. Physicians and drug companies are found to be competing for top ten search engine ranks to lower costs of selling these drugs with little to no patient involvement.[20] Conflicts of interest Physicians should not allow a conflict of interest to influence medical judgment. In some cases, conflicts are hard to avoid, and doctors have a responsibility to avoid entering such situations. Unfortunately, research has

Cultural concerns Culture differences can create difficult medical ethics problems. Some cultures have spiritual or magical theories about the origins of disease, for

shown that conflicts of interests are very common among both academic physicians[21] and physicians in practice.[22] The The Pew Charitable Trusts has announced the Prescription Project for "academic medical

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centers, professional medical societies and public and private payers to end conflicts of interest resulting from the $12 billion spent annually on pharmaceutical marketing". Referral For example, doctors who receive income from referring patients for medical tests have been shown to refer more patients for medical tests.
[23]

Treatment of family members Many doctors treat their family members. Doctors who do so must be vigilant not to create conflicts of interest or treat inappropriately.[30][31] Sexual relationships Sexual relationships between doctors and patients can create ethical conflicts, since sexual consent may conflict with the fiduciary responsibility of the physician. Doctors who enter into sexual relationships with patients face the threats of deregistration and prosecution. In the early 1990s, it was estimated that 2-9% of doctors had violated this rule.[32] Sexual relationships between physicians and patients' relatives may also be prohibited in some jurisdictions, although this prohibition is highly controversial.[33] Futility Further information: Futile medical care The concept of medical futility has been an important topic in discussions of medical ethics. What should be done if there is no chance that a patient will survive but the family members insist on advanced care? Previously, some articles defined futility as the patient having less than a one percent chance of surviving. Some of these cases wind up in the courts. Advanced directives include living wills and durable powers of attorney for health care. (See also Do Not Resuscitate and cardiopulmonary resuscitation) In many cases, the "expressed wishes" of the patient are documented in these directives, and this provides a framework to guide

This practice is proscribed by the American College of Physicians

[24]

Ethics Manual.

Fee splitting and the payments of commissions to attract referrals of patients is considered unethical and unacceptable in most parts of the world. Vendor relationships See also: Pharmaceutical_marketing#To_health_care_providers Studies show that doctors can be influenced by drug company inducements, including gifts and food.[25] Industry-sponsored Continuing Medical Education (CME) programs influence prescribing patterns. [26] Many patients surveyed in one study agreed that physician gifts from drug companies influence prescribing practices.[27] A growing movement among physicians is attempting to diminish the influence of pharmaceutical industry marketing upon medical practice, as evidenced by Stanford University's ban on drug company-sponsored lunches and gifts. Other academic institutions that have banned pharmaceutical industry-sponsored gifts and food include the Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, University of Michigan, University of Pennsylvania, and Yale University.
[28][29]

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family members and health care professionals in the decision making process when the patient is incapacitated. Undocumented expressed wishes can also help guide decisions in the absence of advanced directives, as in the Quinlan case in Missouri. "Substituted judgment" is the concept that a family member can give consent for treatment if the patient is unable (or unwilling) to give consent themselves. The key question for the decision making surrogate is not, "What would you like to do?", but instead, "What do you think the patient would want in this situation?". Courts have supported family's arbitrary definitions of futility to include simple biological survival, as in the Baby K case (in which the courts ordered a child born with only a brain stem instead of a complete brain to be kept on a ventilator based on the religious belief that all life must be preserved). In some hospitals, medical futility is referred to as "non-beneficial care." Baby Doe Law establishes state protection for a disabled child's right to life, ensuring that this right is protected even over the wishes of parents or guardians in cases where they want to withhold treatment.

Amending for the Purpose Article One Hundred Thirty-Five of the Labor Code, As Amended

RA 6972 (November 23, 1990) An Act Establishing a Day Care Center in Every Barangay Instituting Therein a Total Development and Protection of Children Program, Appropriating Funds Therefor, and for Other Purposes

RA 7192 (December 11, 1991) An Act Promoting the Integration of Women as Full and Equal Partners of Men in Development and Nation Building and for Other Purposes

RA 7322 (March 30, 1992) An Act Increasing Maternity Benefits in Favor of Women Workers in the Private Sector, Amending for the Purpose Section 14-A of Republic Act No. 1161, as Amended and for Other Purposes

RA 7600 (June 17, 1992) An Act Requiring All Government and Private Health Institutions with Obstetrical Services to Adopt Rooming-in and Breastfeeding

Womens Rights in the Philippines: A List of Laws Protecting Women and Mothers RA 6725 (April 27, 1989) An Act Strengthening the Prohibition on Discrimination Against Women with Respect to Terms and Conditions of Employment,

Practices and for Other Purposes

RA 7688 (March 3, 1994) An Act Giving Representation to Women in Social Security

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Commission Amending for the Purpose Section 3(A) of Republic Act 1161, as Amended

Modern-day Philippine women play a decisive role in Filipino families. They handle the money, act as religious mentors, and could also arrange the marriages of sons and daughters, striving to improve the familys dynastic

RA 7822 (February 20, 1995) An Act Providing Assistance to Women Engaging in Micro and Cottage Business Enterprises, and for Other Purposes

connections. The emergence ofCorazon Aquino, Imelda Marcos and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as political figures shows that Filipino society have high regard on Filipino women, in spite of its malechauvinism. [edit]Urban setting

RA 8353 (September 30, 1997) this includes marital rape An Act Expanding the Definition of the Crime of Rape, Reclassifying the Same as a Crime Against Persons, Amending for the Purpose Act No. 3815, as Amended, Otherwise Known as the Revised Penal Code, and for Other Purposes In the past, firms and businesses generally hire Filipino women for less pay and secretarial functions. But at present, Filipino women are given the same opportunities as their male counterparts in the business realm. Most CEO positions are given to men, but there has been several vice presidents, managers, and other jobs where Filipino women are given equal RA 8369 (October 28, 1997) An Act Establishing Family Courts, granting Them Exclusive Original Jurisdiction Over Child and Family Cases, Amending Batas Pambansa No. 192, as Amended, Otherwise Known as the Judiciary Reorganization Act of 1980, Appropriating Funds Therefor and for Other Purposes opportunities with men. In some cases, Filipino women also run successful businesses and become CEO's. In school, boys are often elected to organizational positions such as president and vice-president, while the girls are either members or holding treasurer positions. However, the trend has changed and girls more tend to be or even sometimes the only ones elected or nominated in all positions. This has been due to a change of mindset towards the female RA 9262 (March 8, 2004) An Act Defining Violence Against Women and Their Children, Providing Protective Measures for Victims, Prescribing Penalties Therefor and for Other Purposes Contemporary roles gender who are now regarded as more hardworking, well-versed, and dedicated than their male counterparts. Since Filipino wife holds the money in the family, she has the access to the family's finances. Therefore, she has the ability to help her family when the needs arise. In most cases, her own family has a better chance of financial

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access rather than her husband's family. Generally, the husband do not really care about how his wife spends the money. His obligation is to bring money in the family, and it is the wife's obligation to budget the money. In few cases, the Filipino husbands may also give financial help to his family. [edit]Rural and tribal clan setting

Philippine barrio, the one responsible for the home" and its management "is the wife... she holds the key to... household... development." [11] Despite the Western influence, courtship and relationship in the Philippines is considered conservative. The man will have to court the woman and prove his love for her before he can win her heart. Sometimes the courtship period would last for years. Parents prefer their daughter to be courted in their home, so they can have a chance to know the man. It is during the courtship period that the man would put his best foot forward to create a good impression on the woman and her family. Generally, the man is being

Imelda Marcos, 2006. In rural areas, the Filipino woman belongs in the home. The children approach her for money and help. She is the family's treasurer. She supports the childrens educational needs. For non-family members who require support, the wife is the person to be approached. However, the wife is neither the person who makes the final decision or the person who hands out the money.[1][10] In contrast, however, Juan Flavier, a physician, an authority on community development, and a formerPhilippine senator, described in his book, Doctor to the Barrios, that "whether some (Filipino) men are willing to admit it or not"... "rural women in the Philippines wield considerable authority," the housewife in particular. This is especially if the housewife, who is often referred to as the Reyna ng Tahanan (Queen of the Home), is convinced of the benefits that will be gained from a certain practice such as the concept of family planning in the barrios. Flavier also mentioned that "In the

measured on his being a gentleman, ability to respect the woman's family, and servitude (the extent of what he was willing to do to prove his love for the woman). Usually, the woman is courted by several men and will have to chose the best from among her suitors.Courtship and relationship remain the same for rural and urban areas despite the modern western influence.[12][13][14][15] Culturally in the Philippines, divorce is viewed as negative and destructive, because of a tradition that emphasizes that the family is the core social unit, especially for the Filipino wife. Divorce is not perceived as a solution to any matrimonial-related problem because it hinders the development or progress of the basic community unit. Therefore, husband and wife are obligated to fix any problems within the boundaries of the marriage. [1] It should always be noted, though, that pre-colonial women in the Philippines enjoyed equal status with men. Prior to colonization, both men and women could get a divorce for the following reasons: failure to meet family obligations, childlessness, and infidelity. Children, regardless of

P a g e | 13

gender, and properties were equally divided in a divorce. Since a man needed to pay a dowry to the woman's family, she was required to give it back should she be found at fault. If the man was at fault, he then lost the right to get back his dowry. In the Philippines, society valued offspring regardless of gender. Female children were as valuable as male ones, mainly because they recognized that women are as important as men. Parents provide equal opportunities to their children. Filipino daughters can also go to school like Filipino sons, Filipino daughters can also inherit property like Filipino sons, and Filipino daughters can also become village chiefs like Filipino sons. In 1994, the John and Lorena Bobbitt case, in which a wife cut off the penis of her sleeping husband, seized the attention of media in the Philippines, which reported that a similar incident had occurred in Cebu the previous November. The Bobbitt case was reported at a time when Filipino feminist groups were protesting againstprostitution, the practice of mail-order brides, and marital rape.[16] In 2003 in Shihlin,Taipei, Taiwan, a woman, Virginia Chun, aged 46, cut off the penis of her Chinese husband while he was asleep in their house. After flushing his penis down the toilet, she fled back to the Philippines. After being stitched up at a hospital, Tsai was left with a 2.5 cm stump of a penis and is unable to have sex. The government of Taiwan requested that Virginia Chun be extradited to Taiwan to be put on trial but, due to the lack of an extradition treaty, it was unclear whether the Filipino police would agree to extradite her.[17][18] In 2008, a similar case in Pasig City was reported.
[19]

Change, influences and interventions In urban areas, single Filipinas have become liberal due to western influences. Although it is still culturally unacceptable for a single Filipino woman to ask a man on a date or to show interest in a man, Filipinas have learned to use body language to show their interest and openness to a relationship. In rural communities, Filipinas are still not allowed to be too liberal. They are required to stifle their personality and sexuality, and should show a total lack of interest in intimacy with men to maintain reputation and selfrespect. Filipino women and work Traditionally, rural and tribal women do all the household related chores, but the heavy works that require more strength is done by the husband. The scope of their functions include cooking, cleaning, teaching the children, washing clothes, repairs, budgeting, and helping in the farm. The husband is the one who makes sure the farm would yield quality crops, so he does all the maintenance works. In some cases, where the husband needs help from other men, the wife would make sure that the men are fed, so she cooks food and bring it to the farm. The Filipino women, ensures that everyone is well fed, and this characteristics extends to the workers, relatives, or visitors. In general, Filipino women find pride in their work. They do not find themselves alienated from their chores because they work with, around, and for their families. This family-oriented mindset gives them a sense of

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dignity and responsibility. The family and the children are the primary priority in a Filipina's life.[1] Filipino women and Philippine politics

Modern-day Filipinas are making strides in electoral politics by initiating more female-oriented programs. They are performing well as leaders, although generally, Filipino women still often earn political seats by having fathers and husbands who are politically connected, a "dynasty system" that hinders other Filipino women from joining the electoral process. Other factors that prevent full-engagement of other well-qualified Filipinas from the Philippine political scene are the expense in politics and the importance of the family name.[6]

Corazon C. Aquino, 1992. Participation of Filipino women in Philippine politics was encouraged Compared to other countries, Filipino women have gained and enjoyed equal rights with men. They have became presidents, senators, congresswomen, mayors. They have served in government offices, and have held cabinet positions for presidents. Filipino women have proven that they are capable of carrying out responsibilities and tasks as well as their male counterparts. However, the number of women who engage in politics are smaller compare to their male counterparts. This was primarily because engagement in politics is considered "dirty." A recent study revealed that there is a re-emergence of the empowerment of Filipino women through the political process, just as they were prior to the arrival of the ancient conquerors from Spain. Philippine women are rediscovering their strengths. Filipino women had been successful in implementing policies by becoming executive staff members, advisers to politicians, and as advocates within non-governmental organizations.[6] In law enforcement, a sting operation is a deceptive operation designed to catch a person committing a crime. A typical sting will have a law-enforcement officer or cooperative member of the public play a role as criminal partner or potential victim and go along with a suspect's actions to gather evidence of the suspect's wrongdoing. during the Beijing Declaration in 1995 at the United Nations' Fourth World Conference on Women. In February 2005, however, a United Nations review on the progress of Philippine women and their role in politics revealed that despite "an increase in the quality of female politicians, there was not enough increase in" the number of women participants in government activities. From 1992 to 2001, Filipino women had been elected as local chief executives, functioning as mayors, governors, and captains of villages. One influential factor contributing to the increasing number of female politicians, is the elevation of Corazon Aquino and Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as Philippine women Presidents.[6][8] Sting operation

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Sting operations are common in the United States, but not allowed in other countries such as Sweden Examples Deploying a bait car (also called a honey trap) to catch an auto thief Setting up a seemingly vulnerable honeypot computer to lure and gain information about hackers Arranging someone under the legal drinking age to ask an adult to buy analcoholic beverage or tobacco products for them.[2] Posing as someone who is seeking illegal drugs, contraband or child pornographyto catch a supplier; or as a supplier to catch a customer. Passing off explosives to a would-be terror bomber. Posing as a child in a chat room to lure a child molester An undercover officer posing as a potential customer to raid illegal prostitution.
[1]

Sting operations are fraught with ethical concerns over whether they constituteentrapment. Law-enforcement may have to be careful not to provoke the commission of a crime by someone who would not normally be inclined to do so. Additionally, in the process of such operations, the police often engage in the same crimes, such as buying or selling contraband, soliciting prostitutes, etc. In common law jurisdictions, the defendant may invoke the defense of entrapment. Contrary to popular misconceptions, however, entrapment does not prohibit undercover police officers from posing as criminals or denying that they are police.[3]Entrapment is typically only a defense if a suspect is pressured into committing a crime they would probably not have committed otherwise, though the legal definition of this pressure varies greatly from country to country. For example, if undercover officers coerced a potential suspect into manufacturing illegal drugs to sell them, then the accused could use entrapment as a defense. However, if a suspect is already manufacturing drugs and police pose as buyers to catch him, then entrapment usually has not occurred. [edit]Sting operations in popular culture The 1973 Robert Redford and Paul Newman film, The Sting, centers

and the Netherlands.

An undercover officer posing as a prostitute to raid illegal solicitation. [edit]Ethical and legal concerns

on two grifters and their attempts to con a mob boss through a type of sting operation. In 1998, three agencies joined forces to conduct a sting operation when they successfully recovered the Honduras Goodwill Moon

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Rock from a vault in Miami. The sting operation was known as "Operation Lunar Eclipse" and the participating agencies were NASA Office of Inspector General, the United States Postal Inspection Service and U.S. Customs. The moon rock was offered to the undercover agents for 5 million dollars.
[4][5]

A sting operation is defined as a complicated confidence game planned and executed with great care (especially an operation implemented by undercover agents to apprehend criminals) Stings are commonly used throughout the world by law enforcement and recently it has become very popular with news and media organizations including trashy tabloids as ways of getting sensational headlines. One

In June 2007, Larry Craig, a Republican senator from Idaho, was caught in a sex sting operation at a Minnesota airport. Craig was purportedly soliciting sex in a men's bathroom when he was arrested by an undercover policeman.
[6]

of the big concerns surrounding these operations is whether or not they constitute entrapment. I am personally on the fence concerning the ethics of sting operations because I know it can be a great tool to catch violent criminals. This list looks at some of the more interesting and controversial sting operations. The first bait cars were used in the 1990s by the Minneapolis Police Department. Today the largest bait car fleet in North America is based in Surrey, British Columbia, which is known to many as the car theft capital of North America. The vehicles are specially modified, with

In August 2007, he filed a guilty plea for

disorderly conduct. He professed to have been wrongly pressured into entering the plea, however, and on September 10 filed a request to withdraw his guilty plea.[7] His petition for withdrawal was rejected by the Minnesota court system. Craig went on to finish out the rest of his term despite the scandal and allegations. In To Catch a Predator, an NBC reality TV show hosted by Chris Hansen, decoys posing as minors have online conversations with potential sexual predators in an attempt to lure them to a meeting, where they are confronted by Hansen and the police. In White Collar, a fictional renowned thief, known as Neal Caffrey, is caught and serves as a criminal consultant for the FBI. Neal during these cases resumes a false identity to lure forgers and other thieves out of hiding such that the FBI can arrest and charge them.

audio/video surveillance and GPS tracking technology, and can be remotely controlled to disable the engine. Since 2004, when it was launched in Surrey, BC, it has contributed to a 47% drop in auto theft. One of the more controversial bait cars stings occurred in 2008, in Dallas TX, when a woman was killed almost instantly when a thief, driving a bait car slammed into her. The victims family was awarded $245,000 to settle the lawsuit. Mr. Big is also called the Canadian technique, and was developed by the Royal Canadian Mounted Police in the early 1990s for unsolved

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homicides. It is used in Canada and Australia, but it is considered entrapment in many other countries, including the United States and England. The technique works something like this: An undercover police unit poses as members of a fictitious gang, into which the suspect is inducted. The suspect is invited to participate in a series of criminal activities (all faked by the police). In addition, the gang members build a personal relationship with the suspect, by drinking together and other social activities. After a period of time, he is introduced to Mr. Big, the gang leader. The suspect is told that the police have a renewed interest in the original crime, and to give the gang further details. They explain that Mr. Big may have the ability to influence the police investigation, but only if he admits all of the details of the crime. He is also told that he must be completely clear about any other past crimes, or the gang may not be willing to continue to work with him because he would become a liability. The photo above shows Royal Canadian Mounted Police during a memorial service, carrying the hats of four officers slain in Edmonton Canada, in 2005. Two of the men serving prison sentences for the murders made confessions to Mr. Big operatives.

publics attention, and many are starting to question the controversial technique.

Interesting Fact: In British Columbia, the technique has been used over 180 times, and, in 80% of the cases, it resulted in either a confession or the elimination of the suspect from suspicion. However, cases of false confessions and wrongful convictions have recently come to the